SETTING THE STAGE DUling World War II the United States and the Soviet Union joined forces to fight against the Germans The Soviet army marched west The Americans marched east to meet them in a defeated Germany When the AlIiedsofshydiers met at the Elbe River they embraced each other warmly Their leaders howshyever regarded each other much more coolly

Former Allies Diverge Even before World War II ended the US alliance with the Soviet Union had to unravel The United States was upset that Joseph Stalin the Soviet Unions had signed a nonaggression pact with Adolf Hitler Germanys leader in 1939 Later Stalin blamed the Allies for delaying their invasion of German-occupied Europe until 1944 Driven by these and other conllicts the two allies began to pursue opposing goals

A Joint Postwar Plan In February 1945 the war was not yet over But the leaders of the three Allied nations-the United States Britain and theSoviet Union-met in the Soviet Black Sea resort city of Yalta There they agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupashytion controlled by~the Allied military forces Germany also would have to nay the Soviet Ujnion to compensate for its loss of life and property

promised th~fJ~astern Europeans would have free elections Skeptical Winston Churchill recognized this as an empty promise And he predicted that Stalin would keep his pledge only if the Eastern Europeans followed a policy friendly to Russia In return Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan an ally of

Creation of the United Nations In June 1945 the United States and the Soviet Union temporarily set aside their differences They

48 other countries in forming the United Nations This international organization was intended to protect the members against aggression It was to be based in New York The 50 nations that signed the UN charter pledged to save succeeding generations from the of war

The charter the new peacekeeping organization established a large body called the General Assembly This was like an international town meeting Each UN member nation could cast its vote on a broad range of issues including memshybership An ll-member body called the Security Council had the real power to investigate and setshytle disputes though The five permanent members of the Security Council were Britain China

SPOTLIGHTfJN

Valta Conference When the leaders of the United States the Soviet Union and Great Britain met at Yalta their goals were noble ones

bull to promote world peace bull to orovide emergency relief

form interim governments on the will people

Prime Minister Winston Churchill (left) was optimistic about the broad sunlight of victorious peace

But victorious peace meant very different things to Stalin (right) and Roosevelt (center) The Soviet leader wanted a strong Communist state and protection against renewed invasion from the West The ailing US president wanted a democratic world led by his counshytry And those conflicting views made continuing peace impOSSible

France the United States and the Soviet Union Each could veto any SecUlity Council action This prOvision was intended to prevent any members of the COllncil from voting as a bloc to override the others

Differing US and Soviet Goals Despite their agreement at Yalta and their mutual presence on the UN Security Council the United States and the Soviet Union splitt sharply after the war ended The war had affected these two superpowers very diff~rshyently The United States the worlds richest and most powelful country at that timJ sufshyfered 400000 deaths Its cities and factories remained intact however The Soviet Union experienced at least 50 times as many fatalities One in four Soviets was wounded dr

In addition many Soviet cities were demolished These contrasting situation~ as well as striking political and economic differences affected the two countries postWar goals As the follOwing chart shows their aims in postwar Europe were contradictoty

I

Superpower Aims in Europe

United States bull Encourage democracy in other countries to

help prevent the rise of Communist governments

Gain access to raw materials and markets to fuel booming industries

bull Rebuild European governments to promote stability and create new markets for American goods

bull Reunite Germany to stabilize it and increase bull Keep Germany divided to prev~ht its waging the security of Europe war again

SKILtBUILDER Interpreting Charts 1 Whlch Soviet aims involved self-protection 2 Which US and Soviet aims in Europe conflicted

The Soviet Union Corrals Eastern Europe With the end of World War 1I a major of the Soviet Union was to shield itself from another invasion from the west before the devastation of World War in centuries of history had taught the Soviets to fear invasion Because it lacked nathral western borders Russia fell victim to each of its neighbors in turn In the 17th c~n tury the Poles captured the Kremlin During the next centUl) the Swedes attac~ed Napoleon overran Moscow in 1812 The Germans invaded Russia dUling World

Soviets Build a Wall of Satellite Nations As the war drew to a close the Union pushed the Nazis back across Eastern Europe By the end of the war troops occupied a strip of countries along the Soviet Unions own western border The Soviet Union regarded these countries as a buffer or wall of proteCtioll Stalin ignored the agreement made in Yalta to allow elections in Eastern E~rope

He installed or secured Communist governments in Albania Bulgaria Hungary Czechoslovakia Romania Poland and Yugoslavia

The Soviet leaders American partner at Yalta President Franklin D Roosevelt had died on April 12 1945 Roosevelts successor President Hany S Truman was a l

adversary for Stalin To the new preSident Stalins reluctance to allow Hee elections in Poland and other Eastern European nations represented a clear violation of those countries Truman Stalin and Churchill met at Potsdam Gernl~ny in

1945 There President Truman pressed Stalin to permit free elections in Eastern Europe The Soviet leader refused In a speech in early 1946 Stalin declared that

bull Encourage communism in other countries as part of a worldwide workers revolution

bull Rebuild its war-ravaged economy using Eastern Europes industrial equipment a~d raw materials

bull Control Eastern Europe to pJptect Soviet borders end balance the US~influence in Western Europe

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A Summarizing Why 010 the United Slales and the Saiel UrBon split after the warl

~

t

A VOICE

RAPHY SKlllBUILDER Interpreting Maps Location In which part of Germany was Berlin ioeated Place Which countries separated the Soviet Union from Western Europe

communism and capitalism could not exist in the same world He said that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was certain

The Iron Curtain Divides East and West Europe now lay divided between East and West Germimys postwar fate which had been decided at Yalta left the country

into Mo seclons The Soviets controlled the eastern part including half of capitaIBerlin Under a Communist government East Gennany was German Democratic Republic The western zones became the Federal

of Germany in 1949 Winston Churchill described the division of Europe

A VOICE FROM THE PAST From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the continent Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Soviet sphere and ali are subject in one form or another not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow WlNSTON CHURCHILL Iron Curtain speech March 5 1946

IINKTHnUUGH HISTORY

Churchills phrase iron curtain came to represent Europes division between a mostly democratic Western Europe and a Communist Eastern Europe From behind the iron curtain Stalin termed Churchills words a call to war

i111

United States Counters Soviet Expansion SovietmiddotAmerican relations continued to worsen in 1946 and 1947 An increasingly worried United States sought to offset the growing Soviet threat in Eastern Europe President Truman declared that it was time to stop babying the Soviets He adopted a foreign policy called containment ContaJnment was a policy directed at blocking Soviet influence and preventing the expansion of communism Containment policies included creating allianc-es and helping weak countries resist Soviet advances

Restructuring the Postwar World 477

--------------------------_

The Truman Doctrine In a speech asking Congress for foreign aid for Turkey and Greece President Truman contrasted democracy with communism

FROM THE PAST One way of life is based upon the will of the majority and is distinguished by free instimiddot tutions free elections and freedom from political oppression The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority It upon terror andmiddot oppression fixed elections and the suppression of personal freemiddot doms I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures HAtRY S TRUMAN speech to Congress March 12 1947

Trumans support for countries that rejected comnwnism was callcd the Truman Doctrine It caused great controversy Some opponents objected to American intermiddot ference in other nations affairs Others argued that the United States lacked the resources to carry on a global crusade against communism Still others pointed out that some US support would go to dictators Congress however immediately authomiddot rized over $400 million in aid to Turkey and Greece

The Marshall Plan Much of Western Europe lay in ruins after the war problems included recordmiddot breaking cold and snow postwar unemployment lack of food and economic turmoiL In June 1947 US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that America give aid to any European country that needed it This assistance

called the Marshall Plan would prOVide food machines and other materimiddot As Congress debated the $125 billion program in FebrualY 1941j the Communists

seized power in Czechoslovakia Congress immediately approved theyenarshall Plan The plan achieved spectacular success in Western Europe and in Yugcilavia

The Marshall Plan --~--j ~ ~182S 2445 g 2000

C i500 1316

g 1000 _ == 1Ii~

V) ~1i ~~ ~~ ~ ~

t ~i

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts 1 Which country received the most aid from the UnUed States 2 Why do you think Great Britain and France received so much aid

The Berlin Airlift While Europe began rebUilding the United States and its allies clashed with the Soviet Union over Germany The SO~ets meant to keep their fonner enemy weak and divided In 1948 France Britain and the United States decided to withdraw their forces from Germany They would allow their three occupation zones to form one nation The Soviet Union responded by holding West Berlin hostage

Although Berlin lay well within the Soviet occupation zone of Germany it too had been divided into four zones The Soviet Union cut off highway water and rail traffic into Berlins western zones Since no supplies could get in the city faced starvation Stalin gambled that the threat would frighten Western countries He hODed it would force them to surrender West Berlin or give up their idea of reunifying

The Soviet leader lost his gamble To break the blockade Amelican and officials flew food and supplies into West Berlin For nearly 11 months

817 561 547 515 350III~~~~~AA~ ~~~~~~~~ G lltif ~lti ~ qJ ~~ qa~ ~~~ lt~

~ ~ lt0 Source ffDbMmes Ecrmc1l1iqlles ND 306

THINK THnUUGH HISTORY C Making Inferences What was President

other cQumries

off and landed every three minutes In 277000 flights pilots brought in 23 million tons of supplies-food fuel medicine and even Christmas presents The Soviet Union admitting defeat lifted the Berlin blockade in May 1949

The Cold War and a Divided World These increasing conflictS were the beginnings of the Cold War ThIs was a state of diplomatic hostility that developed between the two superpowers Beginning in 1949 the superpowers used spying propaganda diplomacy and secret operations in their dealings with each other Much of the world allied with one side or the other In fact until the Soviet Union finally broke up in 1991 the Cold War dictated not only US and $oviet foreign policy It influenced world alliances as well

Rival Alliances The Berlin blockade heightened Western Europes fears of Soviet t

aggression As a result in 1949 ten Western European nations joined With the United States and Canada to form a defensive military allianc~ This alliance was called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) These nations promised to meet an attack on any NATO member with armed force For the United States NATO memshybership marked the countrys first peacetime military commitment

i~ The Soviet Union viewed NATO as a threat In response the Soviets developed an alliance system in 1955 as part of their own containment policy It was known as the Warsaw Pact This alliance included the Soviet Union Poland East Germany Cwchoslovakia Hungary Romania Bulgaria and Albania

In the 1950s the United States also organized several other alliances to fight the threat of communism In 1955 SEATO-Southeast Asia Treaty Organization-was formed to stabilize that area after open military aggresSion occurred in Korea and Indochina

Nuclear Threat As these alliailces were fOrming the Cold War threatened to heat up enough to destroy the world The United States already had atomic bombs As early as 1949 the Soviet Union exploded its own atomic weapon The superpowers had both become nuclear powers

President Truman was determined to develop an even more deadly weapon before the Soviets did He authorized work on a thermonuclear weapon in January 1950 This

~

T-~

1shy

hydrogen or H-bomb would be thousands of times more powerful than the A -bomb Its power carne from the fusion or joining together of atoms rather than from the splitting of atoms as in the A-bomb In November 1952 the United States successshyfully tested the first H-bomb By August of the follOwing year the Soviets had exploded their own thermonuclear weapon

Dwight D Eisenhower became the US president in 1953 He appOinted the firmly anti-Communist John Foster Dulles as his secretary of state I~ the Soviet Union or its supporters attacked US interests Dulles threatened the United States would ~retaliate instantly by means and at places of our own chOOSing This willingshyness to go to the brink or edge of war became known as brinkman~hip

The Cold War took Brinkmanship required a reliable source of nuclear weapons and airplanes to to the skies osmiddotthe deliver them So the United States strengthened its air force and begb producingUnited States and

stockpiles of nuclear weapons In response the SOviet Union made its own collection the Soviet Union raced to produce of nuclear bombs This arms race would go on for four decades ICBMs Missiles like this one were The Cold War in the Skies The Cold War also affected the science and education capable of inflicting programs of the two countries In August 1957 the Soviets announced the development destruction from of a rocket that could travel great distances This was a true intercontinental ballistic great distances

missile or ICBM On October 4 the Soviets used an ICBM to push the first unmanned satellite above the ea1ths atmosphere

The launching of this Soviet satellite Sputriik I made Americans feel as if they had fallen behind in ~cience and techshynology In response the US government poured huge amounts of money into education especially il science matheshymatics and foreign languages Within months by January 1958 the United States had successfully launched it~ own satellite

In 1960 the skies prOvided the arena for atl even more serishyous showdown between the superpowers Fiv~ years earlier President Eisenhower proposed an open skids policy This policy stated that the United States and the S~viet Union could fly freely over each others territory to guard against surprise nuclear attacks The Soviet Union rejected Eikenhowers proshyposal In response the US Central Intelligerice Agency (CIA)

authorized secret high-altitude spy flights ovet Soviet territory in planes called U-2s In May 1960 the Sovies shot down a U -2 plane and its pilot Francis Gary Powersi was captured The Soviets sentenced him to ten years in prJ con but released him after 19 months This U-2 incident brought mistrust and tensions between the superpowers to a new h~ight

While Soviet Communists were squaring off against the United States Communists in China were fighting an internal battle for control of that country

Background In the 1970s the (hme JOrids were rerlefloed in economIc terms The small but prosperous First WDrid was at the top oi 8 pyramid and the large poverty-stricken Thnd World was at the bottom

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A Making Inferences What advantages and dismiddot advantages might being flOIlaligned have offered a develmiddot Oping nation

l I

SETTING THE STAGE Vietnam was just one of many countries that attempted to shake off colonial rule after World War II Local battles for independence provided yet another arena for competition between the Cold War superpowers

Confrontations over Developing Nations FollOwing World War II the worlds nations were grouped politically into three worlds The First World was the United States and its allies The Second World included the Soviet Union and its allies The Third World consisted of developing nations often newly independent who were not aligned with either superpower

These Third World countries in Latin America Asia and Africa experienced terrible poverty and political instability This was largely due to a long history of impemiddot rialism They also suffered from ethnic conflicts and lack of technology and education Each desperately needed a political and economic system around which to build its SOciety Soviet-style communism and US-style free-market democracy were the countries main choices

Cold War Strategies The United States the Soviet Union and in some cases China used a variety of techniques to gain influence in the Third World These competing supeJpowers sponsored or backed wars of revolution liberation or counshyterrevolution Thr US and Soviet spy agimcies-the CIA and the KGB-engaged in a variety of covertmiddotor secret activities These activities ranged from spying to assassination attempts The United States also prOvided military aid built schools set up programs to combat poverty and sent volunteer workers to developing nations in Latin America Asia and Aflica The Soviets offered military ~ and technical assistance mainly to India and Egypt

Association of Nonaligned Nations Other developing nations also had pressing needs for assistance They became important players in the Cold War competition between the United States the Soviet Union and also China

Not all Third World countries wished to play such a role however India for example vowed to remain neutral in the Cold War Indonesia a populous island nation in Southeast Asia also struggled to stay uninvolved In 1955 Indonesia hosted the leaders of Asian and African countries in the Bandung Conference They met to form what they called a third force of such independent countries or nonaligned nations

Nations such as India and Indonesia remained neutral But other countries took sides with the superpowers or played the competing sides off against each other

Tbellour provided by US aid belped kep tbee Colombian cbildr bullbull alive They also Ianed to makelbe flour sacks into ctothing in a scbool run bV missionaries

Postwar Face-off in Latin America Long before World War II American businesses dominated Latin Amelican politics

backed leaders who often oppressed their people but who protected US intershyests After the war a lingering gap between the rich and the poor led Latin American nations to seek aid from both superpowers Communism and nationalistic feelings inspired revolutionary movements in parts of Latin America These revolutionary movements found enthusiastic Soviet support In response the United States proshyvided military support and economic assistance to anti-Communist dictators

For example in 1970 Salvador Allende an admitted Marxist was freely elected the

Fidel Castro 1926shy

he son of a wealthy Spanishmiddot uban farmer Fidel Castro became wolved in politics while enrolled at 1e University of Havana He first ttempted to overthrow the Cuban ictator Batista in 1953 He was

but vowed not to give struggle for independence

Personally I am not interested in power nor do I envisage asmiddot suming it at any time All that will do is to make sure that the sacrifices of so many compashytriots should not be in vain

Despite this declaration Castro 3came a staunch Soviet ally and lS been dictator of Cuba for over )years

president of Chile The United States government feared the expanshysion of communism in the area Through the CIA it helped forces opposed to Allende topple his government in 1973 His replacement Augusto Pinochet was a military dictator who used brutal tactics to maintain order in the country Since he was not a communist he had U niled States support and remained in power Cold war struggles in other areas of Latin America occupied the United States from the 1950s through the 19905

Cuban Revolution Throughout the 1950s US support mainshytained Cubas unpopular dictator Fulgencio Batista Cuban resentshyment led to a popular revolution which ovelthrew Batista in January 1959 A young lawyer named Fidel Castro led that revolution

At first many people praised Castro for bringin~ reforms to Cuba and improving the economy literacy health care aBd conditions for Women Yet Castro was a harsh dictator He suspended elections jailed or executed his opponents and strangled the press with tight government controls

When Castro nationalized the Cuban economy he took over us shyowned sugar mills and renneries In response President Eisenhower ordered all embargo on all trade with Cuba As relations with the United States deteriorated Castro turned to the Soviets for the ecoshynomic and militalY aid he needed

In 1960 the CIA planned an invasion of Cuba and begm to train anti-Castro Cuban exiles to carry it out In April 1961 these exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba The new preSident Kennedy approved the invasion but refused to send US planes to Castros forces defeated the invaders humiliating the

The Cuban Missile Crisis The failed Bay vinced the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that would not resist Soviet expansion in Latin Amelica in

1962 Khrushchev secretly began to build 42 missile sites in In October an American spy plane discovered the sites The

Us President John F Kennedy declared that missiles so close to the US mainland were a threat He demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles Kennedy al~o announced a quarantine or blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets installin njore missiles Castro protested his countrys bein used as a tool in the Cold War

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Cuba did not and does not intend to be in the middle of a conflict between the East and the West Our problem is above all one of national sovereignty Cuba does not mean to get involved in the Cold War FIOEl CASTRO quoted in an interview October 27 1962

Nevertheless Cuba was deeply involved KennedyS demand for the removal of Soviet

2 Chapter 17

missiles put the United States and the Soviet Union on a collision course Us troops assembled in FIOlida ready to invade Cuba People around the world began to fear that this standoff would lead to World War III and a nuclear disaster Fortunately Khrushyshchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for aU S promise not to illV1de Cuba

The resolution of the Cuban missile crisis left Castro completely dependent on Soviet support In exchange for this support Castro backed Communist revolutions Latn America and Aflica Approximately 36000 Cubans fought in Angolas war aganst colonialism in the 1970s Soviet aid to Cuba however ended abnmtlv witb the bre3kup of the SO~et Union in 1991 This loss dealt a clinolin blow to

ecoIlomy The country still suffers a scarcity of vital refuses to adopt economic reforms or to give up power

Staes ref~ses to lift its trade

Civil War in Nicaragua Just as the United States had supported the unpopular Batista in Cuba it had funded the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza and his famil) since 1933 In 1979 Communist Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somozas son Both the United States and the Soviet Union initially gave aid to the

IIINK maOUGi HlSTORl Sandinistas and their leader Daniel Ortega (awrTAyguh)C Analying The Sandinistas however had aided other socialist rebels in nearby EI Salvador Motives WhV did Ins US- switch its To help the El Salvadoran government fight those rebels the United States supshy

lromthe (oAn anti-Communist rebel forces These rebels were called Contras to the

or 7ont1Orevoiuciona-riosCOJtfas The civil war in Nicaragua lasted over a decade and seliously weakened the

economy In 1990 President Ortega agreed to middotl1old free elections He was defeated Violeta Chamorro In 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo was elected president

intervenes in the governments of Guatemala Bolivia 11956 Chile 11973)

N

fA 3000 Miles --

5000 Kilometers

~ ~

The United States helps Greece defeat Communist-led rebels 11946-19491 and gives economic and military aid to Turkey 11947-1950)

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Location On what continents identified on the map did Coid

War conflicts not occur 2 Region About what fraction of the globe did Communists

control by 1975

1 iIif

II II 1IiIII III

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

t

A VOICE

RAPHY SKlllBUILDER Interpreting Maps Location In which part of Germany was Berlin ioeated Place Which countries separated the Soviet Union from Western Europe

communism and capitalism could not exist in the same world He said that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was certain

The Iron Curtain Divides East and West Europe now lay divided between East and West Germimys postwar fate which had been decided at Yalta left the country

into Mo seclons The Soviets controlled the eastern part including half of capitaIBerlin Under a Communist government East Gennany was German Democratic Republic The western zones became the Federal

of Germany in 1949 Winston Churchill described the division of Europe

A VOICE FROM THE PAST From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the continent Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Soviet sphere and ali are subject in one form or another not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow WlNSTON CHURCHILL Iron Curtain speech March 5 1946

IINKTHnUUGH HISTORY

Churchills phrase iron curtain came to represent Europes division between a mostly democratic Western Europe and a Communist Eastern Europe From behind the iron curtain Stalin termed Churchills words a call to war

i111

United States Counters Soviet Expansion SovietmiddotAmerican relations continued to worsen in 1946 and 1947 An increasingly worried United States sought to offset the growing Soviet threat in Eastern Europe President Truman declared that it was time to stop babying the Soviets He adopted a foreign policy called containment ContaJnment was a policy directed at blocking Soviet influence and preventing the expansion of communism Containment policies included creating allianc-es and helping weak countries resist Soviet advances

Restructuring the Postwar World 477

--------------------------_

The Truman Doctrine In a speech asking Congress for foreign aid for Turkey and Greece President Truman contrasted democracy with communism

FROM THE PAST One way of life is based upon the will of the majority and is distinguished by free instimiddot tutions free elections and freedom from political oppression The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority It upon terror andmiddot oppression fixed elections and the suppression of personal freemiddot doms I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures HAtRY S TRUMAN speech to Congress March 12 1947

Trumans support for countries that rejected comnwnism was callcd the Truman Doctrine It caused great controversy Some opponents objected to American intermiddot ference in other nations affairs Others argued that the United States lacked the resources to carry on a global crusade against communism Still others pointed out that some US support would go to dictators Congress however immediately authomiddot rized over $400 million in aid to Turkey and Greece

The Marshall Plan Much of Western Europe lay in ruins after the war problems included recordmiddot breaking cold and snow postwar unemployment lack of food and economic turmoiL In June 1947 US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed that America give aid to any European country that needed it This assistance

called the Marshall Plan would prOVide food machines and other materimiddot As Congress debated the $125 billion program in FebrualY 1941j the Communists

seized power in Czechoslovakia Congress immediately approved theyenarshall Plan The plan achieved spectacular success in Western Europe and in Yugcilavia

The Marshall Plan --~--j ~ ~182S 2445 g 2000

C i500 1316

g 1000 _ == 1Ii~

V) ~1i ~~ ~~ ~ ~

t ~i

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts 1 Which country received the most aid from the UnUed States 2 Why do you think Great Britain and France received so much aid

The Berlin Airlift While Europe began rebUilding the United States and its allies clashed with the Soviet Union over Germany The SO~ets meant to keep their fonner enemy weak and divided In 1948 France Britain and the United States decided to withdraw their forces from Germany They would allow their three occupation zones to form one nation The Soviet Union responded by holding West Berlin hostage

Although Berlin lay well within the Soviet occupation zone of Germany it too had been divided into four zones The Soviet Union cut off highway water and rail traffic into Berlins western zones Since no supplies could get in the city faced starvation Stalin gambled that the threat would frighten Western countries He hODed it would force them to surrender West Berlin or give up their idea of reunifying

The Soviet leader lost his gamble To break the blockade Amelican and officials flew food and supplies into West Berlin For nearly 11 months

817 561 547 515 350III~~~~~AA~ ~~~~~~~~ G lltif ~lti ~ qJ ~~ qa~ ~~~ lt~

~ ~ lt0 Source ffDbMmes Ecrmc1l1iqlles ND 306

THINK THnUUGH HISTORY C Making Inferences What was President

other cQumries

off and landed every three minutes In 277000 flights pilots brought in 23 million tons of supplies-food fuel medicine and even Christmas presents The Soviet Union admitting defeat lifted the Berlin blockade in May 1949

The Cold War and a Divided World These increasing conflictS were the beginnings of the Cold War ThIs was a state of diplomatic hostility that developed between the two superpowers Beginning in 1949 the superpowers used spying propaganda diplomacy and secret operations in their dealings with each other Much of the world allied with one side or the other In fact until the Soviet Union finally broke up in 1991 the Cold War dictated not only US and $oviet foreign policy It influenced world alliances as well

Rival Alliances The Berlin blockade heightened Western Europes fears of Soviet t

aggression As a result in 1949 ten Western European nations joined With the United States and Canada to form a defensive military allianc~ This alliance was called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) These nations promised to meet an attack on any NATO member with armed force For the United States NATO memshybership marked the countrys first peacetime military commitment

i~ The Soviet Union viewed NATO as a threat In response the Soviets developed an alliance system in 1955 as part of their own containment policy It was known as the Warsaw Pact This alliance included the Soviet Union Poland East Germany Cwchoslovakia Hungary Romania Bulgaria and Albania

In the 1950s the United States also organized several other alliances to fight the threat of communism In 1955 SEATO-Southeast Asia Treaty Organization-was formed to stabilize that area after open military aggresSion occurred in Korea and Indochina

Nuclear Threat As these alliailces were fOrming the Cold War threatened to heat up enough to destroy the world The United States already had atomic bombs As early as 1949 the Soviet Union exploded its own atomic weapon The superpowers had both become nuclear powers

President Truman was determined to develop an even more deadly weapon before the Soviets did He authorized work on a thermonuclear weapon in January 1950 This

~

T-~

1shy

hydrogen or H-bomb would be thousands of times more powerful than the A -bomb Its power carne from the fusion or joining together of atoms rather than from the splitting of atoms as in the A-bomb In November 1952 the United States successshyfully tested the first H-bomb By August of the follOwing year the Soviets had exploded their own thermonuclear weapon

Dwight D Eisenhower became the US president in 1953 He appOinted the firmly anti-Communist John Foster Dulles as his secretary of state I~ the Soviet Union or its supporters attacked US interests Dulles threatened the United States would ~retaliate instantly by means and at places of our own chOOSing This willingshyness to go to the brink or edge of war became known as brinkman~hip

The Cold War took Brinkmanship required a reliable source of nuclear weapons and airplanes to to the skies osmiddotthe deliver them So the United States strengthened its air force and begb producingUnited States and

stockpiles of nuclear weapons In response the SOviet Union made its own collection the Soviet Union raced to produce of nuclear bombs This arms race would go on for four decades ICBMs Missiles like this one were The Cold War in the Skies The Cold War also affected the science and education capable of inflicting programs of the two countries In August 1957 the Soviets announced the development destruction from of a rocket that could travel great distances This was a true intercontinental ballistic great distances

missile or ICBM On October 4 the Soviets used an ICBM to push the first unmanned satellite above the ea1ths atmosphere

The launching of this Soviet satellite Sputriik I made Americans feel as if they had fallen behind in ~cience and techshynology In response the US government poured huge amounts of money into education especially il science matheshymatics and foreign languages Within months by January 1958 the United States had successfully launched it~ own satellite

In 1960 the skies prOvided the arena for atl even more serishyous showdown between the superpowers Fiv~ years earlier President Eisenhower proposed an open skids policy This policy stated that the United States and the S~viet Union could fly freely over each others territory to guard against surprise nuclear attacks The Soviet Union rejected Eikenhowers proshyposal In response the US Central Intelligerice Agency (CIA)

authorized secret high-altitude spy flights ovet Soviet territory in planes called U-2s In May 1960 the Sovies shot down a U -2 plane and its pilot Francis Gary Powersi was captured The Soviets sentenced him to ten years in prJ con but released him after 19 months This U-2 incident brought mistrust and tensions between the superpowers to a new h~ight

While Soviet Communists were squaring off against the United States Communists in China were fighting an internal battle for control of that country

Background In the 1970s the (hme JOrids were rerlefloed in economIc terms The small but prosperous First WDrid was at the top oi 8 pyramid and the large poverty-stricken Thnd World was at the bottom

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A Making Inferences What advantages and dismiddot advantages might being flOIlaligned have offered a develmiddot Oping nation

l I

SETTING THE STAGE Vietnam was just one of many countries that attempted to shake off colonial rule after World War II Local battles for independence provided yet another arena for competition between the Cold War superpowers

Confrontations over Developing Nations FollOwing World War II the worlds nations were grouped politically into three worlds The First World was the United States and its allies The Second World included the Soviet Union and its allies The Third World consisted of developing nations often newly independent who were not aligned with either superpower

These Third World countries in Latin America Asia and Africa experienced terrible poverty and political instability This was largely due to a long history of impemiddot rialism They also suffered from ethnic conflicts and lack of technology and education Each desperately needed a political and economic system around which to build its SOciety Soviet-style communism and US-style free-market democracy were the countries main choices

Cold War Strategies The United States the Soviet Union and in some cases China used a variety of techniques to gain influence in the Third World These competing supeJpowers sponsored or backed wars of revolution liberation or counshyterrevolution Thr US and Soviet spy agimcies-the CIA and the KGB-engaged in a variety of covertmiddotor secret activities These activities ranged from spying to assassination attempts The United States also prOvided military aid built schools set up programs to combat poverty and sent volunteer workers to developing nations in Latin America Asia and Aflica The Soviets offered military ~ and technical assistance mainly to India and Egypt

Association of Nonaligned Nations Other developing nations also had pressing needs for assistance They became important players in the Cold War competition between the United States the Soviet Union and also China

Not all Third World countries wished to play such a role however India for example vowed to remain neutral in the Cold War Indonesia a populous island nation in Southeast Asia also struggled to stay uninvolved In 1955 Indonesia hosted the leaders of Asian and African countries in the Bandung Conference They met to form what they called a third force of such independent countries or nonaligned nations

Nations such as India and Indonesia remained neutral But other countries took sides with the superpowers or played the competing sides off against each other

Tbellour provided by US aid belped kep tbee Colombian cbildr bullbull alive They also Ianed to makelbe flour sacks into ctothing in a scbool run bV missionaries

Postwar Face-off in Latin America Long before World War II American businesses dominated Latin Amelican politics

backed leaders who often oppressed their people but who protected US intershyests After the war a lingering gap between the rich and the poor led Latin American nations to seek aid from both superpowers Communism and nationalistic feelings inspired revolutionary movements in parts of Latin America These revolutionary movements found enthusiastic Soviet support In response the United States proshyvided military support and economic assistance to anti-Communist dictators

For example in 1970 Salvador Allende an admitted Marxist was freely elected the

Fidel Castro 1926shy

he son of a wealthy Spanishmiddot uban farmer Fidel Castro became wolved in politics while enrolled at 1e University of Havana He first ttempted to overthrow the Cuban ictator Batista in 1953 He was

but vowed not to give struggle for independence

Personally I am not interested in power nor do I envisage asmiddot suming it at any time All that will do is to make sure that the sacrifices of so many compashytriots should not be in vain

Despite this declaration Castro 3came a staunch Soviet ally and lS been dictator of Cuba for over )years

president of Chile The United States government feared the expanshysion of communism in the area Through the CIA it helped forces opposed to Allende topple his government in 1973 His replacement Augusto Pinochet was a military dictator who used brutal tactics to maintain order in the country Since he was not a communist he had U niled States support and remained in power Cold war struggles in other areas of Latin America occupied the United States from the 1950s through the 19905

Cuban Revolution Throughout the 1950s US support mainshytained Cubas unpopular dictator Fulgencio Batista Cuban resentshyment led to a popular revolution which ovelthrew Batista in January 1959 A young lawyer named Fidel Castro led that revolution

At first many people praised Castro for bringin~ reforms to Cuba and improving the economy literacy health care aBd conditions for Women Yet Castro was a harsh dictator He suspended elections jailed or executed his opponents and strangled the press with tight government controls

When Castro nationalized the Cuban economy he took over us shyowned sugar mills and renneries In response President Eisenhower ordered all embargo on all trade with Cuba As relations with the United States deteriorated Castro turned to the Soviets for the ecoshynomic and militalY aid he needed

In 1960 the CIA planned an invasion of Cuba and begm to train anti-Castro Cuban exiles to carry it out In April 1961 these exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba The new preSident Kennedy approved the invasion but refused to send US planes to Castros forces defeated the invaders humiliating the

The Cuban Missile Crisis The failed Bay vinced the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that would not resist Soviet expansion in Latin Amelica in

1962 Khrushchev secretly began to build 42 missile sites in In October an American spy plane discovered the sites The

Us President John F Kennedy declared that missiles so close to the US mainland were a threat He demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles Kennedy al~o announced a quarantine or blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets installin njore missiles Castro protested his countrys bein used as a tool in the Cold War

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Cuba did not and does not intend to be in the middle of a conflict between the East and the West Our problem is above all one of national sovereignty Cuba does not mean to get involved in the Cold War FIOEl CASTRO quoted in an interview October 27 1962

Nevertheless Cuba was deeply involved KennedyS demand for the removal of Soviet

2 Chapter 17

missiles put the United States and the Soviet Union on a collision course Us troops assembled in FIOlida ready to invade Cuba People around the world began to fear that this standoff would lead to World War III and a nuclear disaster Fortunately Khrushyshchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for aU S promise not to illV1de Cuba

The resolution of the Cuban missile crisis left Castro completely dependent on Soviet support In exchange for this support Castro backed Communist revolutions Latn America and Aflica Approximately 36000 Cubans fought in Angolas war aganst colonialism in the 1970s Soviet aid to Cuba however ended abnmtlv witb the bre3kup of the SO~et Union in 1991 This loss dealt a clinolin blow to

ecoIlomy The country still suffers a scarcity of vital refuses to adopt economic reforms or to give up power

Staes ref~ses to lift its trade

Civil War in Nicaragua Just as the United States had supported the unpopular Batista in Cuba it had funded the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza and his famil) since 1933 In 1979 Communist Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somozas son Both the United States and the Soviet Union initially gave aid to the

IIINK maOUGi HlSTORl Sandinistas and their leader Daniel Ortega (awrTAyguh)C Analying The Sandinistas however had aided other socialist rebels in nearby EI Salvador Motives WhV did Ins US- switch its To help the El Salvadoran government fight those rebels the United States supshy

lromthe (oAn anti-Communist rebel forces These rebels were called Contras to the

or 7ont1Orevoiuciona-riosCOJtfas The civil war in Nicaragua lasted over a decade and seliously weakened the

economy In 1990 President Ortega agreed to middotl1old free elections He was defeated Violeta Chamorro In 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo was elected president

intervenes in the governments of Guatemala Bolivia 11956 Chile 11973)

N

fA 3000 Miles --

5000 Kilometers

~ ~

The United States helps Greece defeat Communist-led rebels 11946-19491 and gives economic and military aid to Turkey 11947-1950)

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Location On what continents identified on the map did Coid

War conflicts not occur 2 Region About what fraction of the globe did Communists

control by 1975

1 iIif

II II 1IiIII III

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

off and landed every three minutes In 277000 flights pilots brought in 23 million tons of supplies-food fuel medicine and even Christmas presents The Soviet Union admitting defeat lifted the Berlin blockade in May 1949

The Cold War and a Divided World These increasing conflictS were the beginnings of the Cold War ThIs was a state of diplomatic hostility that developed between the two superpowers Beginning in 1949 the superpowers used spying propaganda diplomacy and secret operations in their dealings with each other Much of the world allied with one side or the other In fact until the Soviet Union finally broke up in 1991 the Cold War dictated not only US and $oviet foreign policy It influenced world alliances as well

Rival Alliances The Berlin blockade heightened Western Europes fears of Soviet t

aggression As a result in 1949 ten Western European nations joined With the United States and Canada to form a defensive military allianc~ This alliance was called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) These nations promised to meet an attack on any NATO member with armed force For the United States NATO memshybership marked the countrys first peacetime military commitment

i~ The Soviet Union viewed NATO as a threat In response the Soviets developed an alliance system in 1955 as part of their own containment policy It was known as the Warsaw Pact This alliance included the Soviet Union Poland East Germany Cwchoslovakia Hungary Romania Bulgaria and Albania

In the 1950s the United States also organized several other alliances to fight the threat of communism In 1955 SEATO-Southeast Asia Treaty Organization-was formed to stabilize that area after open military aggresSion occurred in Korea and Indochina

Nuclear Threat As these alliailces were fOrming the Cold War threatened to heat up enough to destroy the world The United States already had atomic bombs As early as 1949 the Soviet Union exploded its own atomic weapon The superpowers had both become nuclear powers

President Truman was determined to develop an even more deadly weapon before the Soviets did He authorized work on a thermonuclear weapon in January 1950 This

~

T-~

1shy

hydrogen or H-bomb would be thousands of times more powerful than the A -bomb Its power carne from the fusion or joining together of atoms rather than from the splitting of atoms as in the A-bomb In November 1952 the United States successshyfully tested the first H-bomb By August of the follOwing year the Soviets had exploded their own thermonuclear weapon

Dwight D Eisenhower became the US president in 1953 He appOinted the firmly anti-Communist John Foster Dulles as his secretary of state I~ the Soviet Union or its supporters attacked US interests Dulles threatened the United States would ~retaliate instantly by means and at places of our own chOOSing This willingshyness to go to the brink or edge of war became known as brinkman~hip

The Cold War took Brinkmanship required a reliable source of nuclear weapons and airplanes to to the skies osmiddotthe deliver them So the United States strengthened its air force and begb producingUnited States and

stockpiles of nuclear weapons In response the SOviet Union made its own collection the Soviet Union raced to produce of nuclear bombs This arms race would go on for four decades ICBMs Missiles like this one were The Cold War in the Skies The Cold War also affected the science and education capable of inflicting programs of the two countries In August 1957 the Soviets announced the development destruction from of a rocket that could travel great distances This was a true intercontinental ballistic great distances

missile or ICBM On October 4 the Soviets used an ICBM to push the first unmanned satellite above the ea1ths atmosphere

The launching of this Soviet satellite Sputriik I made Americans feel as if they had fallen behind in ~cience and techshynology In response the US government poured huge amounts of money into education especially il science matheshymatics and foreign languages Within months by January 1958 the United States had successfully launched it~ own satellite

In 1960 the skies prOvided the arena for atl even more serishyous showdown between the superpowers Fiv~ years earlier President Eisenhower proposed an open skids policy This policy stated that the United States and the S~viet Union could fly freely over each others territory to guard against surprise nuclear attacks The Soviet Union rejected Eikenhowers proshyposal In response the US Central Intelligerice Agency (CIA)

authorized secret high-altitude spy flights ovet Soviet territory in planes called U-2s In May 1960 the Sovies shot down a U -2 plane and its pilot Francis Gary Powersi was captured The Soviets sentenced him to ten years in prJ con but released him after 19 months This U-2 incident brought mistrust and tensions between the superpowers to a new h~ight

While Soviet Communists were squaring off against the United States Communists in China were fighting an internal battle for control of that country

Background In the 1970s the (hme JOrids were rerlefloed in economIc terms The small but prosperous First WDrid was at the top oi 8 pyramid and the large poverty-stricken Thnd World was at the bottom

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A Making Inferences What advantages and dismiddot advantages might being flOIlaligned have offered a develmiddot Oping nation

l I

SETTING THE STAGE Vietnam was just one of many countries that attempted to shake off colonial rule after World War II Local battles for independence provided yet another arena for competition between the Cold War superpowers

Confrontations over Developing Nations FollOwing World War II the worlds nations were grouped politically into three worlds The First World was the United States and its allies The Second World included the Soviet Union and its allies The Third World consisted of developing nations often newly independent who were not aligned with either superpower

These Third World countries in Latin America Asia and Africa experienced terrible poverty and political instability This was largely due to a long history of impemiddot rialism They also suffered from ethnic conflicts and lack of technology and education Each desperately needed a political and economic system around which to build its SOciety Soviet-style communism and US-style free-market democracy were the countries main choices

Cold War Strategies The United States the Soviet Union and in some cases China used a variety of techniques to gain influence in the Third World These competing supeJpowers sponsored or backed wars of revolution liberation or counshyterrevolution Thr US and Soviet spy agimcies-the CIA and the KGB-engaged in a variety of covertmiddotor secret activities These activities ranged from spying to assassination attempts The United States also prOvided military aid built schools set up programs to combat poverty and sent volunteer workers to developing nations in Latin America Asia and Aflica The Soviets offered military ~ and technical assistance mainly to India and Egypt

Association of Nonaligned Nations Other developing nations also had pressing needs for assistance They became important players in the Cold War competition between the United States the Soviet Union and also China

Not all Third World countries wished to play such a role however India for example vowed to remain neutral in the Cold War Indonesia a populous island nation in Southeast Asia also struggled to stay uninvolved In 1955 Indonesia hosted the leaders of Asian and African countries in the Bandung Conference They met to form what they called a third force of such independent countries or nonaligned nations

Nations such as India and Indonesia remained neutral But other countries took sides with the superpowers or played the competing sides off against each other

Tbellour provided by US aid belped kep tbee Colombian cbildr bullbull alive They also Ianed to makelbe flour sacks into ctothing in a scbool run bV missionaries

Postwar Face-off in Latin America Long before World War II American businesses dominated Latin Amelican politics

backed leaders who often oppressed their people but who protected US intershyests After the war a lingering gap between the rich and the poor led Latin American nations to seek aid from both superpowers Communism and nationalistic feelings inspired revolutionary movements in parts of Latin America These revolutionary movements found enthusiastic Soviet support In response the United States proshyvided military support and economic assistance to anti-Communist dictators

For example in 1970 Salvador Allende an admitted Marxist was freely elected the

Fidel Castro 1926shy

he son of a wealthy Spanishmiddot uban farmer Fidel Castro became wolved in politics while enrolled at 1e University of Havana He first ttempted to overthrow the Cuban ictator Batista in 1953 He was

but vowed not to give struggle for independence

Personally I am not interested in power nor do I envisage asmiddot suming it at any time All that will do is to make sure that the sacrifices of so many compashytriots should not be in vain

Despite this declaration Castro 3came a staunch Soviet ally and lS been dictator of Cuba for over )years

president of Chile The United States government feared the expanshysion of communism in the area Through the CIA it helped forces opposed to Allende topple his government in 1973 His replacement Augusto Pinochet was a military dictator who used brutal tactics to maintain order in the country Since he was not a communist he had U niled States support and remained in power Cold war struggles in other areas of Latin America occupied the United States from the 1950s through the 19905

Cuban Revolution Throughout the 1950s US support mainshytained Cubas unpopular dictator Fulgencio Batista Cuban resentshyment led to a popular revolution which ovelthrew Batista in January 1959 A young lawyer named Fidel Castro led that revolution

At first many people praised Castro for bringin~ reforms to Cuba and improving the economy literacy health care aBd conditions for Women Yet Castro was a harsh dictator He suspended elections jailed or executed his opponents and strangled the press with tight government controls

When Castro nationalized the Cuban economy he took over us shyowned sugar mills and renneries In response President Eisenhower ordered all embargo on all trade with Cuba As relations with the United States deteriorated Castro turned to the Soviets for the ecoshynomic and militalY aid he needed

In 1960 the CIA planned an invasion of Cuba and begm to train anti-Castro Cuban exiles to carry it out In April 1961 these exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba The new preSident Kennedy approved the invasion but refused to send US planes to Castros forces defeated the invaders humiliating the

The Cuban Missile Crisis The failed Bay vinced the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that would not resist Soviet expansion in Latin Amelica in

1962 Khrushchev secretly began to build 42 missile sites in In October an American spy plane discovered the sites The

Us President John F Kennedy declared that missiles so close to the US mainland were a threat He demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles Kennedy al~o announced a quarantine or blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets installin njore missiles Castro protested his countrys bein used as a tool in the Cold War

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Cuba did not and does not intend to be in the middle of a conflict between the East and the West Our problem is above all one of national sovereignty Cuba does not mean to get involved in the Cold War FIOEl CASTRO quoted in an interview October 27 1962

Nevertheless Cuba was deeply involved KennedyS demand for the removal of Soviet

2 Chapter 17

missiles put the United States and the Soviet Union on a collision course Us troops assembled in FIOlida ready to invade Cuba People around the world began to fear that this standoff would lead to World War III and a nuclear disaster Fortunately Khrushyshchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for aU S promise not to illV1de Cuba

The resolution of the Cuban missile crisis left Castro completely dependent on Soviet support In exchange for this support Castro backed Communist revolutions Latn America and Aflica Approximately 36000 Cubans fought in Angolas war aganst colonialism in the 1970s Soviet aid to Cuba however ended abnmtlv witb the bre3kup of the SO~et Union in 1991 This loss dealt a clinolin blow to

ecoIlomy The country still suffers a scarcity of vital refuses to adopt economic reforms or to give up power

Staes ref~ses to lift its trade

Civil War in Nicaragua Just as the United States had supported the unpopular Batista in Cuba it had funded the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza and his famil) since 1933 In 1979 Communist Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somozas son Both the United States and the Soviet Union initially gave aid to the

IIINK maOUGi HlSTORl Sandinistas and their leader Daniel Ortega (awrTAyguh)C Analying The Sandinistas however had aided other socialist rebels in nearby EI Salvador Motives WhV did Ins US- switch its To help the El Salvadoran government fight those rebels the United States supshy

lromthe (oAn anti-Communist rebel forces These rebels were called Contras to the

or 7ont1Orevoiuciona-riosCOJtfas The civil war in Nicaragua lasted over a decade and seliously weakened the

economy In 1990 President Ortega agreed to middotl1old free elections He was defeated Violeta Chamorro In 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo was elected president

intervenes in the governments of Guatemala Bolivia 11956 Chile 11973)

N

fA 3000 Miles --

5000 Kilometers

~ ~

The United States helps Greece defeat Communist-led rebels 11946-19491 and gives economic and military aid to Turkey 11947-1950)

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Location On what continents identified on the map did Coid

War conflicts not occur 2 Region About what fraction of the globe did Communists

control by 1975

1 iIif

II II 1IiIII III

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

Background In the 1970s the (hme JOrids were rerlefloed in economIc terms The small but prosperous First WDrid was at the top oi 8 pyramid and the large poverty-stricken Thnd World was at the bottom

THINK THROUGH HISTORY A Making Inferences What advantages and dismiddot advantages might being flOIlaligned have offered a develmiddot Oping nation

l I

SETTING THE STAGE Vietnam was just one of many countries that attempted to shake off colonial rule after World War II Local battles for independence provided yet another arena for competition between the Cold War superpowers

Confrontations over Developing Nations FollOwing World War II the worlds nations were grouped politically into three worlds The First World was the United States and its allies The Second World included the Soviet Union and its allies The Third World consisted of developing nations often newly independent who were not aligned with either superpower

These Third World countries in Latin America Asia and Africa experienced terrible poverty and political instability This was largely due to a long history of impemiddot rialism They also suffered from ethnic conflicts and lack of technology and education Each desperately needed a political and economic system around which to build its SOciety Soviet-style communism and US-style free-market democracy were the countries main choices

Cold War Strategies The United States the Soviet Union and in some cases China used a variety of techniques to gain influence in the Third World These competing supeJpowers sponsored or backed wars of revolution liberation or counshyterrevolution Thr US and Soviet spy agimcies-the CIA and the KGB-engaged in a variety of covertmiddotor secret activities These activities ranged from spying to assassination attempts The United States also prOvided military aid built schools set up programs to combat poverty and sent volunteer workers to developing nations in Latin America Asia and Aflica The Soviets offered military ~ and technical assistance mainly to India and Egypt

Association of Nonaligned Nations Other developing nations also had pressing needs for assistance They became important players in the Cold War competition between the United States the Soviet Union and also China

Not all Third World countries wished to play such a role however India for example vowed to remain neutral in the Cold War Indonesia a populous island nation in Southeast Asia also struggled to stay uninvolved In 1955 Indonesia hosted the leaders of Asian and African countries in the Bandung Conference They met to form what they called a third force of such independent countries or nonaligned nations

Nations such as India and Indonesia remained neutral But other countries took sides with the superpowers or played the competing sides off against each other

Tbellour provided by US aid belped kep tbee Colombian cbildr bullbull alive They also Ianed to makelbe flour sacks into ctothing in a scbool run bV missionaries

Postwar Face-off in Latin America Long before World War II American businesses dominated Latin Amelican politics

backed leaders who often oppressed their people but who protected US intershyests After the war a lingering gap between the rich and the poor led Latin American nations to seek aid from both superpowers Communism and nationalistic feelings inspired revolutionary movements in parts of Latin America These revolutionary movements found enthusiastic Soviet support In response the United States proshyvided military support and economic assistance to anti-Communist dictators

For example in 1970 Salvador Allende an admitted Marxist was freely elected the

Fidel Castro 1926shy

he son of a wealthy Spanishmiddot uban farmer Fidel Castro became wolved in politics while enrolled at 1e University of Havana He first ttempted to overthrow the Cuban ictator Batista in 1953 He was

but vowed not to give struggle for independence

Personally I am not interested in power nor do I envisage asmiddot suming it at any time All that will do is to make sure that the sacrifices of so many compashytriots should not be in vain

Despite this declaration Castro 3came a staunch Soviet ally and lS been dictator of Cuba for over )years

president of Chile The United States government feared the expanshysion of communism in the area Through the CIA it helped forces opposed to Allende topple his government in 1973 His replacement Augusto Pinochet was a military dictator who used brutal tactics to maintain order in the country Since he was not a communist he had U niled States support and remained in power Cold war struggles in other areas of Latin America occupied the United States from the 1950s through the 19905

Cuban Revolution Throughout the 1950s US support mainshytained Cubas unpopular dictator Fulgencio Batista Cuban resentshyment led to a popular revolution which ovelthrew Batista in January 1959 A young lawyer named Fidel Castro led that revolution

At first many people praised Castro for bringin~ reforms to Cuba and improving the economy literacy health care aBd conditions for Women Yet Castro was a harsh dictator He suspended elections jailed or executed his opponents and strangled the press with tight government controls

When Castro nationalized the Cuban economy he took over us shyowned sugar mills and renneries In response President Eisenhower ordered all embargo on all trade with Cuba As relations with the United States deteriorated Castro turned to the Soviets for the ecoshynomic and militalY aid he needed

In 1960 the CIA planned an invasion of Cuba and begm to train anti-Castro Cuban exiles to carry it out In April 1961 these exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba The new preSident Kennedy approved the invasion but refused to send US planes to Castros forces defeated the invaders humiliating the

The Cuban Missile Crisis The failed Bay vinced the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that would not resist Soviet expansion in Latin Amelica in

1962 Khrushchev secretly began to build 42 missile sites in In October an American spy plane discovered the sites The

Us President John F Kennedy declared that missiles so close to the US mainland were a threat He demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles Kennedy al~o announced a quarantine or blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets installin njore missiles Castro protested his countrys bein used as a tool in the Cold War

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Cuba did not and does not intend to be in the middle of a conflict between the East and the West Our problem is above all one of national sovereignty Cuba does not mean to get involved in the Cold War FIOEl CASTRO quoted in an interview October 27 1962

Nevertheless Cuba was deeply involved KennedyS demand for the removal of Soviet

2 Chapter 17

missiles put the United States and the Soviet Union on a collision course Us troops assembled in FIOlida ready to invade Cuba People around the world began to fear that this standoff would lead to World War III and a nuclear disaster Fortunately Khrushyshchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for aU S promise not to illV1de Cuba

The resolution of the Cuban missile crisis left Castro completely dependent on Soviet support In exchange for this support Castro backed Communist revolutions Latn America and Aflica Approximately 36000 Cubans fought in Angolas war aganst colonialism in the 1970s Soviet aid to Cuba however ended abnmtlv witb the bre3kup of the SO~et Union in 1991 This loss dealt a clinolin blow to

ecoIlomy The country still suffers a scarcity of vital refuses to adopt economic reforms or to give up power

Staes ref~ses to lift its trade

Civil War in Nicaragua Just as the United States had supported the unpopular Batista in Cuba it had funded the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza and his famil) since 1933 In 1979 Communist Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somozas son Both the United States and the Soviet Union initially gave aid to the

IIINK maOUGi HlSTORl Sandinistas and their leader Daniel Ortega (awrTAyguh)C Analying The Sandinistas however had aided other socialist rebels in nearby EI Salvador Motives WhV did Ins US- switch its To help the El Salvadoran government fight those rebels the United States supshy

lromthe (oAn anti-Communist rebel forces These rebels were called Contras to the

or 7ont1Orevoiuciona-riosCOJtfas The civil war in Nicaragua lasted over a decade and seliously weakened the

economy In 1990 President Ortega agreed to middotl1old free elections He was defeated Violeta Chamorro In 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo was elected president

intervenes in the governments of Guatemala Bolivia 11956 Chile 11973)

N

fA 3000 Miles --

5000 Kilometers

~ ~

The United States helps Greece defeat Communist-led rebels 11946-19491 and gives economic and military aid to Turkey 11947-1950)

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Location On what continents identified on the map did Coid

War conflicts not occur 2 Region About what fraction of the globe did Communists

control by 1975

1 iIif

II II 1IiIII III

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

Postwar Face-off in Latin America Long before World War II American businesses dominated Latin Amelican politics

backed leaders who often oppressed their people but who protected US intershyests After the war a lingering gap between the rich and the poor led Latin American nations to seek aid from both superpowers Communism and nationalistic feelings inspired revolutionary movements in parts of Latin America These revolutionary movements found enthusiastic Soviet support In response the United States proshyvided military support and economic assistance to anti-Communist dictators

For example in 1970 Salvador Allende an admitted Marxist was freely elected the

Fidel Castro 1926shy

he son of a wealthy Spanishmiddot uban farmer Fidel Castro became wolved in politics while enrolled at 1e University of Havana He first ttempted to overthrow the Cuban ictator Batista in 1953 He was

but vowed not to give struggle for independence

Personally I am not interested in power nor do I envisage asmiddot suming it at any time All that will do is to make sure that the sacrifices of so many compashytriots should not be in vain

Despite this declaration Castro 3came a staunch Soviet ally and lS been dictator of Cuba for over )years

president of Chile The United States government feared the expanshysion of communism in the area Through the CIA it helped forces opposed to Allende topple his government in 1973 His replacement Augusto Pinochet was a military dictator who used brutal tactics to maintain order in the country Since he was not a communist he had U niled States support and remained in power Cold war struggles in other areas of Latin America occupied the United States from the 1950s through the 19905

Cuban Revolution Throughout the 1950s US support mainshytained Cubas unpopular dictator Fulgencio Batista Cuban resentshyment led to a popular revolution which ovelthrew Batista in January 1959 A young lawyer named Fidel Castro led that revolution

At first many people praised Castro for bringin~ reforms to Cuba and improving the economy literacy health care aBd conditions for Women Yet Castro was a harsh dictator He suspended elections jailed or executed his opponents and strangled the press with tight government controls

When Castro nationalized the Cuban economy he took over us shyowned sugar mills and renneries In response President Eisenhower ordered all embargo on all trade with Cuba As relations with the United States deteriorated Castro turned to the Soviets for the ecoshynomic and militalY aid he needed

In 1960 the CIA planned an invasion of Cuba and begm to train anti-Castro Cuban exiles to carry it out In April 1961 these exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba The new preSident Kennedy approved the invasion but refused to send US planes to Castros forces defeated the invaders humiliating the

The Cuban Missile Crisis The failed Bay vinced the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that would not resist Soviet expansion in Latin Amelica in

1962 Khrushchev secretly began to build 42 missile sites in In October an American spy plane discovered the sites The

Us President John F Kennedy declared that missiles so close to the US mainland were a threat He demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles Kennedy al~o announced a quarantine or blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviets installin njore missiles Castro protested his countrys bein used as a tool in the Cold War

A VOICE FROM THE PAST Cuba did not and does not intend to be in the middle of a conflict between the East and the West Our problem is above all one of national sovereignty Cuba does not mean to get involved in the Cold War FIOEl CASTRO quoted in an interview October 27 1962

Nevertheless Cuba was deeply involved KennedyS demand for the removal of Soviet

2 Chapter 17

missiles put the United States and the Soviet Union on a collision course Us troops assembled in FIOlida ready to invade Cuba People around the world began to fear that this standoff would lead to World War III and a nuclear disaster Fortunately Khrushyshchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for aU S promise not to illV1de Cuba

The resolution of the Cuban missile crisis left Castro completely dependent on Soviet support In exchange for this support Castro backed Communist revolutions Latn America and Aflica Approximately 36000 Cubans fought in Angolas war aganst colonialism in the 1970s Soviet aid to Cuba however ended abnmtlv witb the bre3kup of the SO~et Union in 1991 This loss dealt a clinolin blow to

ecoIlomy The country still suffers a scarcity of vital refuses to adopt economic reforms or to give up power

Staes ref~ses to lift its trade

Civil War in Nicaragua Just as the United States had supported the unpopular Batista in Cuba it had funded the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza and his famil) since 1933 In 1979 Communist Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somozas son Both the United States and the Soviet Union initially gave aid to the

IIINK maOUGi HlSTORl Sandinistas and their leader Daniel Ortega (awrTAyguh)C Analying The Sandinistas however had aided other socialist rebels in nearby EI Salvador Motives WhV did Ins US- switch its To help the El Salvadoran government fight those rebels the United States supshy

lromthe (oAn anti-Communist rebel forces These rebels were called Contras to the

or 7ont1Orevoiuciona-riosCOJtfas The civil war in Nicaragua lasted over a decade and seliously weakened the

economy In 1990 President Ortega agreed to middotl1old free elections He was defeated Violeta Chamorro In 1996 Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo was elected president

intervenes in the governments of Guatemala Bolivia 11956 Chile 11973)

N

fA 3000 Miles --

5000 Kilometers

~ ~

The United States helps Greece defeat Communist-led rebels 11946-19491 and gives economic and military aid to Turkey 11947-1950)

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Location On what continents identified on the map did Coid

War conflicts not occur 2 Region About what fraction of the globe did Communists

control by 1975

1 iIif

II II 1IiIII III

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on the previous page shows Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe (For more information about African conflicts see Chapter 18) With its rich supplies of oil the Middle East lured both the United States and the Soviet Union

Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East wealth from the oil industtv fueled a growing conflict between traditional Islamic values and

modern Western matelialism In no countly did the clash between cultures erupt more dramatimiddot cally than in the fonner Persia or Iran

After World War II Irans leader Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (PAHlulwee) embraced Western governments and wealthy

Avatollah Khomeini Itop) supported the taking 01 US hostages in Tehran in 1979 During their 14middotmonth captivity the hostages were blindlolded and paraded tlJrough the city sCreets iboltom

Western oil companies Angry Iranian nationalshyists resented these foreign alliances They united under the leadership of Prime Minister Muhammad Mossaddeq (moh-sahDEHK) They seized and nationalized a British-owned oil company and in 1953 forced the shah to flee Fealing that Mossaddeq might turn to the Soviets for support the United States had him arrested It then restored the shah to power

The United States Supports Secular Rule With US support the shah westernshyized his countl) By the end of the 1950s Irans capital Tehran featurEd skyscrapers foreign banks and modem factories Millions of Iranians hlt)wever lived in extreme poverty And the shahs secret police brutally punished anyone who da~ed to oppose him The shah also hied to weaken the political inAuenceof religion in the countly by limiting the role ofIslamic legal and academic experts Irans conser vative Muslim leaders known as ayatollalls (eyeuhTOHluhz) bitterly opposed this move They also opposed what they saw as SOcially and morally corrupting Western inAuences They wanted Iran to become a republic ruled strictly by Islamic law

The leader of this religiOUS opposition Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (kohMAYnee) was living in exile Spurred by his tapemiddotrecorded messages Iranian

Background Khomeil1l also encouraged Muslim fundamentalists or strict believers in other counshyThe $hi-I and Sunni tlies to ovelthrow their secular govemments Intended to be a means Muslims had been in

lims this policy only heightened tensions between Iran and its Iranians were Shia the Iraqis belonged to the lival Sunni Muslim sect In lt1CiChtiOll a military leader Saddam Hussein (hoomiddotSAYN) govemed Iraq as a secular tate

wnflict since they spill

century AD War broke out between the hvo countries in 1980 For eight years MllSlil11 killed

Muslim in a territOlial struggle Caught in the middle the United Stales secret Iv sold weapons to Iran in an effort to get their hostages released A million Iranians Iraqis died before a UN ceasefire ended the hostilities in 1988

The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan Iran was not the Middl~ East in which Cold War tensions erupted several War JI Afghanistan maintained its independence f[Om both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States In the 1950s however Soviet inAuence in the countly began to increase In the late 1970s a Muslim revolt threatened to topple AfghanistanS Communist regime This revolt tliggered a Soviet invasion in December

The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists qUickly and withdraw Instead just as the United States had gotten mired in Vietnam in 1960s the Soviets found themselves stuck in Afghanistan Ami like the Vietcong in Vietnam determined Afghan rebel forces outmaneushyvered and ove1)owered a militmy supelpower Soviet rocket attacks secured the cities They called mUiahidee from their moulltain strongholds

~th American weapons the 1nltjahilleen U nitecl States had mned the rebels because

the Soviet invasion a threat to the lich Middle Eastern oil supplies Us President Jimmy Carler sternly warned the Soviets that attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be any means necessary

Therefore the United States limited its response to an of gr~in shipments to the Soviet Union It also boycotted

OlympiC games in Moscow new So~et regime acknowledged the wars devasmiddot

fghanistan and the Soviet Union After a tenshyyear occupation-as long as US involvement in Vietnam-President Mikhail Gorbachev ordered his forces to withdraw The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989 By then internal unrest and economic problems were tearing the Soviet Union itself apart

SPOTLIGHTON

Boycott of 1980 Olympics

Sixty-two nations including West Germany and Canada the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Dlymp1Cs In of the 81 teams who refused to ciwy their in the opening carem

US athletes had trained for years to compete in the Olympics They received Congressional

medals as a consolation dashed hopes and

Disappointed athletes and other critics suggested that IUlUre should be played in a neutra looation This move would help separate international sports competition from politiCS

4 ANALYZING THEMES

iEconomics Cuba suffers a severe

es largely embargo that has lasted for

40 years 00 you think the States should lin that

Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull Castros leadership bull prior US conllicts with Cuba bull human suffering

IHlliK THROUGH HISTORY t Comparing In what ways were US IIwolvemen In Vmtflarn and Soviet involvement in Aigharislan similar

workers went on strike Death to the shah l and Down with America l they vowed In late 1978 fiots eruDted in evcly major citY in Iran Faced with tion the shah Aed Iran in Janult1IY 1970 A Khomeini returned fiom exile to establish an Islamic state He banned the Westen~ influences tbat tbe shah had brought to lnm and reinstated traditional Muslim values Islamic law became the legal code for the country

Khomeinis Anti-US Policies Adherence to Islam IlIled Khomeinis domestic Bllt hatred of the United States was at the heart of his politics The

Americans had Ion SUDDorted the shah Their

remained prisoners for 444 days before were released on JanualY 20 1081

1 TERMS amp NAMES

nations

bull Anastasio Somoza bull Daniel Ortega bull Shah Mohammed Reza

Pahlavi bull Ayatollah Ruholla

Khomeini

SectionmiddotOAssessment

2 TAKING NOTES

Using a ftow chart like the one below fill in the main events of US involvement in Cuba

Write a newspaper headline for one of the events you listed

3 COMPARING

What similarities do you see among US actions in Nicaragua Cuba and Iran

THINK ABOUT bull the type of leader the United

States supported in each country

bull US interests in these countries

l RestrJlcturing the Postwar World 49~

CPI

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

SETTING THE STAGE In the postwar years tbe Soviet Union kept a firm grip on its

(--shy

Aloppled slalue of Stalin lies in Moscow a stark svmbolof Khrushchevs policv of destalinization

496 Chapter 17

HISTORY MAKERS

faces of Protest

satellite countries in Eastern Europe These countries were Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania Yugoslavia Bulgaria Albania and East Germany It did notmiddot allow them to direct and develop their own economies Instead it insisted that they develop industries to meet Soviet needs These policies greatly hampered Eastern Europes economic recovery

The Soviets Dominate Eastern Europe After Stalin died a new more moderate group of Soviet leaders came to power These new leaders allowed their satellite countries a taste of independencebull as long as remained firmly Communist and allied with the Soviet Union DUringthe 1950s 19()Os however growing protest movements in Eastern Europe threatened tbe Soviet Unions grip over the region Increasing tensions with Communist China also diverted Soviet attention and forces

Destalinization and Rumblings of Protest Josepb Stalin died on March 5 1953 ShOltly after his death a loyal member of the Communist party named Nikita Khrushchev became the dominant Soviet leader TIle shrewd tough Kll1ushchev

denounced Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens His beginning of a policy called destalinization or purging the Workers destroyed monuments of the former dictator and Kremlin wall Khrushcbev also called for peaceful cOmpetition with the

This new Soviet outlook did not satellite countries however Their resentment occashySionally turned into active protest In October 195() for example the Hungariltln army joined with protesters to overthrow Hungmys Soviet-controller government Storming thlOugh the capital Budapest angry mobs waved Hungarian vitb the Communist and-sickle emblem cut out From the youngest child to tbe oldest man one protester declared no one wants communismlt

A popular and liberal Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nag) (IHMnl) nahp formed a new ernment Nagy promised free elections and that Soviet troops leave Hungary In response in early November Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest were backed by infantry units Thousands of Hungarian freedom fighters armed themselves vith pistols and bottles The Soviets overpowered them however The invaders replaced the Hungmjm government jth proshySoviet leaders and eventually executed Nagylt

ltCZECHOSlOV~KiAv--J-

lmre Nagy (1896-1958) Alexander DubCek (1921-1992) Of peasant background Imre Nagy was captured Alexander Dubtek was the son of a member of the by the Soviets during World War t and recruited Czech Communist Party and moved rapidly up into their armylt He became a Communist and lived through the Communist rank~ in Czechoslovakia in Moscow until 1944 when he returned to Sovietshy In response to the spint 11 change in Ihe 1960s

Hungary Dubtek instituted broad reforms 10 the 196B Prague he held several posts in his countrys Spring Not surprisinglv Soviet oHicials reacted

Communis government his loyalty remained with negativeiv Tanks the peasants Because of his independent feared revolt approach he fell in and out of favor with the Soviet

He led the antimiddotSoviet revolt in October 1956 Soviets forcefullY put down the uprising and

deported Nagy They then brought him back to Hungary where they tried and executed him He remained in disgrace until the Hungarian Supreme

Soviet tanks move into Prague in 1968Court cleared his name in 1989

10 stamp out Czech reforms

Brezhnev and the Revolt in Czechoslovakia Despite this show

The Soviets expelled Communist Party in 1970 regained political Communists agreed to government When the new fonned in 1992 Dubtek

of rOlce HungalY Khruslchev lost prestige in his countlY as a result of the Cuban missile

lackground sis In 1964 Communist party leaders voted to remove him from Dower His likila Khrushchev ment Leonid Brezhnev qUickly adopted repressive domestic las the first Soviel

Communist plrt) strictly enforced hlWS to limit such basic human ngllts asader to leave office live and worship Government censors carefully controlled what writers could

And Brezhnev clamped down on those who dared to protest his ltTovcgtrnmnt policies For example the secret police arrested many dissidents Solzhenitsyn winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for literature They then from the SOviet Union

Brezhnev made it clear that he would not tolerate dissent in Eastern Europe eitherlt His policy was put to the test in early 1968 At that time Czech Communist leader Alexander Dubcek (DOOBmiddotchehk) loosened controls on censorship to offer his counJ

socialism with a human face This period of reform when Czechoslovakias eapishywith new ideas became known as Prague Spring

Prague Spring however did not survive the summer On August 20 armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia Brezhnev justified this invashysion by claiming the Soviet light to prevent its satellites from rejecting communism

Split with china While many of the Soviet satellite counflies resisted Communist mle China seemed firmly committed to communism In fact to cement the ties between their Communist powers Mao and Stalin had Signed a 30-year treaty of friendship in 1950 Their spirit of cooperation however ran out before the hilat) dicL

Restructuring the PostWGgt Wodd 497

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

In a spirit of cooperation and detente the US and the Soviet Union lrv to prevent tbeir conflicts from destroying tne world

The Soviets assumed that the Chinese would follow Soviet in world affairs As the Chinese grew more confident however thev came to resent

partner began to smead their 011 Africa and other parts of Asia

to share nuclear secrets

peace

From Brinkmanship to Detente In the 19705 the United States and the Soviet Union finally backed away from the aggressive policies of brinkmanship they had followed during the early postwar years The superpowers slowly moved toward a peliod of lowered tensions

Brinkmanship Breaks Down The blinkmanship policy that the United States folmiddot lowed during the Eisenhower and Johnson administrations resulted in one terrifying crisis after another Though clises erupted all over tile world were united a common fear

In 1960 U-2 incident nrevented Soviet Union to discuss the

F in the superpowers use of nuclear weapons a crisis ended when the Soviet ships turned bock to avoid a eyeball to eyeball the relieved US Secretary of State Dean Rusk the other fellow just blinked President Kennedys Secretmy of MeN amara however admitted just how close the world had come to disaster

A V 0 I CE FRO M THE PAS T In the face of an air attack [on Cuba] and in the face of the probability of a ground attack it was certainly possible and would say probable that a Cuban sergeant or Soviet officer in a missile silo without authority from Moscow would have launched one or more of those intermediate-range missiles equipped with a nuclear warhead against one or more of cities on the East Coast of the United States ROBERT McNAMARA quoted In Inside the Cold War

Tensions remained and after the assassination of President in 1963 Lyndon Johnson assumed the US presidency Committed to stopping the of comll1unism President 10hnsoll escalated US involvement in the war in Vietnam

The United States Embraces Detente Widespread popular protests wracked the United States during the Vietm1ll1 War And the turmoil did not end with US withmiddot drawal As it tried to heal its internal wounds the United States

from its policy of direct confrontation with SO~et Union Detente a polk) of lessened Cold War tensions finally replaced brinkmanship during the administrati()n of President Richard M Nixon

President Nixons move toward detente grewo~lt of a philosophy known as rellpolitik This term c()mes from the German word meaning realistic

In practice realpolitik meant dealing with other nations in a practical and flexible manner While the United States continued to contain the spread of comlllunism the two superpowers to pursue detente and to reduce tensions

Nixons new policy a dramatic permiddot sonal reversal as well as a political shift tor the

498 Chapter 17

lHlNKTHROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting In what ways did Presidents Nixons and Reagans policies loward the Soviet Union differ

1 TERMS amp NAMES 2 TAKING NOTES 3 EVALUATING DECISIONS Identify In a chal1like the one below bull Nikita Khrushchev indicate each US presidents bull destalinization contribution to Cold War tensions bull Leonid Brezhnev by writing his name in the correct bull John F Kennedy column

Johnson

bull Richard M Nixon bull SALT bull Ronald Reagan bull Star Wars summarizing

the policies and actions of one of these presidents

l

countly His rise ill in the 19505 was antimiddotComlllunist position years later he became the nrst American World War II to visit Comlllunist China The visit made sense in a

two-SlIpelpowers eyed each other slispici()1S we sit down and negotiate with the RusshlllS

Nixon Visits the Communist Superpowers Three months after visiting 1972 President NLon made history again by the nrst American

since the beginning of the Cold War to visit the Soviet After a series of meetings called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Nixon Blld Brezhnev signedthe SALT I Treaty This Rvtye]r agreement limited to 1972 levels the I1l1mber of intercontinental ballistic and submarinemiddotlaunched missiles each connllY conld have In 197533 nations joined the United States and the Soviet Union in signing n commiddot mitment to detente and cooperation the Helsinki Accords

Detente Cools Under Presidents Nixon and Gerald Fore the United States

improved relations ~th China and the Soviet Union however President

over harsh treatment of Soviet pmtesters threatened to prevent a second round of SALT negotiations In Jllne 1979 Carter and Brezhnev the SAlf II agreement When the Soviets in December of tlat yeaI however the US refused to ratify SAlf II Teosions continued 10 mount as increasing numbers of European and Asian counshyhies began bUilding nuclear arsenals

Ronald Reagan Abandons Detente The fiercely antishyCommunist US president Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 He continued his countrys retreat from detente In 1983 he announced a program-the Initiative (SDI)-to protect America against enemy missiles

Star Wars after a popular movie was llever put into effect It of US anti-Communist sentiment however

Tensions increased as US activities such as Contras pushed the two countries even farther from detente A transfer in the Soviet Union in 1985 however a new policy toward the States and the beginnings of a nn31 thaw in the

The Cold War between the two superpowers ebbed and flowed Meanwhile as will learn in the next chapter developing countries continued their own ill(jelerldemce from colonialism

Section 0 Assessment

Do you think it was a wise political move for Nixon to visit Communist China and the Soviet Union Why or why not

THINK ABOUT bull the Cuban missile crisis bull realpolitik

sentiment after the War

Restructudng the Postwar W01ld 499

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Revolution Write a poem or song lyrics expressing a Hungarian or Czech citizens protest against Communist rule

US President Jimmy Caner and Soviet Premier leonid Brezhnev optimisticallv mark the signing of the SALT II Ibullbulltv in Vienna Austria in 1979 Carter however remained concerned over Soviet violations of its citizens numan rights

-~-_ r~gt-middot~_a~_

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War Each tried to increase its worldwide influence The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe By the 1960s it appeared

Background like NIgeria the Soviet Union jailed dissidents Ale1sandr Solzhenilsvn a dissIdent writer who wiole about the Soviet prison system lived in eXIle from 1974 to 1994

[RINK THROUGH HISTORY AMaking Inferences How might Gorbachevs vuung age have made him mOle open to reform

that communism was permanently established in the region

Gorbachev1s Reforms During the 1960s and 1970s the Soviet Unions Communist leadershyship kept tight control over the Soviet people Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo-the ruling committee of the Communist Parlyshycrushed all political disagreement Censors decided what writers could publish The Communist Party restricted such basic rights IS

freedom of speech and worship After Brezhnevs death in 1982 the aging leadership of the SOviet

Union tried to hold on to power Time was against them however Each of Brezhnevs two successors died after only about a year in office ltVho would succeed them

A Younger leader To answer that question the Politburo debated between two men One was a conservative named Victor Grishin The other was Mikhail Gorbachev (mihKYL gawrbuhCHAWF) Gorbachevs suppohers praised his youth energy and political skills With their backing Gorbachev became the partys new general secshyretaly In chOOSing him Politburo members Signalled their support for mild reform in the Soviet Union They did not realize they were unleashing a second Russian Revolution

The Soviet people welccmed Corbachevs election At 54 he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin Corbachev was only a child during Stalins mthless purge of independent-minded party members Unlike other Soviet leaders Gorbachev had not needed to blindly follow Stalins policies He could pursue new ideas

Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders had created a totalitarian state It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on their own As a result Soviet society rarely changed Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas and information In 1985 he announced a policy known as glasnost (GLAHSmiddotnuhst) or openness He encourshyaged Soviet citizens to discuss ways to improve their society

Glasnost brought remarkable changes The government allowed churches to open It released dissidents from prison and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors Reporters actively investigated social problems and openly criticized government officials

HISTORY MAKERS

Mikhail Gorbachev 1931shy

Mikhail Gorbachevs background shaped the rolehe would play in history Both of his grandfathers were arrested during StalinS purges Both were eventually freed However one died at an early age perhaps because of the torture he had suffered Gorbachev never forgot his grandfathers stories

After working on a state farm Gorbachev studied law in Moscow and joined the Communist Party As an official in a farming region Gorba chev learned much about the Soviet system and its problems

He advanced quickly in the party When he became general secretary in 1985 he was the youngest Politburo member and a man who wanted to bring change He succeeded Although he pursued reform to save the Soviet Union ultimately he triggered its breakup

Struggles for Democracy 541

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

litmiddotmiddot

This political cartoon contrasts the old Soviet closed-door system witb Gorbachevs new policy The sign over the open doorway reads Gla_nost which means openness

Perestroika Reforms the Economy The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain publicly about economic problems Angry consumers protested that they had to stand in long lines to buy food soap and other basics Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Unions inefficient system of central planning Under central planning party officials told farm and managers how much to produce They also

told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge Because individuals could not increase their pay by prodUcing they had litde motive to improve efticiency

In 1985 Gorbachev introduced the idea of perestroika (PEHllmiddotihmiddotSTROYkuh) or

economic restructuring In 1986 he made changes to revive the Soviet economy Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories and were allowed to open small private businesses Gorbachevs goal was not to throw out communism but to make the system more efficient and productive

Democratization Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to thrive the Communist Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics In 1987 he unveiled a third new policy called de111Ocratiza This would be a gradual opening of the political system

The plan called for the election of a new legislative body In the past voters had approved candidates who were hand-picked by the COlllmunist Party Now

voters could choose from a list of candidates for each office The surprises In several places voters chose lesser-known candidates over

party bosses Voters also elected a number of outspoken reformers

Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also changed Gorbachev realized that the troubled Soviet economy could no longer afford the costly arms race He announced a new thinking in foreign affairs that stressed diplomacy over force Therefore arl11s control became one of Gorbachevs top priorities In December 1987 he and President Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty This treaty banned nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3400 miles

Gorbachevs new thinking led him to tllge Eastern European leaders to open IIp their eCOllOlnic and political systems The aging Communist rulers of Eastem Europe resisted reform However powerful forces for democracy were bUilding in those counshytries In the past the threat of Soviet intelvention had kept those forces in check Now Gorbachev was saying that the Soviet Union would not oppose ref01111 Each determines the future of its own country and chooses its own form of SOCiety announced There must be no interference from olltside no matter what the pretext

Reforms in Poland and Hungary Poland and Hungary were among the first countries in Eastern the soirit of change In fact the Polish struggle for democracy had

lise to power In 1978 a Polish archbishop became Pope to the anti-communist movement In 1980 workers at the

went on strike demanding government recognition of their Solidarity When millions of Poles supported the action the government the unions demands Union leader Lech Walesa (lehk vahmiddotWEHN-sah) a national hero

Vocabulary deposed removed rom power

miNK THROUGH HISTORY C Analyzing Caus_ How did the fall of communism in

Ge(many

Solidarity Defeats Communists The next year however the Polish government banned Solidarity again and declared martial law The Communist Pmty qUickly discovered that military rule could not revive Polands failing economy In tbe 1980s industlial production declined while foreign debt rose to more than $40 billion Frustrated shoppers endured long lines shortages and lising prices

Public discontent deepened as tbe economic crisis worsened In August 1988 defiant workers walked off their jobs They demanded raises and the legalization of Snlirlaritv Faced with Pohmds worst

labor unrest since 1980 the to

Solidarity and agreed to free election since the Communists took power

melections dUling 1989 and 1990 Polish voters voted ~gainst chose Sohdarity candidates

the first time the ])eoole of nation had tllmed n Communist regime out of office

Hungarian Communists Disband Inspired by the changes in Poland Hungalian leaders also hmnched a sweeping reform program To stimulate economic growth reformers encouraged private entershyprise and 1llowecl a small stock market to operate A new constitntion permitted a multiparty system with free parhallentary elections

The pace or change grew faster when radical reformers took over a Communist Party congress in October 1989 The rad[c11s deposed the pattys leaders and then dissolved the party itself Here was

a European Communist Party had voted itself out of existence A year later in national elections the nations voters put a non-Communist government in power

In 1994 a socialist party-largely made up of former Communists-won a majority of seats in HUllgarys parliament The socialist party alld a democratic party formed a coalition or alliance to rule The follo~ng year the government sought to improve the economy by raisiiig taxes and cutting back on government services

Communism Falls in East Germany While Poland and Hungary were moving toward reform conselvative leaders in East Germany stubbol111y refused to accept change East Gennanys 77vear-old Dartv boss Erich Honecker dismissed reforms as unnecessary Then in 1989 vacationing East German tourists to cross the border into Austria From there they could travel to West Gennany Thousands of East Gemlans took this new escape route

Fall of the Berlin Wall In response the East German government closed its borders entirely By October 1989 huge demonstrations had broken out in cities across East Germany The protesters demanded the right to travel freely-and later added the demand for free elections At one point Bonecker tried to regin control by ordering the police to break a demonstration in Leipzig The oolice refused Honecker lost his authority vith party and reSigned on October

The new East Gennan leader Egon Krenz boldly gambled that he could restore stability by allowing people to leave East Getmany On November 91989 he opened the Berlin Wall Thousands of East GemlallS poured into West Berlin The long-divided city of Berlin in joyous celebration Once-feared border guards smiled as

crowds climbed on top of the wall to celebrate The jubilant Berliners danced and chanted The wall is gone l The wall is gone l (See photograph on page 528)

Struggles fm Democracy 54

HISTORY MAKERS

Lech Walesa 1943shy

When Lech Walesa was 18 months old his father died Before he predicted that his wife be proud of Lech someday

At 24 Walesa began to work at the shipyard in Gdansk Poland Three years later he look tip the struggle for free trade unions aher seeing police shoot protesters

During the 1980 strike Walesa and others locked themselves inside the shipyard This attr~cted the attention of the world to their demands for a legally recognized union and the right to stnke

The government granted these demands but later outlawed Solidarity and jailed Walesa and other leaders After his release Walesa fulfilled his fathers prediction He won both the Nobel Prize and his countrys presidency

542 Chapter l9 ~

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

Section 0 Assessment

Krenzs dramatic to save communism did not work When the public discovered e~dence of widespread corruption among party leaders Krenz and other top officials were forced to resign in disgrace By the end of 1989 the East German Communist Party had ceased to exist

Germany Is Reunified With the fall of Communism in East Germany many Germans began to of reunification-the merging of the two Germanys However the movement for reunifishycation worried many people They feared that a united Germany would once again tty to dominate Europe

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl assured world leaders thM Germans had learned from the past They were now committed to democracy and human rights Kohls assurances helped other European nations to accept German reunification years after its crushing defeat in World War II Germany was reunited on October 3 1990

to power in late chancellor But in 1998 economic woes nmmt)ted German voters to turn Kohl out of

and elect a new chancellor Gerhard Schroeder of the Socialist Democratic Pltlrty

(SPD) Reunification forced to rethink its

role in international affairs As central largest country gained important global responsibilities As these grew German leaders began to 1rgUE that the country cleselved a permanent seat on the UN

Council The Secluity Council is a 15 nations with the to decide

had not gained a Seclllity Council se1t

544 Chapter I 9

Democracy Spreads Changes in the Soviet Unioll Poland and Hungary bad helped inspire reforms in East Germany In the same way changes in East Cermany affected other Eastern European countries including Czechoslovakia and Romania In those countlies however represshysive governments delayed the movement toward democracy

Czechoslovakia Reforms While huge crowds were demanding democracy in Elst Genmmy neighbOling Czechoslovakia remained quiet Vivid memo lies of the violent crackdon against the rcfonns of 1968 made the Czechs cautious A conselvative

~

government led by 11 lim resisten all several dissidents Among these was the Czech playwright j-[Arvehl) a clitic of the govemment

On October 1989 10000 people gatherd in Wencnslas Sglli1l~ in the (Cllt~r PI1l()froIV and freedom Hundreds were arrested

the fall of the Berlin Wall the

On each

new parliament elected Vaclav Havel

THINK THROUGH HISTIlti D Clarilying Why would Europeans fear the reunification of Gefmany

Overthrow in Romania By late 1989 only HOl1lania seemed unmoved by the calls of reform Homanias ruthless Communist dicshytator Nicola Ceausescll (howmiddotS[-] ESmiddotkoo) maintained a finn grip on

His secret police (nforccd his orders brutally Nevertheless were awarE of the rerorms in other countries

began a protest movement of their own One student their anger at the government

A VOICE FROM THE PAST We were raised on a mountain of lies There was a fantastical difference between the things they told us and the things we saw They published incredible statistics on agricultural production and in the shops there was nothing to eat On paper we had freedom of expression but anyshytime anyone said anything members of the Communist Party told us to keep our mouths shut STEFAN GHENCEARomanian student

ln DecemberCeausescu ordered the army to fire on demonstrators the city of Timlsoara (teemcemiddotSHWAHmiddotrah) The army killed and

scores of people The massacre in Timisoara ignited a popular Cealisescu Within days the army joined the people

to defeat the secret police and overthrow their ruler the sudden collapse

to Aee were executed on Christmas Day

Romania held general elections in 1990 and in 1992 The ment also made economic reforms to introduce elements ism At the same time the slow pace of Gorbachevs economic reforms began to calise unrest ill the Soviet Union

MES Z TAKING NOTES

Use a time line like the one below to record significant events in the

hev Soviet Union and Eastern Europe

During which year did most of Eastern Europe turn toward democracy

3 SYNTHESIZING

how Gorbachevs reforms to move the Soviet Union

closer toward democracy

THINK ABOUT bull the democratic practices and

conditions page 531

bull how Gorbachevs policies promoted those practices and conditions

SPOTLIGHTON TelevisionS Influence

Television a key role In the movements democracy Mikhali Gorbachev used television to spread news of reform and bolster hiS image Germany people viewed Western

and saw the contrast affluence in the Wesl and

their own lower standard of In Romania the role of Ie

was more direct Revolutionaries captured the state television station in Bucharest and broadcast their own views of They used television to revolutionary actions in different

of the country When Nicolac escu and his wife were tried

and executed television carried the news throughout the countryshyalong with pictures of their dead bodies Ceausescu is shown below

4 THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction With a partner create a cause-andmiddoteHect diagram to show how democratic reform spread through Eastern Europe The diagram should show Ihe order in which reform

and which countFies others You may want

to look through this textbook for model diagrams

Strlggles for Democracy 545

~----------u-----~- ---I~~-~middoth~middot

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

SETTING THE STAGE The reforms of the late 1980s brought high hopes to the peoshyple of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe For the first time in decades they were free to make choices about the economic and political systems governing their lives They soon discovered that increased freedom sometimes challenges the social order

HISTORY MAKERS

Boris Yeltsin 1931shy

Boris Veltsin was raised in poverty For 10 years his family lived in a single room and slept on the floor next to their goat for warmth

As a youth Veltsin earned good grades but behaved badly Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985 Veltsins outspokenness got him into trouble At one meeting he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity

Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989 Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and VQters re-elected him in 1991 Due at least in part to his failing health-heart problemsshyVeltsi resigned in 1999

Unrest in the Soviet Union As Eastern Europe gained freedom from Soviet control various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their own freedom More than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union Russians were the largest most powerful group However non-Hussians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other tlhn Russia

Ethnic tensions brewed beneath the surface of S00et society As reforms loosened central controls unrest spread across the country Nationalist groups in Georgia Ukraine and Moldavia (now Moldova) demanded self-rule The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religiOUS freedom

Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania Estonia and Latvia These republics h~d beenindelJuJelll slales between the two Vorld wars-until the

So~ets annexed them in 1940 Fifty yeMs later in March 1990 Lithuania declared its independence To try to lorce it bock into the Soviet Union Corbachev ordered a blockade of the republic

Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures he feared that Lithuanias example might encourage other republics to secede in January 1991 Soviet troops attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuanias capital The ar111Y killed 14 and wounded more than 150

Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The bloody assault in Lithuania and the lack of real economic progress in the Soviet Union damaged Gorbachevs popularity More and more people looked for leadership to BOlis Yeltsin He was a member of parliament and the fonner mayor of Moscow Yeltsin criticized the crackdovll in Lithuania and the slow pace of reforms In June 1991 voters overwhelmingly chose Yeltsin to betOme the Russian Republics first chrectly elected president

Yeltsin and Gorbachev were now on a collision course In spite of their rivalry they faced a common enemy in the old guard of Communist officials Hard-liners-conservatives who opposed reform-were fmious at Gorbachev They were angry that he had given up the So~et Unions role as the dominant force in Eastern

Europe They also feared losing their power and privileges These officials vowed to overthrow Gorbachev and undo his reforms

546 Chapter 19

Background About threelourths 01 the Soviet population were Slavic peoples such as Russians Of

Ukrainians Tu(kic peoples such as UzbeKs or Azerbaijani were the second I~flesl Qroup Masl 01 these were Muslim Other group included Georgians and Armenians

Background As part of govemmenl reform Gorbachev became presiden 01 the Soviet Union-a new office modeled on me US presi dency Each 01 the II republics was also allowed to have a president For exam pie Yellsin was loe president of Russia

--~ --~

t _ --_=--

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

ltl

lt

ARCTIC OCEAN Olller Republics f2U)

Region Which republic received the largest percentage of the former Soviet Unions territory

THINK THROUGH HISTORY Alt Analyzing MOlives Why do you think the Soviel

The August Coup On August 18 1991 the bard-liners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea They demanded his resignation as Soviet preSident Early the next day hundreds of tanks and armored vehicles rolled into Moscow The hard-liners-who called themselves the State Colmnittee-assumed that a show of force would ensure obedience However the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party freedoms Protesters gathered at the

where Yeltsin had his office one of the tanks As

snpporters cheered Yeltsin declared We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this committee to be illegaL We to the citiZens of RUSSia to demand a return of the country to normal constitutional developments

GffobaKn7pElct ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ _ _ __ w_

Cuba The Soviet collapse harmed Cuba Since becoming a Communist state in the early 1960s Cuba had depended on Soviet assistance By the late 1980s Cuba relied on the Soviet Union for more than threeshyfourths of its imports and all of its oil

As reform swept the Soviet Union and Eastern Eurooe Cubas leader Fidel Castro criticized the reformers He also vowed that Cuba would remain Communist

Alter the August Coup of 1991 Soviet support of Cubas economy came to an abrupt end Cut off from Soviet aid and deeply affected by an American trade embargo Cuba went into severe economic decline During the 1990s Cuba struggled to form new trade relationships and mend its tattered economy

Yeltsin met with the leaders of other to chart a new to form the Commonwealth of Independpnt

a loose federation of former Soviet territorieslt and Georgia refused to join The formation

the CIS meant the death of the Soviet Union On Christmas Dily 1991 Gorbachev announced his resignation as president of the Soviet Union a cOllntry that by then had ceased to exist

The Yeltsin Era As president of the large Russian Republic BOlis Yeltsill was now the

in the CIS He would face many opposition and an

One of Yeltsins was to reform the Russian economy He adopted a bold as shock an abrupt shift to free-market economics To eliminate government involvement in the economy Yeltsin lowered trade baniers removed plice controls and ended subsidies to state-owned industlieslt

Initially the plan produced more shock than therapy Prices soared from 1992 to 1994 the inflation rate averaged 800 percent Many factoshylies dependent on government money had to cut production or shut down entirely This forced thousands of people ou t of work By 1993

most Russians were suffeIing severe economic hardship

surround the tanks in Moscow during the Augus1 coup attempt The soldiers refusal 10

A VOICE FROM THE PAST A visitor to Moscow cannot escape the accost foreigners on the street Children educated professionals do not make enough complains that now her wages do not cover even crime makes her dread leaving home DAVIO M KOTZ The Cure That Could Kill

Economic problems fueled a political crisis In October 1993 legislators opposed to Yeltsins poliCies sbllt themselves inside the parliament buildinglt Yellsin ordered troops to bombard the building ForCing hunclreds of rebel legislators io surrender Many were killed Opponents a(ciised Yeltsin of acting like a dictator

Chechnya Rebels Yeltsins troubles included IVai in Chechnya (CII Ei-CI-Ilt IlC(llh)

MllSlil11 area in ltsOIlIhw(st(rIl HlIssilt In 1991 Checllllyn dpclard its illek-Yeltsin denied the reglons to secedelt In 19fJ4 he ortiered 4(L()O(l into the breakaway ~ forces reduced

News of the death and destruction Yltsin sOIlQht to end the

two sides Signee a ~Iar soon broke out again between Hussia

II

Ihe Baltic Slates remained separate

Vocabulary

10 his actions during Ihe Augusl Coup Which acll0n$ wen more supportive of democracvl

lOOPs refused he order to altack Ihe parliament

On August 20 the State Committee ordered troops to attack the parliament but they reflsed Their refusal turned the tide On August 21 the military withdrew its forces from Moscow That night Gorhachev returned to Moscow

End of the Soviet Union The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist party Gorbachev resignee as of the party The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities Having first power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded the all-powerful Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup that failed

The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Unionlt Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independencelt Other republics soon

flghl doomed the coup

followed

Strugglesfo- Democracy 547

ing raged Yellsin resigned ltlnd named Russian Premier Vladmnir PlIlin as acting presshyident Putin forcefully quashed the rebellion in popular move that helped him ~n the presidential election in 2000lt The nations economic Voes (onshytinlle however and SOllle observers wonder whether RlISsiI1 democracy eeln survive

Yugoslavia Falls Apart This countlY fonned after vVorld War I had

people-~erbs Croats Muslims Slovenes Macedonians md differenccs

After

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power

Background filo unified Ihe CDUOshy

I11Unlsm

Yugoslv pany congress voted to end cOlnmul)ism-ending he ma[or unifying jOice tn YugoslaVla

IMiNK TKROUGK HISTORY C Identifying Problems Why did Bosnias mixed

independence

A Bloody Breakup Josip Tito who led Yugosla~lt1 from 1945 to ]980 held the COllntlY together After Dtos delth however long-simmering ethnic resentments boiled over Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic (meemiddotLOHmiddotshehvihch) asselied Serbian leadership over Yugosla~a Two republics--Slovenia and Croatia-then declared In

1991 the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics After months of both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in

lependence (In Aplil Serbia and Montenegro fonned a new map below) Bosnias ethnically mixed population included Muslims (44 percent) Serbs (31 percent) and Croats (17 percent) While Bosnias Muslims and ClOats backetl independence Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it Supported by Serbia the Bosnian Serbs Immched a brutal war in March 1992

DUling the war the Serbs used murder and other forms ofbllltality against Bosnian M llslims living in Serb-held lands Called ethnic cleansing this polky was inlendfd to lid Bosnia of its Muslim population By 1995 the Serbs controlled 70 percent of Bosnia

In December 1995 the leaders of the three factions involved in the wlr signed a VNshyand US-brokered peace treaty In September 1996 Bosnians elected II three-person presidency-one leader from each ethnic group But the nation continues to eXperience unrest

Rebellion in Kosovo The Balkan region descended into violence and bloodshed again in 1998-this time in Kosovo a province in southern Serbia made up almost entirely of ethnic Albanians As an independence movement in Kosovo grew incleasshy

violent Serb forces invaded the province and fought back ~th a harsh hanel In response to glowing repOlis of Serb atrocities-and the failure Of diplomacy to bring peace-NATO began a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in the spling of 1999 After enduring more than two months of sustained born bing Yugoslav leaders finally withdrew their troops from Kosovo However the atmosphere in the region remains tense-and t~e future status of the province remains uncertain

Eastern Europe Faces Problems Compared lith Yugoslavia the nations of Eastern Europe were relatively stable in the 1990s and did not experience widespread violence Nevertheless countlies like Poland faced ongOing challenges

SPOTLIGHTOIJ Rising Crime Rates in Poland

by fear the Communist state lwn crime rates After

communism fell crime increased In Poland crime was on the rise in the 1990s Many conditions made the situation worse

bull Criminals tried to make quick money in the open market-for example by selling stolen goods

bull When Poland turned out the Communists it replaced the

force with inexperienced

bull Police departments didnt have enough money to do their jobs

bull Many Poles ignored the legal system For example they paid ransoms for stolen cars of calling the police

It remained to be seen whether rule by law would take root in Poland

Poland Votes Out Walesa After becoming preSident in 1991 Lech Walesa tried to revive Polands bankrupt economy Like Bolis Yeltsin he adopted a strategy of shock therapy to move Poland toward a free market economy As in Russia inflation and unemployment shot up By the mid-1990s however the economy was improving

Nevertheless many Poles remained unhappy lith the pace of economic progress In the elections of 1995 they tllrnecl Walesa out of office in favor of a former Communist Aleksandr Kwasniewski (kfahsNYEHFmiddotskeel Kwasniewski vowed to combine free market policies lith greater social benefits Despite his Com 11111nist backshyground it appeared that he was committed to democratic rule

Czechoslovakia Breaks Up In Czechoslovakia reformers also launched an economic program based on shock therapy The program caused a sharp lise in unemployment It especially hurt Slovakia the

occupying the eastern third of Czechoslovakia to agree on economic policy the countrys two parts~~

Slovakia and the Czech Republic-drifted apart In spitc of President Havels pleas for unity a movement to split the nation g~iined support Havel reSigned because of this Czechoslovakia split intotvo countJies on January 1 1993 Havel was elected president of the C7ech He won re-election in 1998

The nations of the former Soviet bloc had made man) gains Even so they continued to face serious obstacles to democracy RC50h~ng

These two women stand in front of a building tbat has ben heavily damaged in the war The building is in Sarajevo Bosnia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps 1 Region Which nations now make up what used to be Yugoslavia

in 19897 2 Lotation Where is Serbia located relative to the republics that

declared independence from Yugoslavia

~-

ethnic conflicts remained crucial as did economic progress

A VOICE FROM THE PAST The dear lesson is that opening up the political process without a corresponding open~

and success in the economy merely gives people more opportunity to gripe about People can handle political processes You can proclaim a free election and

easily You cannot propose economic success and obtain it easily US SENATOR GEORGE MITCHELL quoted in Neophyte Ocmocrades Present a Challenge to US

and the ormer Soviet Union can irprove Iheir have a better chance to grow_ In L1H meantillJe

demands for dm()Iati( rerorms

Section 0 Assessment

2 TAKING NOTES 3 ANALYZING CAUSES

Use a chart like the one below to record the main reason or reasons that the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Clechoslovakia ea ch broke apart -~~-~

Former Reasons for nations breakup

Sovier Union

Yugoslavia

Clethoslovakia -~~-

Why did ethnic tension become such a severe problem in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in the early 1990s

THINK ABOUT bull the role that past Communist

leaders had played in holding those countries together

bull the democratic reforms demanded by vanous ethnic groups

bull how those demands aflected national unity

TKINK THROUGH HISTORY D Contrasting Contrast the breakups of YUQoslavia and

4 ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution It has been said that Gorb~chevs reforms led to a second Russian ReVOlution What did this revolution overthrow

THINK ABOUT bull changes in the Soviet

government and in the political process

bull who lost and who gained power