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Mr.LeeAPHumanGeography(APHG)Blee@lexington1.nethttp://gatornationlearns.weebly.com/SummerAssignment:2019-2020SchoolYearDirections:WeareexcitedtohaveyouinAPHumanGeographyforthe2019-2020schoolyear.Thispacketcontainsyoursummerassignment.Themajorassignmentisacollectionofreadingswithaccompanyingquestions.

Format:typed,double-spaced,12-pointfont.Youcanemailthe

assignmenttome,attheemailaddressatthetopofthispageatanypointoverthesummer.Ijustwantyourtypedanswerstothequestion,Idon’tneedthearticlesback–pleasekeepthem.Alsopleasemakesurethatyouclearlylabelyouranswersandwhicharticletheybelongto.

DueDate:PleasehaveyourassignmentsubmittedonschoologybySeptember6th.MakesureyouassignmentissavedasaWorddocumenttitled:(‘lastnameAPHuGesummer’example:‘LeeAPHuGesummer’)ReadingAssignments:Onthefollowingpagesyouwillfindaseriesof10articlesand/orbookexcerpts.Eachonewaschosenforareason,andeachrelatesto1ormoreoftheunitswe’llstudythroughouttheyear.Whenansweringthequestions,pleasetrynottoquoteheavily.Idon’tsimplywantyoujustfindthekeywordsandrepeatthem.Somearticleshaveseveralquestions,andsomejusthaveafew.Pleaseanswertheminasfullandcompleteamanneraspossible(Idon’thaveasetlengthinmindforeachquestionunlessInoteditinthequestionitself,e.g.“In1-2paragraphs…”)*NoteontheLinks–insomecasesI’veattachedlinksaftersomereadings.Thesearesupplementalreadings(bookreviews,interviews,etc)thatyoumightwanttolookoverifyoufindthearticleinteresting.Youdonothavetodoanyworkwiththese,they’rejustsupplements.

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GENERALGUIDANCE:LOOKATAMAP!Tryhttp://www.mapsofworld.com/andlookitoverfromtimetotime.Whyisthisimportant…

“Only25%ofAmericanstudentshavepassedtheirgeographytest.Really?EventheoneslivinginWestDakota?”---StephenColbert,Tweet,July2011

WhyGeographyMatters:

• InternationalsurveyshaveconsistentlyrankedAmericanhighschoolstudentslastingeographicknowledge,comparedwiththeircounterpartsinotherdevelopedcountries.

• 70%ofyoungadultsintheUnitedStatescouldnotfindtheirowncountryonamapoftheworld.

• 30%ofyoungAmericanscouldnotfindthePacificOcean,theworld’slargestbodyofwater;morethanhalfwereunabletolocateIndia.

*Ifyouwanttotrythe4th,8th,or12thgradegeographytestforfunfollowthislink:http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/only-25-percentamerican-students-passed-geography-test-160214355.html

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1. MentalMaps:HowWeSeetheWorld,byMattRosenberg

Aperson'sperceptionoftheworldisknownasamentalmap.Amentalmapisanindividual'sowninternalmapoftheirknownworld.Geographersliketolearnaboutthementalmapsofindividualsandhowtheyorderthespacearoundthem.Thiscanbeinvestigatedbyaskingfordirectionstoalandmarkorotherlocation,byaskingsomeonetodrawasketchmapofanareaordescribethatarea,orbyaskingapersontonameasmanyplaces(i.e.states)aspossibleinashortperiodoftime.It'squiteinterestingwhatwelearnfromthementalmapsofgroups.Inmanystudies,wefindthatthoseoflowersocioeconomicgroupshavemapswhichcoversmallergeographicareasthanthementalmapsofaffluentindividuals.Forinstance,residentsoflowerincomeareasofLosAngelesknowaboutupscaleareasofthemetropolitanareasuchasBeverlyHillsandSantaMonicabutreallydon'tknowhowtogetthereorwheretheyareexactlylocated.Theydoperceivethattheseneighborhoodsareinacertaindirectionandliebetweenotherknownareas.Byaskingindividualsfordirections,geographerscandeterminewhichlandmarksareembeddedinthementalmapsofagroup.Manystudiesofcollegestudentshavebeenperformedaroundtheworldtodeterminetheirperceptionoftheircountryorregion.IntheUnitedStates,whenstudentsareaskedtorankthebestplacestoliveortheplacetheywouldmostliketomoveto,CaliforniaandSouthernFloridaconsistentlyrankveryhigh.Conversely,statessuchasMississippi,Alabama,andtheDakotasranklowinthementalmapsofstudentswhodon'tliveinthoseregions.One'slocalareaisalmostalwaysviewedmostpositivelyandmanystudents,whenaskedwherethey'dliketomove,justwanttostayinthesameareawheretheygrewup.StudentsinAlabamaranktheirownstateasagreatplacetoliveandwouldavoidthe"North."ItisquiteinterestingthattherearesuchdivisionsinthementalmapsbetweenthenortheastandsoutheastportionsofthecountrywhichareremnantsoftheCivilWarandadivisionover140yearsago.IntheUnitedKingdom,studentsfromaroundthecountryarequitefondofthesoutherncoastofEngland.FarnorthernScotlandisgenerallyperceivednegativelyandeventhoughLondonisnear

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thecherishedsoutherncoast,thereisan"island"ofslightlynegativeperceptionaroundthemetropolitanarea.Investigationsofmentalmapsshowthatthemassmedia'scoverageandstereotypicaldiscussionsandcoverageofplacesaroundtheworldhasamajoreffectonpeople'sperceptionoftheworld.Travelhelpstocountertheeffectsofthemediaandgenerallyincreaseapersons'perceptionofanarea,especiallyifitisapopularvacationdestination.

Questions:1.Basedonthearticle,howwouldyoudefinewhatamental(orcognitive)mapis?2.Whydoyouthingthatpeopleoflowersocioeconomicstatusescreatementalmapsthatcoversmallergeographicareas?3.WhydoyouthinkthatcollegestudentsrankedcertainplaceintheUnitedStatesas‘Thebestplacestolive’iftheythemselveshadneverbeentothoseplaces?4.Thinkofthefollowing3regionsoftheworld:TheMiddleEast,the‘DeepSouth’(intheUnitedStates),andSub-SaharanAfrica.Foreachoftheregionslistedabove,Iwantyoutowritedown3wordsorphrasesthatyouassociatewiththoseplaces.Also,writedownifyouhaveeverbeentothoseregions.5.IfIweretoaskyoutodrawyourownmentalmap(whichIwillJ),whatareasoftheworldwouldyouknowtheleastabout?Themost?Why?

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2. DoMapsCreateorRepresentReality?ByLauraHebert

“Mapslietotellthetruth.Theylieinordertomakeapoint.”Haveyoueverstoppedandreallylookedatamap?I’mnottalkingaboutconsultingthecoffeestainedmapthatmakesitshomeinyourglovecompartment;I’mtalkingaboutreallylookingatamap,exploringit,questioningit.Ifyouweretodoso,youwouldseethatmapsdifferdistinctlyfromtherealitythattheydepict.Weallknowthattheworldisround.Itisapproximately27,000milesincircumferenceandhometobillionsofpeople.Butonamap,theworldischangedfromasphereintoarectangularplaneandshrunkendowntofitonan8½”by11”pieceofpaper,majorhighwaysarereducedtomeaslylinesonapage,andthegreatestcitiesintheworldarediminishedtomeredots.Thisisnottherealityoftheworld,butratherwhatthemapmakerandhisorhermaparetellingusisreal.Thequestionis:“Domapscreateorrepresentreality?”Thefactthatmapsdistortrealitycannotbedenied.Itisabsolutelyimpossibletodepictaroundearthonaflatsurfacewithoutsacrificingatleastsomeaccuracy.Infact,amapcanonlybeaccurateinoneoffourdomains:shape,area,distance,ordirection.Andinmodifyinganyofthese,ourperceptionoftheearthisaffected.Thereiscurrentlyadebateragingoverwhichcommonlyusedmapprojectionisthe“best”projection.Amongamultitudeofoptions,thereareafewthatstandoutasthemostrecognizedprojections;theseincludetheMercator,thePeters,theRobinson,andtheGoode’s,amongothers.Inallfairness,eachoftheseprojectionshasitsstrongpoints.TheMercatorisusedfornavigationpurposesbecausegreatcirclesappearasstraightlinesonmapsutilizingthisprojection.Indoingso,however,thisprojectionisforcedtodistorttheareaofanygivenlandmassrelativetoother

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landmasses.ThePetersprojectioncombatsthisareadistortionbysacrificingaccuracyofshape,distance,anddirection.WhilethisprojectionislessusefulthantheMercatorinsomerespects,thosewhosupportitsaythattheMercatorisunfairinthatitdepictslandmassesinthehighlatitudesasbeingmuchlargerthantheyreallyareinrelationtolandmassesinthelowerlatitudes.TheyclaimthatthiscreatesasenseofsuperiorityamongpeoplewhoinhabitNorthAmericaandEurope,areasthatarealreadyamongthemostpowerfulintheworld.TheRobinsonandtheGoode’sprojections,ontheotherhand,areacompromisebetweenthesetwoextremesandtheyarecommonlyusedforgeneralreferencemaps.Bothprojectionssacrificeabsoluteaccuracyinanyparticulardomaininordertoberelativelyaccurateinalldomains.Isthisanexampleofmaps“creatingreality”?Theanswertothatquestiondependsonhowwechoosetodefinereality.Realitycouldeitherbedescribedasthephysicalactualityoftheworld,oritcouldbetheperceivedtruththatexistsinpeoples’minds.Despitetheconcrete,factualbasisthatcanprovetheverityorthefalsehoodoftheformer,thelattermayverywellbethemorepowerfulofthetwo.Ifitweren’t,those-suchashumanrightsactivistsandcertainreligiousorganizations-whoargueinfavorofthePetersprojectionovertheMercatorwouldnotbeputtingupsuchafight.Theyrealizethathowpeopleunderstandthetruthisoftenjustasimportantasthetruthitself,andtheybelievethatthePetersprojection’sarealaccuracyis-astheFriendshipPressclaims-“fairtoallpeoples.”Muchofthereasonthatmapssooftengounquestionedisthattheyhavebecomesoscientificand“artless."Modernmapmakingtechniquesandequipmenthaveservedtomakemapsseemlikeobjective,trustworthyresources,when,infact,theyareasbiasedandconventionalasever.Theconventions-orthesymbolsthatareusedonmapsandthebiasesthattheypromote-thatmapsmakeuseofhavebeenacceptedandutilizedtothepointthattheyhavebecomeallbutinvisibletothecasualmapobserver.Forexample,whenwelookatmaps,wedon’tusuallyhavetothinktoomuchaboutwhatthesymbolsrepresent;weknowthatlittleblacklinesrepresentroadsanddotsrepresenttownsandcities.Thisiswhymapsaresopowerful.Mapmakersareabletodisplaywhattheywanthowtheywantandnotbequestioned.Thebestwaytoseehowmapmakersandtheirmapsareforcedtoaltertheimageoftheworld-andthereforeourperceivedreality-istotryandimagineamapthatshowstheworldexactlyasitis,amapthatemploysnohumanconventions.Trytoenvisionamapthatdoesn’tshowtheworldorientedinaparticularmanner.Northisnotupordown,eastisn’ttotherightorleft.Thismaphasnotbeenscaledtomakeanythingbiggerorsmallerthanitisinreality;itisexactlythesizeandshapeofthelandthatitdepicts.Therearenolinesthathavebeendrawnonthismaptoshowthelocationandcourseofroadsorrivers.Thelandmassesarenotallgreen,andthewaterisnotallblue.Oceans,lakes,countries,towns,andcitiesareunlabeled.Alldistances,shapes,areas,anddirectionsarecorrect.Thereisnogridshowinglatitudeorlongitude.Thisisanimpossibletask.Theonlyrepresentationoftheearththatfitsallofthesecriteriaistheearthitself.Nomapcandoallofthesethings.Andbecausetheymustlie,theyareforcedtocreateasenseofrealitythatisdifferentfromthetangible,physicalactualityoftheearth.It’sstrangetothinkthatnobodywilleverbeabletoseetheentireearthatanygivenmomentintime.Evenanastronautlookingattheearthfromspacewillonlybeabletoseehalfoftheearth’ssurfaceatanyparticularinstant.Becausemapsaretheonlywaythatmostofuswilleverbeabletoseetheearthbeforeoureyes-andthatanyofuswilleverseetheentireworldbeforeoureyes-theyplayanimmenselyimportantpartinshapingourviewsoftheworld.Althoughtheliesthatamaptellsmaybeunavoidable,theyareliesnonetheless,eachoneinfluencingthewaythatwethinkabout

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theworld.Theydonotcreateoralterthephysicalrealityoftheearth,butourperceivedrealityisshaped-inlargepart-bymaps.Thesecond,andjustasvalid,answertoourquestionisthatmapsrepresentreality.AccordingtoDr.KlausBayr,ageographyprofessoratKeeneStateCollegeinKeene,NH,amapis“asymbolizedrepresentationoftheearth,partsoftheearth,oraplanet,drawntoscale…onaflatsurface.”Thisdefinitionstatesclearlythatamaprepresentstherealityoftheearth.Butmerelystatingthisviewpointmeansnothingifwecan’tbackitup.Itcanbesaidthatmapsrepresentrealityforseveralreasons.First,thefactisthatnomatterhowmuchcreditwegivemaps,theyreallymeannothingifthereisn’tarealitytobackitup;therealityismoreimportantthanthedepiction.Second,althoughmapsportraythingsthatwecan’tnecessarilyseeonthefaceoftheearth(e.g.politicalboundaries),thesethingsdoinfactexistapartfromthemap.Themapissimplyillustratingwhatexistsintheworld.Thirdandlastisthefactthateverymapportraystheearthinadifferentway.Noteverymapcanbeatotallyfaithfulrepresentationoftheearth,sinceeachofthemshowssomethingdifferent.Maps-asweareexaminingthem-are“symbolizedrepresentation[s]oftheearth.”Theydepictcharacteristicsoftheearththatarerealandthatare-inmostcases-tangible.Ifwewantedto,wecouldfindtheareaoftheearththatanygivenmapdepicts.IfIweretochoosetodoso,IcouldpickupaUSGStopographicmapatthebookstoredownthestreetandthenIcouldgooutandfindtheactualhillthatthewavylinesinthenortheastcornerofthemaprepresent.Icanfindtherealitybehindthemap.Allmapsrepresentsomecomponentoftherealityoftheearth.Thisiswhatgivesthemsuchauthority;thisiswhywetrustthem.Wetrustthattheyarefaithful,objectivedepictionsofsomeplaceontheearth.Andwetrustthatthereisarealitythatwillbackupthatdepiction.Ifwedidnotbelievethattherewassomeverityandlegitimacybehindthemap-intheformofanactualplaceontheearth-wouldwetrustthem?Wouldweplacevalueinthem?Ofcoursenot.Thesolereasonbehindthetrustthathumansplaceinmapsisthebeliefthatthatmapisafaithfulrepresentationofsomepartoftheearth.Thereare,however,certainthingsthatexistonmapsbutthatdon’tphysicallyexistonthesurfaceoftheearth.TakeNewHampshire,forexample.WhatisNewHampshire?Whyisitwhereitis?ThetruthisthatNewHampshireisn’tsomenaturalphenomenon;humansdidn’tstumbleacrossitandrecognizethatthiswasNewHampshire.Itisahumanidea.Inaway,itmaybejustasaccuratetocallNewHampshireastateofmindasitistocallitapoliticalstate.SohowcanweshowNewHampshireasaphysicallyrealthingonamap?HowareweabletodrawalinefollowingthecourseoftheConnecticutRiverandcategoricallystatethatthelandtothewestofthislineisVermontbutthelandontheeastisNewHampshire?Thisborderisn’tatangiblefeatureoftheearth;it’sanidea.Buteveninspiteofthis,wecanfindNewHampshireonmaps.Thiswouldseemlikeaholeinthetheorythatmapsrepresentreality,butinfactitisjusttheopposite.Thethingaboutmapsisthattheynotonlyshowthatlandsimplyexists,theyalsorepresenttherelationshipbetweenanygivenplaceandtheworldaroundit.InthecaseofNewHampshire,nobodyisgoingtoarguethatthereislandinthestatethatweknowasNewHampshire;nobodywillarguewiththefactthatthelandexists.WhatthemapsaretellingusisthatthisparticularpieceoflandisNewHampshire,inthesamewaythatcertainplacesontheeartharehills,othersareoceans,andstillothersareopenfields,rivers,orglaciers.Mapstellushowacertainplaceontheearthfitsintothebiggerpicture.Theyshowuswhichpartofthepuzzleaparticularplaceis.

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NewHampshireexists.Itisn’ttangible;wecan’ttouchit.Butitexists.TherearesimilaritiesamongalloftheplacesthatfittogethertoformwhatweknowasNewHampshire.TherearelawsthatapplyinthestateofNewHampshire.CarshavelicenseplatesfromNewHampshire.Mapsdon’tdefinethatNewHampshireexists,buttheydogiveusarepresentationofNewHampshire’splaceintheworld.Thewaythatmapsareabletodothisisthroughconventions.Thesearethehuman-imposedideasthatareevidentonmapsbutwhichcannotbefoundonthelanditself.Examplesofconventionsincludeorientation,projection,andsymbolizationandgeneralization.Eachofthesemustbeutilizedinordertocreateamapoftheworld,but-atthesametime-theyareeachhumanconstructs.Forexample,oneverymapoftheworld,therewillbeacompassthattellswhichdirectiononthemapisnorth,south,east,orwest.Onmostmapsmadeinthenorthernhemisphere,thesecompassesshowthatnorthisatthetopofthemap.Incontrasttothis,somemapsmadeinthesouthernhemisphereshowsouthatthetopofthemap.Thetruthisthatbothoftheseideasaretotallyarbitrary.Icouldmakeamapthatshowsnorthbeinginthelowerleft-handcornerofthepageandbejustascorrectasifIsaidnorthwasatthetoporbottom.Theearthitselfhasnorealorientation.Itsimplyexistsinspace.Theideaoforientationisonethathadbeenimposedontheworldbyhumansandhumansalone.Similartobeingabletoorientamaphowevertheychooseto,mapmakerscanalsoutilizeanyoneofavastarrayofprojectionstomakeamapoftheworld,andnoneoftheseprojectionsisanybetterthanthenextone;aswehavealreadyseen,eachprojectionhasitsstrongpointsanditsweakpoints.Butforeachprojection,thisstrongpoint-thisaccuracy-isslightlydifferent.Forexample,theMercatorportraysdirectionsaccurately,thePetersportraysareaaccurately,andazimuthalequidistantmapsdisplaydistancefromanygivenpointaccurately.Yetmapsmadeusingeachoftheseprojectionsareconsideredtobeaccuraterepresentationsoftheearth.Thereasonforthisisthatmapsarenotexpectedtorepresenteverycharacteristicoftheworldwith100%accuracy.Itisunderstoodthateverymapisgoingtohavetodismissorignoresometruthsinordertotellothers.Inthecaseofprojections,someareforcedtoignorearealaccuracyinordertoshowdirectionalaccuracy,andviceversa.Whichtruthsarechosentobetolddependssolelyontheintendeduseofthemap.Asmapmakershavetoutilizeorientationandprojectioninordertorepresentthesurfaceoftheearthonamap,sotheymustalsousesymbols.Itwouldbeimpossibletoputtheactualcharacteristicsoftheearth(e.g.highways,rivers,thrivingcities,etc.)onamap,somapmakersutilizesymbolsinordertorepresentthosecharacteristics.Forexample,onamapoftheworld,WashingtonD.C.,Moscow,andCairoallappearassmall,identicalstars,aseachisthecapitalofitsrespectivecountry.Now,weallknowthatthesecitiesarenot,infact,smallredstars.Andweknowthatthesecitiesarenotallidentical.Butonamap,theyaredepictedassuch.Asistruewithprojection,wemustbewillingtoacceptthatmapscannotbecompletelyaccuratedepictionsofthelandthatisbeingrepresentedonthemap.Aswesawearlier,theonlythingthatcanbeatotallyaccuraterepresentationoftheearthistheearthitself.Throughoutourexaminationofmapsasbothcreatorsandrepresentationsofreality,theunderlyingthemehasbeenthis:mapsareonlyabletorepresenttruthandfactbylying.Itisimpossibletodepictthehuge,roundearthonaflatandrelativelysmallsurfacewithoutsacrificingatleastsomeaccuracy.Andthoughthisisoftenseenasadrawbackofmaps,Iwouldarguethatitisoneofthebenefits.Theearth,asaphysicalentity,simplyexists.Anypurposethatweseeintheworldthroughamapis

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onethathasbeenimposedbyhumans.Thisisthesolereasonformaps’existence.Theyexisttoshowussomethingabouttheworld,nottosimplyshowustheworld.Theycanillustrateanymultitudeofthings,frommigrationpatternsofCanadiangeesetofluctuationsintheearth’sgravitationalfield,buteverymapmustshowussomethingabouttheearthuponwhichwelive.Mapslietotellthetruth.Theylieinordertomakeapoint.Questions:1.WhydoesHebertarguethatmapshavetodistortreality?2.Listanddescribesomeofthedifferenttypesofmapprojectionsthatthearticledescribes,andwhateachismeanttoshowtheviewer3.Hebertarguesthatcontemporary(modern)mapsare“…asbiasedandconventionalasever.”–Howdoesshejustifythispointofview?4.WhenHebertdescribesthebordersofNewHampshireas“…anidea.”–whatdoesshemean?5.Whatspecificthingsaboutmapsdidthisarticleteach,explain,orrevealtoyouthatyoudidn’tknowbefore(ordidn’tbothertothinkabout) 3.TheTenthParallel:DispatchesfromtheFaultLinebetweenChristianityandIslam(ElizaGriswold:2010,Prologue)“IwantedtoseehowChristianityandIslamareactuallylivedeverydaybyhugenumbersofvulnerable,marginalbelievers–individualswhoarealsopartoftheglobalstoryofpoverty,development,climate-changeforecasts,andsoon…togowheresuchlivesareactuallyled,wherewarsinthenameofreligionarenotInternetmediacampaigns…butactualwarsfoughtfromvillagetovillageandstreetcornertostreetcorner.”Prologue:ThechiefwasspendingEasterSundayinhishut,whichsmelledofstalesmokefromacookingfireandofsomethingmoreglandular:panic.WhenthevisitorfromWashingtonduckedinside,thechief,amaninhismid-fiftiesnamedNyolPaduot,rosestiff-kneedfromawhiteplasticlawnchair.HehadspentseveraldayskeepingwatchagainstanapproachingdustcloudkickedupbyhorsemenandJeeps.ItwouldmeanhisvillageofTodaj,teeteringonthefraughtandmurkyborderbetweennorthernandsouthernSudan,wasunderattackagain.Hewasgrouchyandunkempt:hiseyespouched,hissalt-and-pepperbeardscruffy,hiswaxygreen-andyellowshirtstainedwiththetidelinesofdriedsweat.HegloweredattheAmericanvisitor,RogerWinter,whosebarelegspokedoutfromkhakishorts.OnelegborethescarofasnakebitehehadgottennotfarawaywhilehelpingtobrokerapeaceonbehalfoftheUnitedStates.The2005dealwassupposedtoendnearlyfortyyearsofintermittentcivilwarbetweennorthernandsouthernSudan,whichhadlefttwomillionpeople

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dead.Insomeplaces,thepeaceagreementhadstanchedthebloodshed,allowingthesouthtoformanascentgovernmentthatdescribeditselfas“Christianled.”Underthetermsofthedeal,thenorthwassupposedtomakeitattractiveforthesouthtoremainpartofaunifiedSudanbygivingitavoiceinthenationalgovernment,andafairshareofoilrevenues.Butthenorthignoredmostoftheterms.ThepeacedealprovedtomeannothinghereontheboundarybetweenthetwoSudans,whichjigsandjagslikeanEKGreadingalongthestraight,flatlatitudeofthetenthparallel.Thetenthparallelisthehorizontalbandthatringstheearthsevenhundredmilesnorthoftheequator.IfAfricaisshapedlikearumpledsock,withSouthAfricaatthetoeandSomaliaattheheel,thenthetenthparallelrunsacrosstheankle.Alongthetenthparallel,inSudan,andinmostofinlandAfrica,twoworldscollide:themostlyMuslim,Arab-influencednorthmeetsablackAfricansouthinhabitedbyChristiansandthosewhofollowindigenousreligions—whichincludethosewhovenerateancestorsandthespiritsofanimals,land,andsky.1Thirtymilessouth(atalatitudeof9°43'59"),thevillageofTodajmarkedthedividewherethesetworivalworldviews,theirdysfunctionalgovernmentsandwell-armedmilitaries,viedinchbyinchforland.Thevillagebelongedtothesouth’slargestethnicgroup,theNgokDinka.Butin2008,whenRogerWinterpaidNyolPaduotavisit,thenorthwasthreateningtosenditssoldiersandArabmilitiastoattackthevillageandlayclaimtotheundergroundriveroflight,sweetcrudeoilrunningbeneaththechief’sfeet.OilwasdiscoveredinsouthernSudanduringthe1970s,andthestruggletocontrolitisoneofthelong-runningwar’smorerecentcauses.ThefightinSudanthreatenedtosplitAfrica’slargestcountryintwo,andstilldoes.In2011,thesouthisscheduledtovoteonwhetheritwantstoremainpartofthenorthorbecomeitsowncountry,madeupoftenstatesthatlietothesouthofthetenthparallelandborderEthiopia,Kenya,Uganda,theDemocraticRepublicofCongo,theCentralAfricanRepublic,andChad.Thisloomingsplit—which,ifithappens,wouldlikelyoccurlargelyalongthetenthparallel—meantthatTodajandthenearbyoilboomtownofAbyei,abouttenmilessouth,werevitallyimportant.Whicheversidecontrolledthemwouldcontrolanestimatedtwobillionbarrelsofoil.OtherthanPaduot,andsixeldersgatheredinhishut,thevillageappeareddeserted.Promptedbygunfireandrumorsofwar,thefivehundredfamilieswholivedtherehadfledsouth,terrifiedthatTodajwasabouttobewipedoffthefaceoftheearth.Theirfearwaswellfounded:threetimesintheprevioustwentyyears,soldiersfromthenorthhadlaidsiegetoTodaj,rapingwomenandchildren,killingandcarryingoffyoungmen,andburningtothegroundthevillagers’thatchedhutsandtheEpiscopalChurchmadeofhay.Itwastheendofthedryseason,andabreezestirredtheairoverthiscolorlessplotofparchedearth,barebutfortheseemptydwellingsandafewgauntcowstrawlingforloosehay.Thecowswanderinghungrilyaroundthevillagedidn’tbelongtothepeopleofTodaj,buttonorthernArabnomads,theMisseriya,who,becauseofseasonaldroughtupnorth,camesouthatthistimeofyeartograzetheircattle.Paduotwasafraidthatwhentherainsbeganafewweekslater,andthenomadscouldreturnhometotheirowngreenerpastures,therewouldbenothingtokeepthenorthernsoldiers(cousinsandsonsofthenomads)fromattackingTodaj.“Weknowwhentheyburnourvillage,theywanttheland,”saidthechief,aNgokDinkatranslatorrenderinghiswordsintoEnglish.Thesepatternssoundedliketheonesunfoldinglessthanfiftymilesnorthwest,intheregionofDarfur,becausetheywerethesame.Threedecadesago,whileSudan’scurrentpresident,OmarHassanal-Bashir,wasamilitarygeneralstationedonthisborder,theKhartoum-basednortherngovernmentperfectedthemethodsofattack,usingtheparamilitaryhorsemencalledtheJanjawiid,whomitwasnowdeployinginDarfur.Todajfacedthissamethreat,butotherthanRogerWinter,veryfewknewanythingabouttheimpendingdisaster.OnBBCradio,PaduotheardmuchtalkaboutDarfur.Althoughthesamethingwashappeningherealongtheborder,itrarelymadeinternationalnews.Thetwofrontshadmuchincommon,sinceallofSudan’swarsboildowntoacentralKhartoum-basedcabalbattlingthepeopleattheperipheries.TheonlydifferencesbetweenDarfurandAbyei,thechiefexplained,werereligionandoil.InDarfur,there

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wasnooilandbothsideswereMuslim,aconfrontationhedidnotunderstand.“WhywouldMuslimsfightagainstMuslims?”heaskedaloud.Here,thenorthhadmounteditsassaultsinthenameofjihad,orholywar,claimingthatIslamandArabcultureshouldreignsupremeinSudan.ChiefPaduot,whohadsurvivedseveralsuchconflagrations,hadcometoseeIslamasatoolofoppression,onethenorthernerswereusingtoerasehiscultureandundohispeople’sclaimtothelandanditsoil.“PeoplehateIslamnow,”hesaid.HavingsteppedintothehutbehindWinter,Iglancedaroundtoseeifanyoftheelderswasstartledbythechief’sremark.Iftheywere,nosignofitcrossedtheirfaces,whichshowedonlydreadandexhaustion.Todefythenorth,mostofthevillagershadbeenbaptizedasEpiscopalians—theyprayeddaily,attendedchurchonSunday,andhadcastoffloose,long-sleevedIslamicdressinfavorofshort-sleevedWestern-stylebutton-downshirts,orbrilliantbatiks.Forthem,Islamwasnowsimplyacatchalltermforthegovernment,people,andpoliciesofthenorth.Race,likereligion,wasarallyingcryinthiscomplicatedwar.ThepalerskinnedArabnorthernerslookeddownonthedarker-skinnedpeopleofthesouth,Paduotexplainedslowly.Heseemedtiredofgivingtutorialstooutsiders.Whatgoodwereearnest,wellmeaningpeoplelikeus,whocamewithourwaterbottlesandnotebookstorecordthedetailsofasituationbutcoulddonothingtostopit?Thedivisionsbetweennorthandsouthalongthetenthparalleldatebackcenturies,andcolonialrulesimplyreinforcedthem.Onehundredyearsearlier,theBritishcolonialistswhogovernedSudanhadvirtuallyhandedthisswathoflandsouthofthetenthparalleltotheRomanCatholicChurch.DanielComboni,abelovednineteenth-centuryItalianmissionarywhowascanonizedasasaintin2003,headedCatholiceffortsinCentralAfricawiththeexpressedaimto“saveAfricathroughAfricans.”UnderComboni’sdirection,theCatholicChurchranallschoolsandhospitals(andforbadeProtestantmissionariesfromproselytizing),until,in1964,thenortherngovernment,employingIslamasaformofnationalism,expelledallmissionariesfromthecountry.AfricanChristians—notWesterners—werelefttoleadthelocalchurch,whichwasthen,asnow,underfirefromthenorthasanalien,infidelinstitution.Thisattitudehasnotchanged,thelocalCatholicpriest,FatherPeterSuleiman,toldme.“Everydayweexperiencethemiseryofthesouth.Youstillhearthepromiseofdeath.”Andoilhasmadethingsworse.“ThenorthbelievesthatoilisagiftfromGodfortheMuslimpeople,”hesaid.AlthoughtheCatholicChurchstillheldsomeswayalongthisborder,FatherSuleimantoldmethataninfluxofmorecharismaticProtestantchurcheswasgainingground.InthevillageofTodaj,manyofthevillagerswereconvincedthattheywerestillalivesolelybecausetheyhadprayedtoJesusChristforprotection.Bornintoafamilythatprayedtoancestralgods,ChiefPaduotbecameanominalMusliminordertogainadmissiontoschool(apracticebegunbyChristianmissionariesandnowemulatedbyKhartoum).ThroughaprocessofforcedIslamization,thenorthhadmadeitcompulsoryforpeopletodeclarethemselvesMuslimsbysayingtheShahada—“IbearwitnessthatthereisnogodbutGod,andIbearwitnessthatMohammedishismessenger”—andadoptingMuslimnamesinordertoattendschool,getajob,oravoidjailorviolentdeath.Inhisforties,Paduot,chiefbybirth,decidedthathewantedtoleaveIslamandbecomeaCatholic.ButthenorthernsecurityforcesthreatenedthelocalCatholicpriest,oneFatherMarco,sayingtheywouldtorturehimifhebaptizedthechief.(TheytoldPaduotthey’dstonehimifhebecame“abacksliderfromIslam.”)HerefrainedfromconvertingtoCatholicismtosafeguardhisvillagefromfurthertrouble.“IkeptIslamtoprotectmypeople,”hesaid,but,toshowhisindependence,hehadreturnedtotheindigenouspracticesofhisyouth—calledthenoblespiritualbeliefs.ChristiansandMuslimsalikedisparagedthelocalindigenousreligiononthegroundthatitdidn’tteachadherentstofollowtheone,trueGod.Thatwasignoranceontheirpart,Paduotsaid.“WeworshiponeCreatorGod,too,thensmallergods.”HehadalsomarriedanEpiscopalian.Nowheledusoutofthehut—itsthick,roundwallslikeamuddymushroomstem—andpointedtoalineofwhatlookedliketinycorn-huskscarecrowsalongtheroofsofhisandotherhuts.“Theyarecrosses,”thechiefsaid.Theirfrayededgesglowedintheafternoon’spewterlight;theyweresymbolsmarkingthebeginningofthesouth,andvisualreminderstoanyoneenteringthevillagethatitwasaChristianplace,thechiefexplained.Squinting

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intotheovercastskytolookatthem,Ithoughtthethreadbaretotemswerealsobidsfordivineprotection.Yetthecrossesseemedtobeprovingasineffectiveasthechief’ssatellitephone,whichhungbyitspowercordfromtwoportablesolarpanelsonthethatchedroofofhishut.Therewasnooneleftforhimtocallforhelp.Thoughhiscousin,FrancisDeng,wasservingastheUnitedNationsSpecialRepresentativeforthePreventionofGenocide,andthoughPaduotmetregularlywithlocalUNofficials,representativesofthesoutherngovernment,andvisitorssuchasRogerWinter(alongtimeheadoftheU.S.CommitteeforRefugeeswhohadlobbiedhardforthesouthinWashingtonandKhartoum),noonecoulddoanythingtostoptheimpendingassault.Onthesurfaceofthisconflict,twogroups,northernandsouthern,MuslimandChristian,werecompetingforlandandwater.Yetatadeeperlevel,thepeoplewerenowpawnsoftheirrespectivegovernments,andPaduotknewit.HeproducedawornmapsoftenedwithuseandpointedtothreeannotationsinEnglish:PUMP1,PUMP2,PUMP3.TheseindicatedtheoilfieldsoftheGreaterNilePetroleumOperatingCompany—aconsortiumofChinese,Malaysian,Indian,andSudaneseinterestsoperatinginSudanwiththeblessingofPresidentBashir.Atthesametime,Bashirwasexhortinghisholysoldiers,orMujahideen—whomhecalled“thelegitimatesonsofthesoil”—toreupforjihad.Onceagain,hewasmakinguseofraceandreligiontosafeguardoilinterestsbeforethecountryfacedtheimpendingsplit.Someofhissoldierswerestationedtwohundredyardsaway,actingassentriesonthenorth-southborder,thelocationofwhichwasdeterminedbywhoeverwasstrongenoughtopushitafewinchesonewayoranother.Aroundtheirmakeshiftbarracks,campsofnomadswerespringingup,asifpreparingforwar.Overthepastfewweeks,asPaduotlookedon,thesoldiershadreceivedshipmentsofautomaticriflesandrocket-propelledgrenadelaunchers.Ifafull-scaleriftbetweennorthandsouthoccurred,itwouldbeginrightherewiththeseweapons,Paduotwarned.Avillagesentrycameinandwhisperedinhisear.Abruptly,hestoppedtalking:soldierswereslouchingagainstthehut’soutsidewall,listeningtohiseveryword.InAfrica,thespacebetweenthetenthparallelandtheequatormarkstheendofthecontinent’saridnorthandthebeginningofsub-Saharanjungle.Wind,otherweather,andcenturiesofhumanmigrationshavebroughtthetworeligionstoconvergehere.ChristianityandIslamshareafifteenhundred-yearhistoryinAfrica.Itbeganin615whenMohammed,hislifeatriskathomeontheArabianPeninsula,sentadozenofhisfollowersandfamilymemberstofindrefugeatthecourtofanAfricanChristiankinginAbyssinia(modern-dayEthiopia).WithinadecadeofMohammed’sdeath(in632),thefirstMuslimarmieslandedinAfrica,proceedingsouthfromEgypttotoday’sSudan.Theretheymadeapeacepact—thefirstofitskind—withtheancientNubianChristiankingdomsalongtheNileRiver.Thepactlastedforsixcenturies.Thenreligiouswarsbrokeout.By1504,thelastoftheChristiankingdomsinSudanhadfallentoMuslimarmies.Fromtheseventhcenturytothetwentieth,MuslimtradersandmissionariescarriedIslaminlandoverthenorthernmostthirdofAfrica,carvingtraderoutesfromtheholycityofMeccainSaudiArabiatotheWestAfricankingdomofTimbuktu.Awayfromthecoasts,crossingthelandlockedregionsouthofthetenthparallelproveddifficult;thepale,grassysavannathickenedtobush,andthebushgavewaytoamireofemeraldswampandjungle.Alongthetenthparallel,thetsetseflybeltbegins:andtheseblood-suckinginsects,eachthesizeofahouseflyandcarryingAfricantrypanosomiasis(sleepingsickness),3virtuallystoppedIslam’ssouthernspread.Totheeast,fivethousandmilesofftheAfricancoastandovertheIndianOcean,naturalforcesalsoshapedtheencounterofChristianityandIslamintheSoutheastAsiannationsofIndonesia,Malaysia,andthePhilippines.Thetradewinds—high-pressureaircurrentsthatmovesteadilyfromeitherpoletowardtheequator—filledthesailsofbothMuslimandChristianmerchantsfromthenorthernhemispherebeginningintheeighthcentury.ThesereliablewindspropelledChristianandMuslimshipstothesameislands,beaches,andports,thenreturnedthemeithertoEuropeortotheArabianPeninsula,theirshipsheavywithcargoesofcinnamonandcloves.

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Thetradewindsarepartoftheintertropicalconvergencezone,aweathersystemthatmovestothenorthorsouthoftheequator,dependingontheseason.Inthiszone,windcurrentsfromthenorthernhemisphererunintothosefromthesouthernhemisphere.Asthetwocyclesmeethead-on,theygeneratecataclysmicstorms.InAsia,thesestormsbeginduringmonsoonseasonandgenerallyspinwesttoAfrica,wherethemosttempestuousofthemmovewestofftheAfricancoastatCapeVerde,acrosstheAtlanticOcean,andbecomeAmerica’shurricanes.Withinthisband,Asia,Africa,andAmericaarepartofasingleweathersystem.4(AdangerousyearofmonsoonsinAsiaandstormsinAfrica’scatastrophebelt,forinstance,canmeanadisastrousyearofhurricanesfortheU.S.easternseaboard.)Astheearthgrowswarmer,preexistingcyclesoffloodinganddroughtaroundthetenthparallelgrowincreasinglyunpredictable,makingitimpossibleforAfricannomads,mostofwhomareMuslims,andfarmers(Christians,Muslims,andindigenousbelievers)torelyoncenturies-oldpatternsofmigration,planting,andharvesting.Theymustmoveintonewterritorytogrowfoodandgrazetheirlivestock.Consequently,betweentheequatorandthetenthparalleltwogroupswithdistinctlydifferentculturesandcosmologiesunavoidablyfaceoffagainsteachother—astheydointheSudanesevillageofTodaj.Growingpopulationsintensifythesecompetitions.DuetotheexplosivegrowthofChristianityoverthepastfiftyyears,therearenow493millionChristianslivingsouthofthetenthparallel—nearlyafourthoftheworld’s.Christianpopulationof2billion.5Tothenorthlivethemajorityofthecontinent’s367millionMuslims;theyrepresentnearlyonequarteroftheworld’s1.6billionMuslims.ThesefiguresareaneffectivereminderthatfouroutoffiveMuslimsliveoutsidetheMiddleEast.Indonesia,with240millionpeople,isthemostpopulousMuslimcountryintheworld.Malaysiaisitstiny,richneighbor;thePhilippines,itslarger,poorerone.Together,thethreecountrieshaveapopulationof250millionMuslimsand110millionChristians.IndonesiaandMalaysiaarepredominantlyMuslimcountries,withvocalChristianminorities.ThePhilippines—withapowerfulCatholicmajority(population92million)mostlytothenorthofthetenthparallelandaMuslimminority(population5million)tothesouth—istheopposite.IthasbeenastronglyChristiancountryeversinceFerdinandMagellanplantedacrossonanislandhilltoptherein1521.YetIslam,whicharrivedhundredsofyearsearlier,hasremainedasourceofidentityandrebellioninthesouthforthepastfivehundredyears.Africa’sandAsia’spopulationsareexpanding,onaverage,fasterthanthoseintherestoftheworld.Whiletheglobalpopulationof6.8billionpeopleincreasesby1.2percenteveryyear,inAsiatherateis1.4percent,andinAfricaitdoublesto2.4percent.6Inthisfragilezonewherethetworeligionsmeet,thepressureswroughtbygrowingnumbersofpeopleandanincreasinglyvulnerableenvironmentaresharpeningthetensionsbetweenChristiansandMuslimsoverland,food,oil,andwater,overpracticesandhardeningworldviews.Theparticularstrainofreligionthat’sgrowingthefastestalsointensifiestheseproblems.ChristianityandIslamareinthethroesofdecades-longrevolutions:reawakenings.Believersadoptoutwardsignsofdevotion—praying,eating,dressing,andothersocialcustoms—thatcallattentiontothewaystheydifferfromtheunbelieversaroundthem.Yetthesemovementsarenotsimplyaboutexhibitingdevotion.TheybeginwithadirectencounterwithGod.ForSufis,whomakeupthemajorityofAfricanMuslims,andforPentecostals,whoaccountformorethanonequarterofAfricanChristians,worshipbeginswithecstaticexperience.SufisfollowamysticalstrainofIslamthatbeginswithinvitingGodintothehumanheart.PentecostalsurgetheirmemberstoencountertheHolySpiritviscerally,asJesus’sfollowersdidduringthefeastofPentecostwhentheyspokeintongues.Suchreawakeningsdemandanindividual’stotalsurrender,andpromise,inreturn,anexclusivepathtotheonetrueGod.“Thesemovementsaren’taboutconvertingtoabetterversionofself,”LaminSanneh,atheologianatYaleandtheauthorofWhoseReligionIsChristianity?,toldme.“TheareaboutconvertingtoGod.”TheysaythebelievercanknowGodnowinthislifeandforeverinthenext.Inreturn,theyexpectthebelievertoproselytize—togainnewconverts—fromeitheramongotherreligionsortheirownlessardentbelievers,whichcreatesnewfrictions.

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ThesemovementsarealreadyreshapingAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmerica—theregionweusedtocallthethirdworld,oreventhedevelopingworld.Nowadays,liberalandconservativeWesternanalysts,andmanyoftheregion’sinhabitantsaswell,usethetermGlobalSouthinstead.ThissomewhatclunkymonikerisintendedtocastoffthelegacyoftheWest,tochallengetheassumptionthattheentireworldisdevelopingwithinaWesterncontext.Itisalsomeanttohighlightamarkedshiftindemographicsandinfluenceamongtheworld’sChristiansandMuslims.Today’stypicalProtestantisanAfricanwoman,notawhiteAmericanman.Inmanyoftheweakstatesalongthetenthparallel,thepowerofthesereligiousmovementsiscompoundedbythefactthatthe“state”meansverylittlehere;governmentsarealienstructuresthatoffertheirpeoplealmostnothinginthewayofservicesorpoliticalrights.Thislackisespeciallypronouncedwherepresent-daynationalbordersbeganasnothingmorethanlinessketchedontocolonialmaps.Otherkindsofidentity,consequently,cometothefore:religionaboveeverything—evenraceorethnicity—becomesameanstosafeguardindividualandcollectivesecurityinthisworldandthenextone.Inmanycases,then,gainsforonesideimplylossesfortheother.Revivalprovidesnotonlyapatternfordailylifebutalsoaformofcommunaldefense,bringingpeopletogether,givingthemasharedgoalorpurpose,andinvitingthemtorisktheirlivesinthepursuitofit.Oftentheendisliberation,andthemeanstoliberationincludemartyrdomandholywar.WithIslam,itisperhapseasiertounderstandhowbelieverscouldseeareturntoreligiouslawasundoingthecorruptionsownbycolonialism.YetinChristianity,too,religionhasbecomeameansofpoliticalemancipation,especiallybetweentheequatorandthetenthparallel,whereChristianityandIslammeet.ManyChristianslivinginthesestatesbelongtonon-MuslimethnicminoritieswhosharetheexperienceofbeingenslavedbynorthernMuslims,andperceivethemselvesaslivingonChristianity’sfrontlineinthebattleagainstIslamicdomination.InNigeria,Sudan,Indonesia,andthePhilippines,andelsewhere,Christianshavelostchurches,homes,andfamilymemberstoviolentstruggle.Atthesametime,they,liketheirMuslimadversaries,seethedevelopedWestasagodlessplacethathasforsakenitsChristianheritage.Ibeganinvestigatingthisfaith-basedfaultlineasajournalistinDecember2003,whenItraveledwithFranklinGraham—BillyGraham’sson,andheadofaprosperousevangelicalempire—toKhartoum,tomeethisnemesis,PresidentOmarHassanal-Bashir,whoseregimewaswagingtheworld’smostviolentmodernjihadagainstChristiansandMuslimsalikeinsouthernSudan.BashirwasalsobeginningthegenocidalcampaigninDarfur.(In2009,theInternationalCriminalCourtatTheHagueissuedanarrestwarrantforBashirforwarcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity.)InBashir’spalace’ssepulchralmarblereceptionroom,thetwomenarguedpointedlyoverwhowouldconvertwhom.Eachadheredtoaverydifferentworldview:theirswereopposingfundamentalismsbasedonthebeliefthattherewasone—andonlyone—waytobelieveinGod.Atthesametime,theirreligiouspoliticsspilledoverintoafightbetweencultures,andrepresentedthewayinwhichtheworld’sMuslimsandtheWesthavecometomisunderstandeachother.Beingawitnesstothisconversationwaslikewatchingemissariesfromtwodifferentcivilizationssquareoffoveraplateofpistachios.Soonafterward,Istartedtotravelinthebandbetweentheequatorandthetenthparallel.Ivisitedplaceswherethetworeligionsoftenclash:Nigeria,Sudan,Somalia,andtheHornofAfrica;Indonesia,Malaysia,andthePhilippines.Overthepastdecade,therehasbeenmuchtheorizingaboutreligionandpolitics,religionandpoverty,conflictsandaccommodationbetweenChristianityandIslam.IwantedtoseehowChristianityandIslamareactuallylivedeverydaybyhugenumbersofvulnerable,marginalbelievers—individualswhoarealsopartoftheglobalstoryofpoverty,developmentstrategy,climate-changeforecasts,andsoon.Notheoryofreligiouspoliticsorreligiousviolenceinourtimecanpossiblybecompletewithoutaccountingforthefour-fifthsofMuslimswholiveoutsidetheMiddleEastorfortheswellingpopulationsofevangelicalChristianswhosefaithisboundupwiththeirstruggleforresourcesandsurvival.Iwantedtogowheresuchlivesareactuallyled,wherewarsinthenameofreligionarenotInternetmediacampaignsto“controlaglobalnarrative”butactualwarsfoughtfromvillageto

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villageandstreetcornertostreetcorner.Mostofall,Iwantedtorecordtheinterwovenstoriesofthosewhoinhabitthisterritory,andwhosereligiousbeliefspatterntheirdailyperseverance.Althoughit’seasytoseeChristianityandIslamasvastandstaticforces,theyareperpetuallyinflux.Overtime,eachreligionhasshapedtheother.Religionisdynamicandfluid.Themostoftenoverlookedfactofreligiousrevivals,ofthekindnowunfoldingbetweentheequatorandthetenthparallel,isthattheygiverisetodivisionswithinthereligionsthemselves.TheyareaboutastruggleoverwhospeaksforGod—aconfrontationthattakesplacenotsimplybetweenrivalreligions,butinsidethem.ThisisastrueintheWestasitisintheGlobalSouth.Religions,liketheweather,linkustooneanother,whetherwelikeitornot.SomeReviewsfromtheNewYorkTimes:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/18/books/18book.html?ref=reviewhttp://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/22/books/review/Robinson-t.htmlQuestions:1.Basedonthedescriptions,howwouldyoudefine(yourownwords)whatthe10thParallelis,bothphysicallyandculturally?2.Basedonwhatshedescribes,howwouldyouclassifytherelationshipbetweenMuslimsandChristiansalongthe10thparallel?Supportthiswithevidencefromthepiece.3.Theauthorstatesthat“ChristianityandIslamshareafifteen-hundred-yearhistoryinAfrica”–brieflydescribewhatthishistoryis(mainpointshere–pleasedon’trecopywholesections)4.Shealsoattributestheinteractionof,andconflictsbetweenMuslimsandChristianstothephysicalgeographicpatternsoftheregion.Whatarethesepatterns,andhowdoessheclaimtheyhaveimpactedMuslim/Christianinteraction?5.WhatroledoessheclaimthatpopulationissueshaveinfuelingtheconflictbetweenMuslimsandChristians?

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4.FastFoodNation:TheDarkSideoftheAll-AmericanMeal(Introduction,EricSchlosser,2002):“Anation’sdietcanbemorerevealingthanitsartorliterature.Thisisabookaboutfastfood,thevaluesitembodies,andtheworldithasmade…thefastfoodindustryhashelpedtotransformnotonlytheAmericandiet,butalsoourlandscape,economy,workforce,andpopularculture.”WhatWeEat:OVERTHELASTTHREEDECADES,fastfoodhasinfiltratedeverynookandcrannyofAmericansociety.AnindustrythatbeganwithahandfulofmodesthotdogandhamburgerstandsinsouthernCaliforniahasspreadtoeverycornerofthenation,sellingabroadrangeoffoodswhereverpayingcustomersmaybefound.Fastfoodisnowservedatrestaurantsanddrivethroughs,atstadiums,airports,zoos,highschools,elementaryschools,anduniversities,oncruiseships,trains,andairplanes,atK-Marts,Wal-Marts,gasstations,andevenathospitalcafeterias.In1970,Americansspentabout$6billiononfastfood;in2000,theyspentmorethan$110billion.Americansnowspendmoremoneyonfastfoodthanonhighereducation,personalcomputers,computersoftware,ornewcars.Theyspendmoreonfastfoodthanonmovies,books,magazines,newspapers,videos,andrecordedmusic-combined.Pullopentheglassdoor,feeltherushofcoolair,walkin,getonline,studythebacklitcolorphotographsabovethecounter,placeyourorder,handoverafewdollars,watchteenagersinuniformspushingvariousbuttons,andmomentslatertakeholdofaplastictrayfulloffoodwrappedincoloredpaperandcardboard.Thewholeexperienceofbuyingfastfoodhasbecomesoroutine,sothoroughlyunexceptionalandmundane,thatitisnowtakenforgranted,likebrushingyourteethorstoppingforaredlight.IthasbecomeasocialcustomasAmericanasasmall,rectangular,hand-held,frozen,andreheatedapplepie.Thisisabookaboutfastfood,thevaluesitembodies,andtheworldithasmade.FastfoodhasproventobearevolutionaryforceinAmericanlife;Iaminterestedinitbothasacommodityandasametaphor.Whatpeopleeat(ordon’teat)hasalwaysbeendeterminedbyacomplexinterplayofsocial,economic,andtechnologicalforces.TheearlyRomanRepublicwasfedbyitscitizen-farmers;theRomanEmpire,byitsslaves.Anation’sdietcanbemorerevealingthanitsartorliterature.OnanygivendayintheUnitedStatesaboutone-quarteroftheadultpopulationvisitsafastfoodrestaurant.Duringarelativelybriefperiodoftime,thefastfoodindustryhashelpedtotransformnotonlytheAmericandiet,butalsoourlandscape,economy,workforce,andpopularculture.Fastfoodanditsconsequenceshavebecomeinescapable,regardlessofwhetheryoueatittwiceaday,trytoavoidit,orhavenevertakenasinglebite.TheextraordinarygrowthofthefastfoodindustryhasbeendrivenbyfundamentalchangesinAmericansociety.Adjustedforinflation,thehourlywageoftheaverageU.S.workerpeakedin1973andthensteadilydeclinedforthenexttwenty-fiveyears.Duringthatperiod,womenenteredtheworkforceinrecordnumbers,oftenmotivatedlessbyafeministperspectivethanbyaneedtopaythebills.In1975,aboutone-thirdofAmericanmotherswithyoungchildrenworkedoutsidethehome;todayalmosttwo-thirdsofsuchmothersareemployed.AsthesociologistsCameronLynneMacdonaldandCarmenSiriannihavenoted,theentryofsomanywomenintotheworkforcehasgreatlyincreaseddemandforthetypesofservicesthathousewivestraditionallyperform:cooking,cleaning,andchildcare.Agenerationago,three-quartersofthemoneyusedtobuyfoodintheUnitedStateswasspenttopreparemealsathome.Todayabouthalfofthemoneyusedtobuyfood

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isspentatrestaurants-mainlyatfastfoodrestaurants.TheMcDonald’sCorporationhasbecomeapowerfulsymbolofAmerica’sserviceeconomy,whichisnowresponsiblefor90percentofthecountry’snewjobs.In1968,McDonald’soperatedaboutonethousandrestaurants.Todayithasabouttwenty-eightthousandrestaurantsworldwideandopensalmosttwothousandnewoneseachyear.AnestimatedoneoutofeveryeightworkersintheUnitedStateshasatsomepointbeenemployedbyMcDonald’s.Thecompanyannuallyhiresaboutonemillionpeople,morethananyotherAmericanorganization,publicorprivate.McDonald’sisthenation’slargestpurchaserofbeef,pork,andpotatoes-andthesecondlargestpurchaserofchicken.TheMcDonald’sCorporationisthelargestownerofretailpropertyintheworld.Indeed,thecompanyearnsthemajorityofitsprofitsnotfromsellingfoodbutfromcollectingrent.McDonald’sspendsmoremoneyonadvertisingandmarketingthananyotherbrand.AsaresultithasreplacedCoca-Colaastheworld’smostfamousbrand.McDonald’soperatesmoreplaygroundsthananyotherprivateentityintheUnitedStates.Itisoneofthenation’slargestdistributorsoftoys.AsurveyofAmericanschoolchildrenfoundthat96percentcouldidentifyRonaldMcDonald.TheonlyfictionalcharacterwithahigherdegreeofrecognitionwasSantaClaus.TheimpactofMcDonald’sonthewaywelivetodayishardtooverstate.TheGoldenArchesarenowmorewidelyrecognizedthantheChristiancross.Intheearly1970s,thefarmactivistJimHightowerwarnedoftheMcDonaldizationofAmerica.Heviewedtheemergingfastfoodindustryasathreattoindependentbusinesses,asasteptowardafoodeconomydominatedbygiantcorporations,andasahomogenizinginfluenceonAmericanlife.InEatYourHeartOut(1975),hearguedthatbiggerisnotbetter.MuchofwhatHightowerfearedhascometopass.Thecentralizedpurchasingdecisionsofthelargerestaurantchainsandtheirdemandforstandardizedproductshavegivenahandfulofcorporationsanunprecedenteddegreeofpoweroverthenation’sfoodsupply.Moreover,thetremendoussuccessofthefastfoodindustryhasencouragedotherindustriestoadoptsimilarbusinessmethods.Thebasicthinkingbehindfastfoodhasbecometheoperatingsystemoftoday’sretaileconomy,wipingoutsmallbusinesses,obliteratingregionaldifferences,andspreadingidenticalstoresthroughoutthecountrylikeaselfreplicatingcode.America’smainstreetsandmallsnowboastthesamePizzaHutsandTacoBells,GapsandBananaRepublics,StarbucksandJiffy-Lubes,FootLockers,SnipN’Clips,SunglassHuts,andHobbytownUSAs.AlmosteveryfacetofAmericanlifehasnowbeenfranchisedorchained.FromthematernitywardataColumbia/HCAhospitaltoanembalmingroomownedbyServiceCorporationInternational-theworld’slargestproviderofdeathcareservices,basedinHouston,Texas,whichsince1968hasgrowntoinclude3,823funeralhomes,523cemeteries,and198crematoriums,andwhichtodayhandlesthefinalremainsofoneoutofeverynineAmericans-apersoncannowgofromthecradletothegravewithoutspendinganickelatanindependentlyownedbusiness.Thekeytoasuccessfulfranchise,accordingtomanytextsonthesubject,canbeexpressedinoneword:uniformity.Franchisesandchainstoresstrivetoofferexactlythesameproductorserviceatnumerouslocations.Customersaredrawntofamiliarbrandsbyaninstincttoavoidtheunknown.Abrandoffersafeelingofreassurancewhenitsproductsarealwaysandeverywherethesame.Wehavefoundout...thatwecannottrustsomepeoplewhoarenonconformists,declaredRayKroc,oneofthefoundersofMcDonald’s,angeredbysomeofhisfranchisees.Wewillmakeconformistsoutoftheminahurry...Theorganizationcannottrusttheindividual;theindividualmusttrusttheorganization.OneoftheironiesofAmerica’sfastfoodindustryisthatabusinesssodedicatedtoconformitywasfoundedbyiconoclastsandself-mademen,byentrepreneurswillingtodefyconventionalopinion.Fewofthepeoplewhobuiltfastfoodempireseverattendedcollege,letalonebusinessschool.Theyworkedhard,tookrisks,andfollowedtheirownpaths.Inmanyrespects,thefastfoodindustryembodiesthebestandtheworstofAmericancapitalismatthestartofthetwenty-firstcentury-its

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constantstreamofnewproductsandinnovations,itswideninggulfbetweenrichandpoor.Theindustrializationoftherestaurantkitchenhasenabledthefastfoodchainstorelyuponalow-paidandunskilledworkforce.Whileahandfulofworkersmanagetoriseupthecorporateladder,thevastmajoritylackfull-timeemployment,receivenobenefits,learnfewskills,exerciselittlecontrolovertheirworkplace,quitafterafewmonths,andfloatfromjobtojob.TherestaurantindustryisnowAmerica’slargestprivateemployer,anditpayssomeofthelowestwages.Duringtheeconomicboomofthe1990s,whenmanyAmericanworkersenjoyedtheirfirstpayraisesinageneration,therealvalueofwagesintherestaurantindustrycontinuedtofall.Theroughly3.5millionfastfoodworkersarebyfarthelargestgroupofminimumwageearnersintheUnitedStates.TheonlyAmericanswhoconsistentlyearnalowerhourlywagearemigrantfarmworkers.AhamburgerandfrenchfriesbecamethequintessentialAmericanmealinthe1950s,thankstothepromotionaleffortsofthefastfoodchains.ThetypicalAmericannowconsumesapproximatelythreehamburgersandfourordersoffrenchfrieseveryweek.Butthesteadybarrageoffastfoodads,fullofthickjuicyburgersandlonggoldenfries,rarelymentionswherethesefoodscomefromnowadaysorwhatingredientstheycontain.ThebirthofthefastfoodindustrycoincidedwithEisenhower-eraglorificationsoftechnology,withoptimisticsloganslikeBetterLivingthroughChemistryandOurFriendtheAtom.ThesortoftechnologicalwizardrythatWaltDisneypromotedontelevisionandatDisneylandeventuallyreacheditsfulfillmentinthekitchensoffastfoodrestaurants.Indeed,thecorporatecultureofMcDonald’sseemsinextricablylinkedtothatoftheDisneyempire,sharingareverenceforsleekmachinery,electronics,andautomation.Theleadingfastfoodchainsstillembraceaboundlessfaithinscience-andasaresulthavechangednotjustwhatAmericanseat,butalsohowtheirfoodismade.ThecurrentmethodsforpreparingfastfoodarelesslikelytobefoundincookbooksthanintradejournalssuchasFoodTechnologistandFoodEngineering.Asidefromthesaladgreensandtomatoes,mostfastfoodisdeliveredtotherestaurantalreadyfrozen,canned,dehydrated,orfreezedried.Afastfoodkitchenismerelythefinalstageinavastandhighlycomplexsystemofmassproduction.Foodsthatmaylookfamiliarhaveinfactbeencompletelyreformulated.Whatweeathaschangedmoreinthelastfortyyearsthaninthepreviousfortythousand.LikeCheyenneMountain,today’sfastfoodconcealsremarkabletechnologicaladvancesbehindanordinary-lookingfaçade.MuchofthetasteandaromaofAmericanfastfood,forexample,isnowmanufacturedataseriesoflargechemicalplantsofftheNewJerseyTurnpike.InthefastfoodrestaurantsofColoradoSprings,behindthecounters,amidtheplasticseats,inthechanginglandscapeoutsidethewindow,youcanseeallthevirtuesanddestructivenessofourfastfoodnation.IchoseColoradoSpringsasafocalpointforthisbookbecausethechangesthathaverecentlysweptthroughthecityareemblematicofthosethatfastfood-andthefastfoodmentality-haveencouragedthroughouttheUnitedStates.Countlessothersuburbancommunities,ineverypartofthecountry,couldhavebeenusedtoillustratethesamepoints.TheextraordinarygrowthofColoradoSpringsneatlyparallelsthatofthefastfoodindustry:duringthelastfewdecades,thecity’spopulationhasmorethandoubled.Subdivisions,shoppingmalls,andchainrestaurantsareappearinginthefoothillsofCheyenneMountainandtheplainsrollingtotheeast.TheRockyMountainregionasawholehasthefastest-growingeconomyintheUnitedStates,mixinghigh-techandserviceindustriesinawaythatmaydefineAmerica’sworkforceforyearstocome.Andnewrestaurantsareopeningthereatafasterpacethananywhereelseinthenation.Fastfoodisnowsocommonplacethatithasacquiredanairofinevitability,asthoughitweresomehowunavoidable,afactofmodernlife.Andyetthedominanceofthefastfoodgiantswasnomorepreordainedthanthemarchofcolonialsplit-levels,golfcourses,andman-madelakesacrossthedesertsoftheAmericanWest.ThepoliticalphilosophythatnowprevailsinsomuchoftheWest-withitsdemandforlowertaxes,smallergovernment,anunbridledfreemarket-standsintotal

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contradictiontotheregion’strueeconomicunderpinnings.NootherregionoftheUnitedStateshasbeensodependentongovernmentsubsidiesforsolong,fromthenineteenth-centuryconstructionofitsrailroadstothetwentieth-centuryfinancingofitsmilitarybasesanddams.Onehistorianhasdescribedthefederalgovernment’s1950shighway-buildingbingeasacasestudyininterstatesocialism-aphrasethataptlydescribeshowtheWestwasreallywon.Thefastfoodindustrytookrootalongsidethatinterstatehighwaysystem,asanewformofrestaurantsprangupbesidethenewoff-ramps.Moreover,theextraordinarygrowthofthisindustryoverthepastquarter-centurydidnotoccurinapoliticalvacuum.Ittookplaceduringaperiodwhentheinflation-adjustedvalueoftheminimumwagedeclinedbyabout40percent,whensophisticatedmassmarketingtechniqueswereforthefirsttimedirectedatsmallchildren,andwhenfederalagenciescreatedtoprotectworkersandconsumerstoooftenbehavedlikebranchofficesofthecompaniesthatweresupposedtoberegulated.EversincetheadministrationofPresidentRichardNixon,thefastfoodindustryhasworkedcloselywithitsalliesinCongressandtheWhiteHousetoopposenewworkersafety,foodsafety,andminimumwagelaws.Whilepubliclyespousingsupportforthefreemarket,thefastfoodchainshavequietlypursuedandgreatlybenefitedfromawidevarietyofgovernmentsubsidies.Farfrombeinginevitable,America’sfastfoodindustryinitspresentformisthelogicaloutcomeofcertainpoliticalandeconomicchoices.InthepotatofieldsandprocessingplantsofIdaho,intheranchlandseastofColoradoSprings,inthefeedlotsandslaughterhousesoftheHighPlains,youcanseetheeffectsoffastfoodonthenation’srurallife,itsenvironment,itsworkers,anditshealth.Thefastfoodchainsnowstandatopahugefood-industrialcomplexthathasgainedcontrolofAmericanagriculture.Duringthe1980s,largemultinationals-suchasCargill,ConAgra,andIBP-wereallowedtodominateonecommoditymarketafteranother.Farmersandcattleranchersarelosingtheirindependence,essentiallybecominghiredhandsfortheagribusinessgiantsorbeingforcedofftheland.Familyfarmsarenowbeingreplacedbygiganticcorporatefarmswithabsenteeowners.Ruralcommunitiesarelosingtheirmiddleclassandbecomingsociallystratified,dividedbetweenasmall,wealthyeliteandlargenumbersoftheworkingpoor.SmalltownsthatseeminglybelonginaNormanRockwellpaintingarebeingturnedintoruralghettos.Thehardy,independentfarmerswhomThomasJeffersonconsideredthebedrockofAmericandemocracyareatrulyvanishingbreed.TheUnitedStatesnowhasmoreprisoninmatesthanfull-timefarmers.Thefastfoodchains’vastpurchasingpowerandtheirdemandforauniformproducthaveencouragedfundamentalchangesinhowcattleareraised,slaughtered,andprocessedintogroundbeef.Thesechangeshavemademeatpacking-onceahighlyskilled,highlypaidoccupation-intothemostdangerousjobintheUnitedStates,performedbyarmiesofpoor,transientimmigrantswhoseinjuriesoftengounrecordedanduncompensated.Andthesamemeatindustrypracticesthatendangertheseworkershavefacilitatedtheintroductionofdeadlypathogens,suchasE.coli0157:H7,intoAmerica’shamburgermeat,afoodaggressivelymarketedtochildren.Againandagain,effortstopreventthesaleoftaintedgroundbeefhavebeenthwartedbymeatindustrylobbyistsandtheiralliesinCongress.Thefederalgovernmenthasthelegalauthoritytorecalladefectivetoasterovenorstuffedanimal-butstilllacksthepowertorecalltonsofcontaminated,potentiallylethalmeat.IdonotmeantosuggestthatfastfoodissolelyresponsibleforeverysocialproblemnowhauntingtheUnitedStates.Insomecases(suchasthemallingandsprawlingoftheWest)thefastfoodindustryhasbeenacatalystandasymptomoflargereconomictrends.Inothercases(suchastheriseoffranchisingandthespreadofobesity)fastfoodhasplayedamorecentralrole.BytracingthediverseinfluencesoffastfoodIhopetoshedlightnotonlyontheworkingsofanimportantindustry,butalsoonadistinctivelyAmericanwayofviewingtheworld.Elitistshavealwayslookeddownatfastfood,criticizinghowittastesandregardingitasanothertackymanifestationofAmericanpopularculture.TheaestheticsoffastfoodareofmuchlessconcerntomethanitsimpactuponthelivesofordinaryAmericans,bothasworkersand

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consumers.Mostofall,Iamconcernedaboutitsimpactonthenation’schildren.Fastfoodisheavilymarketedtochildrenandpreparedbypeoplewhoarebarelyolderthanchildren.Thisisanindustrythatbothfeedsandfeedsofftheyoung.Duringthetwoyearsspentresearchingthisbook,Iateanenormousamountoffastfood.Mostofittastedprettygood.Thatisoneofthemainreasonspeoplebuyfastfood;ithasbeencarefullydesignedtotastegood.It’salsoinexpensiveandconvenient.Butthevaluemeals,two-for-onedeals,andfreerefillsofsodagiveadistortedsenseofhowmuchfastfoodactuallycosts.Therealpriceneverappearsonthemenu.ThesociologistGeorgeRitzerhasattackedthefastfoodindustryforcelebratinganarrowmeasureofefficiencyovereveryotherhumanvalue,callingthetriumphofMcDonald’stheirrationalityofrationality.Othersconsiderthefastfoodindustryproofofthenation’sgreateconomicvitality,abelovedAmericaninstitutionthatappealsoverseastomillionswhoadmireourwayoflife.Indeed,thevalues,theculture,andtheindustrialarrangementsofourfastfoodnationarenowbeingexportedtotherestoftheworld.FastfoodhasjoinedHollywoodmovies,bluejeans,andpopmusicasoneofAmerica’smostprominentculturalexports.Unlikeothercommodities,however,fastfoodisn’tviewed,read,played,orworn.Itentersthebodyandbecomespartoftheconsumer.Nootherindustryoffers,bothliterallyandfiguratively,somuchinsightintothenatureofmassconsumption.Hundredsofmillionsofpeoplebuyfastfoodeverydaywithoutgivingitmuchthought,unawareofthesubtleandnotsosubtleramificationsoftheirpurchases.Theyrarelyconsiderwherethisfoodcamefrom,howitwasmade,whatitisdoingtothecommunityaroundthem.Theyjustgrabtheirtrayoffthecounter,findatable,takeaseat,unwrapthepaper,anddigin.Thewholeexperienceistransitoryandsoonforgotten.I’vewrittenthisbookoutofabeliefthatpeopleshouldknowwhatliesbehindtheshiny,happysurfaceofeveryfastfoodtransaction.Theyshouldknowwhatreallylurksbetweenthosesesame-seedbuns.Astheoldsayinggoes:Youarewhatyoueat.Question:Schlosser’sthesis,that“Anation’sdietcanbemorerevealingthanitsartorliterature.Thisisabookaboutfastfood,thevaluesitembodies,andtheworldithasmade…thefastfoodindustryhashelpedtotransformnotonlytheAmericandiet,butalsoourlandscape,economy,workforce,andpopularculture.”isdefendedbyhimthroughouttheintroductionofthisbook.ForeachofthefollowingaspectsofAmericansocietythathementions,describehowhearguesthatfastfoodhasalteredit:1.TheAmericanDiet2.TheAmericaneconomy3.Theworkforce4.GeneralAmericanpopulationculture*Writeaboutaparagraphforeach,nolessthan1pagetotal

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5.ShanghaiIsTryingtoUntangletheMangledEnglishofChinglish(ByAndrewJacobs-Published:May2,2010,TheNewYorkTimes):SHANGHAI—ForEnglishspeakerswithsubparChineseskills,dailylifeinChinaoffersaconfoundingarrayofchoices.Atbanks,therearemachinesfor“cashwithdrawing”and“cashrecycling.”Themenusoflocalrestaurantsmightpresentsuchdelectablesas“friedenema,”“monolithictreemushroomstemsquid”andamysteriousthirst-quencherknownas“TheJew’sEarJuice.”Thosewhohavehadabittoomuchmonolithictreemushroomstemsquidcouldfindthemselvesrequiringroomierattire:extra-largesizessometimescomein“fatso”or“lardbucket”categories.TheseandotherfashionscanbehadattheclothingchainknownasScat.Goaheadandsnicker,althoughbylastSaturday’sopeningoftheExpo2010inShanghai,drawingmorethan70millionvisitorsoveritssix-monthrun,theseandotheruniquelyChinesemaladaptationsoftheEnglishlanguageweresupposedtohavebeenlargelyexcised.Well,thatatleastiswhattheShanghaiCommissionfortheManagementofLanguageUsehasbeentryingtoaccomplishduringthepasttwoyears.Fortifiedbyanarmyof600volunteersandapolitburoofadroitEnglishspeakers,thecommissionhasfixedmorethan10,000publicsigns(farewell“Teliot”and“urinedistrict”),rewrittenEnglish-languagehistoricalplacardsandhelpedhundredsofrestaurantsrecastofferings.ThecampaignispartlymodeledonBeijing’sherculeanefforttocleanupEnglishsignageforthe2008SummerOlympics,whichledtothereplacementof400,000streetsigns,1,300restaurantmenusandsuchexemplarsofimproprietyastheDongdaAnusHospital—nowknownastheDongdaProctologyHospital.Gone,too,isRacistPark,aculturalattractionthathassincebeenrechristenedMinoritiesPark.“Thepurposeofsignageistobeuseful,nottobeamusing,”saidZhaoHuimin,theformerChinesedeputyconsulgeneraltotheUnitedStateswho,asdirectorgeneralofthecapital’sForeignAffairsOffice,hasbeenleadingthefightforlinguisticstandardizationandsobriety.ButwhilethewaronmangledEnglishmaybeconsideredasignatureachievementofgovernmentofficials,aficionadosofwhatisknownasChinglisharewringingtheirhandsindespair.OliverLutzRadtke,aformerGermanradioreporterwhomaywellbetheworld’sforemostauthorityonChinglish,saidhebelievedthatChinashouldembracethefancifulmeldingofEnglishandChineseasthehallmarkofadynamic,livinglanguage.Asheseesit,Chinglishisanendangeredspeciesthatdeservespreservation.“Ifyoustandardizeallthesesigns,younotonlytakeawaythelittlegiggleyougetwhilestrollingintheparkbutyouloseawindowintotheChinesemind,”saidMr.Radtke,whoistheauthorofapairofpicturebooksthatfeaturegiggle-worthyChinglishsignsintheirnaturalhabitat.Lestanyonethinkitisallaboutlaughs,Mr.RadtkeiscurrentlypursuingadoctoraldegreeinChinglishattheUniversityofHeidelberg.Still,theenemiesofChinglishsaythelaughteritelicitsishumiliating.WangXiaoming,anEnglishscholarattheChineseAcademyofSocialSciences,painfullyrecallstheguffawsthateruptedamongherforeign-borncolleaguesastheyflippedthroughaphotographiccollectionofpoorlywrittensigns.“Theydidn’tmeantoinsultmebutIcouldn’thelpbutfeeluncomfortable,”saidMs.Wang,whohassincebecomeoneofBeijing’sleadingChinglishslayers.ThosewhostudytherootsofChinglishsaymanyexamplescanbetracedtolazinessandaflawedbutwildlypopulartranslationsoftware.VictorH.Mair,aprofessorofChineseattheUniversityofPennsylvania,saidthecomputerizeddictionary,JinshanCiba,hadledtosexuallyorientedvulgaritiesidentifyingdriedproduceinChinesesupermarketsandtheregrettable“friedenema”menuselectionthatshouldhavebeenrenderedas“friedsausage.”

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AlthoughimprovedtranslationsoftwareandagrowingzealforgrammaticallyunassailableEnglishhasslowedtheoutputofnewChinglishisms,Mr.Mairsaidhestillreceivedaboutfivenewexamplesadayfrompeoplewhoknewhewasgoodatdecipheringwhatwentwrong.“Ifsomeonewouldpaymetodoit,I’dspendmylifestudyingthesethings,”hesaid.AmongthosegettingpaidtowrestlewithChinglishisJeffreyYao,anEnglishtranslatorandteacherattheGraduateInstituteofInterpretationandTranslationatShanghaiInternationalStudiesUniversitywhoisleadingthesignexorcism.Butevenasheeradicatesthemostegregiousexamplesbygovernmentfiat—businessesdarenotignorethecommission’ssuggestedfixes—hehasmixedfeelings,notingthatalthoughsomeChinglishphrasessoundawkwardtoWesternears,theycanberefreshinglylyrical.“Someofittendstobeexpressive,evenelegant,”hesaid,shufflingthroughanonlinecatalogofsignsthatweresubmittedbythevolunteerswhoprowledShanghaiwithdigitalcameras.“TheyprovideawindowintohowweChinesethinkaboutlanguage.”Heofferedthefollowingexample:WhileparksignsintheWestexhortpeopleto“KeepOfftheGrass,”Chineseversionstendtoanthropomorphizenatureasawaytogentlyengagethestompingmasses.Hence,suchadmonishmentsas“TheLittleGrassIsSleeping.PleaseDon’tDisturbIt”or“Don’tHurtMe.IAmAfraidofPain.”Mr.YaoreadofftheChineseequivalentsasifsavoringaShakespeareansonnet.“Howlovely,”hesaidwithasigh.Hepointedoutthatthislinguisticmentalityhelpedcreatesuchexpressionsas“longtimenosee,”aword-for-wordtranslationofaChineseexpressionthatbecameamainstayofspokenEnglish.ButMr.Yao,whospentnearlytwodecadesworkingasatranslatorinCanada,hashislimits.Heshowedasignfromaparkdesignedtoprovidevisitorswiththerulesforentry,whichincludeprohibitionsonwashing,“scavenging,”clothesdryingandpublicdefecation,allofitrenderedinunintelligible—andinthecaseofthelastitem—rathersaltyEnglish.Thesignendedwiththishumdinger:“Becauseifthetouristdoesnotobeythestafftomanageorcontraryholds,Does,allconsequencesareproud.”Eventhoughhehadhadthesigncorrectedrecently,Mr.Yaocouldnothelpbutshakehisheadindisgustatthememory.Andhewasirritatedtofindthataraftoftroublesomesignverbiagehadslippedpastthecommissionastheexpoapproached,includingacafeteriasignthatread,“Thetablewarereclaimsaplace.”(Translation:dropoffdirtydisheshere.)“SomeChinglishexpressionsarenice,butwearenottranslatingliteraturehere,”hesaid.“Iwanttoseepeoplenoddingthattheyunderstandthemessageonthesesigns.Idon’twanttoseethemlaughing.”Thisarticlehasbeenrevisedtoreflectthefollowingcorrection:Correction:May7,2010AnarticleonMondayaboutaneffortinChinatoexciseChinesemaladaptationsoftheEnglishlanguageintranslatedsigns,placards,menusandotherwrittenmaterialsmisidentifiedaChinesediplomaticpositionintheUnitedStatesformerlyheldbyZhaoHuimin,nowthedirectorgeneralofBeijing’sForeignAffairsOffice,whohasbeenhelpingtoleadthateffort.Hewasadeputyconsulgeneral,notambassador.ThearticlealsorenderedincorrectlythetransliteratednameofaflawedbutpopularcomputerizedChinesedictionarythatsomelinguistsconsiderasourceoftheChinglishproblem.ItistheJinshanCiba,notJingshanCiba.Questions:1.Basedonthearticle,howwouldyoudefine‘Chinglish’?2.WhydoesOliverLutzRadtkearguethatChinglishshouldnotbeeliminated,butratherpreserved?313.Fromtheoppositeviewpoint,whydocriticsofChinglishwanttoeraseitfromChinesesociety?

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6.Indianbridespayahighprice-Asia-Pacific-InternationalHeraldTribune(AmeliaGentlemanPublished:Sunday,October22,2006):NEWDELHI—Oncetheweddingguestswereallassembled,thefatherofthebridebroughtoutalargemetaltrayonwhichhehadpiledup51,000rupees(innotesof10and50rupees,tomaketheheaplooklarger)andhandedittothegroom.Anewtelevisionandsofawereconspicuouslydisplayedinthesameroom,sothateverymemberofthepartycouldseewhatwasbeingofferedfromthebride'sfamilytothegroomasadowry.Afulllistofalltheotheritemswascopiedoutbyhandandhandedtofivewitnesses-itemizingallthepiecesoffurniture,kitchenequipmentandjewelrythatwouldbedeliveredinpayment.UnfortunatelyforKamlesh,the18-year-oldbride,whousesonlyonename,thepaymentfromherfather,Misrilal,wasinsufficient.Hernewhusbandhadexpectedascooter;hisparentshadwantedmorethanthe51,000rupees-about$1,100-thattheygot.Duringthreeyearsofmarriage,therequestsforanextendeddowrysettlementbegantobeaccompaniedbyworseningboutsofviolence-untilinAugust,hebeatherovertheheadwithawoodenstick,tiedherupandlockedherinthecowshedasshebledprofusely.ViolentdowryharassmentisanincreasinglyvisiblephenomenoninIndia.Anaverageofonedowrydeathisreportedevery77minutesaccordingtotheNationalCrimeRecordBureauandvictimsupportgroupssaycomplaintsofdowryharassmentarerising,fueledbyarisingclimateofconsumerism."Everyoneisbecomingmoreandmorewesternized-theywantexpensiveclothes,theywanttheconsumerobjectswhichareconstantlyadvertisedontelevision.Adowryisseenasaneasywaytogetthem,"saidVarshaJha,anofficialwiththeDelhiCommissionforWomen.Althoughthegivingandtakingofdowryisbannedhereunderlegislationthatthreatensafive-yearjailterm,activistsdescribethelawas"ornamental"andpointoutthatitisalmostneverimposed.Dowrynegotiationsremainanintegralpartofweddingarrangements,although,toavoidlegalcomplications,thepaymentsareoftenreferredtoasweddinggifts.Kamleshhasbarelyspokensincetheattackanddoctorsareinvestigatingwhethershesufferedpermanentbraindamage.TheDelhiCommissionforWomen,agovernment-fundedbody,ishelpinghertoprosecuteherhusband,whoiscurrentlyunderarrestforthebeating.Officialsatthecommissionseeabout40abusedwomeneveryday,andestimatethatapproximately85percentofthesecasesarerelatedtodowrydemands;afigurethattheysayhasgrownoverthepastfiveyears."TherehasbeenariseinthematerialisticwayoflifeacrossIndiaanddowrydemandshaverisentobecomemoreextravagantinlinewiththesematerialisticneeds,"KiranWalia,chairwomanofthegroup,said."Itisonethingtogiveandtakedowry.Butwhatisreallyobnoxiousisthetorturewomenundergobecausethedowryislessthanexpected.Disputesoverinadequatedowrysplitcouplesfromeverysocialstrata.ThisweektheformerIndiancricketplayerManojPrabhakarwasincourttryingtosettleacaseofallegedharassmentfiledbyhisestrangedwife,Sandhya.ShesaysthattheMaruticar,jewelry,television,fridge,sofa-set,doublebedandcashhandedoverbyherfamilyasdowrywhentheymarriedwereconsideredunsatisfactorybyherhusband,andallegedthatheharassedherformorefromthestartoftheirmarriage.Hedeniesthis."Peoplearegettingmoregreedyandaggressiveintheirdowrydemands,"saidJha,oftheDelhiCommissionforWomen."YoumightexpectthatasthecountrybecomesmoreandmoreWesternized,thistraditionalpracticewouldbedyingout,likeothertraditions,butactuallythereverseistrue.Theoldhabitsremain.""Themensay,'I'lljustaskthegirl'sparentstogetmeaHonda.'Buttheyforgetthatthentheyhavetobuythepetrol,sotheygobacktothebride'sfamilytoaskforthepetrolmoney.It'snotaone-stepsystem;it'sacontinuousprocess."Kamlesh'sfatherhadbeen

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savingforhisdaughter'sweddinganddowryfor16yearsbeforeshemarried,andwassquirrelingawayasmuchashecouldfromhisdailyearningsasacarpenterofaround125rupees.Thetotalcostoftheweddinganddowrycametoaround250,000rupees,60,000ofwhichheborrowedfromhisboss.Whenthedemandsforfurtherdowrypaymentsfromthegroom'ssidebegancoming,itwasimpossibleforhimtomeetthem.Misrilalsaidhisdaughterwasbeingbulliedforanincreaseddowrypaymentfromthestart.AfterherhusbandattackedherinAugust,helefther,tiedup,intheshedforseveraldays,withoutfoodorwater,untilrelativescametoherrescue."Withinayearofmarriagehewasbeatingherbecauseofdowry,"Misrilalsaid,sittingwithhisdaughterinahospitalcorridor,waitingforherheadwoundtobeexamined.Theburdenbothofdowrypaymentsandlavishweddingsisoneofthemainreasonswhyfemalefeticide-thepracticeofabortingfemalefetuses-remainswidespreadinIndia.EarlierthisyearareportinTheLancet,aBritishmedicaljournal,indicatedthatasmanyas10millionfemalefetusesmayhavebeenabortedinIndiaoverthepast20yearsbyfamiliestryingtoavoidtheexpenseofhavingadaughterandhopingtosecurethemselvesamaleheir."Afterallthistorture,Ifeelthathavingadaughterisacurse,"Misrilalsaid.AttheheadquartersoftheDelhiCommissionforWomen,thechairwoman,Walia,wasmeetingrelativesofayoungwoman,KusumHardina,whosetfiretoherselfafewweeksagobecauseshefeltsodesperateattheconstantpressurefromherin-lawstoextractahigherdowrypaymentfromherfamily.OnSept.22,shefoughtwithhermother-in-lawandbrother-in-lawoverthedowryandtheninafitofangerpouredkeroseneoverherselfandsetitalight.Asshelaydyinginhospital,shegaveastatementtothepolicesayingshehaddoneitbecauseshewasbeingharassedforadowry,Waliasaid.Shehadtriedtoexplaintoherparentsthatshewasbeingtormented,buttheytoldhertostickwithherhusband.Whenshetoldthepolice,theysentaroundanofficerwhobeatupherhusband,whichdidnotcalmrelations."Wegave22,000rupeeswhentheygotmarried.Buttheywantedacolortelevision,amotorcycleandafridgeaswell,"Asharam,thebrotherofthedeadwoman,said."Herhusbanddoesn'tearnmuchasabuilder,buthewasgreedyforpossessions.""Dowryshouldbestopped,"headded."Whyshouldyougivethehusband'sfamilymoneywhenyouarealreadygivingthemagirl?"Waliahaslaunchedanawareness-raisingcampaign,sendingcounselorstouniversitiesacrossthecapitaltoalertstudentstotheproblemofdowryviolence.Butshewasnotoptimisticaboutitchancesofsuccess.“Itisveryunfortunate,buteveneducatedboysaredoingthis.Therichsetstandardsfortherestofsociety.Ihavenohopethatthisiscomingtoanend,"shesaid.Questions:1.Describewhatadowryis2.Howfrequentaredowrydeaths(andgeneralviolence)basedonthearticle?3.Whatarethecausesofthisviolence?4.WhatistheroleofGlobalization(theinterconnectednessofdifferentpartsoftheworld)onthenatureofdowries?Inotherwords,inwhatwayshaveWesternmediaandsocietyinfluencedthetypesofdowriesthatgroomsinIndia(andtheirfamilies)demandfromabride?5.Describethedifference(fromyourpointofview)betweenbeingabrideintheUnitedStatesandbeingabrideinIndia–howistheexperienceofbeingfemaledifferentineachculture,howisitthesame?

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7.HowTwitterProvesThatPlaceMatters(www.theatlanticcities.com):Twitterisafascinatingplacetoexplorenotjusttheconnectednessofpeoplebutofplaces.Inapreviouspost,Imappedthelocationsofthe500leading"Twitterati."Whenitcomestocelebrities,theTwitterverseisstilloverwhelminglyAmerican:almostthreequartersofthemarelocatedintheUnitedStates.LosAngeles,withitslargecelebritycontingent,tookthetopspotamongmetros,followedbyNewYork,SanFrancisco,Washington,D.C.,andAtlanta.Anewstudy,"TheGeographyofTwitterNetworks,"bymyUniversityofTorontocolleaguesYuriTakhteyev,BarryWellmanandAnatoliyGruzdfromDalhousieUniversitytakesafarmoredetailedlookatthegeographyofTwitterandwhatitcantellusaboutthenatureofinteractionandproximityintheInternetage.ManypredictedtheriseoftheInternetandofsocialmediawouldannihilatedistanceandovercometheconstraintsofplacebyallowingpeopletocommunicateandbuildvirtualcommunities.ButthefactofthematterisTwitteractuallyworkswithandreinforcesthepowerofplace.TobetterunderstandtheconnectionsbetweenTwitterandlocation,theauthorsworkedwithasampleof500,000tweets.Fromthese,theypainstakinglyidentifiedroughly2,000"dyadicpairs"oftweeters,orTwitteruserswhoofteninteract.Checkingbyhand,theywereabletopinpointmorethan1,200ofthesepairstopreciselocationsthesizeofalargemetropolitan,spanning386distinctlocationsor"regionalclusters."WhattheyfoundisthatfouroutofeverytenpairsofconnectedTwitterusersfallinthesameregionalcluster—indeed,atdistancesoflessthan10kilometers,theyarewithineasydrivingdistance,accordingtotheanalysis.Tiesoflessthan1,000kilometersaremorecommonthanexpected(ifsuchtieswererandom)andtiesofgreaterthan5,000kilometersaremuchlessso.WhileTwittertiesarealsocloseramongthoseinthesamecountrywhosharethesamelanguage,thosetwofactorsalonecannotexplainawaytheeffectsofproximity.Thefrequencyofairlineconnectionsbetweenplacesisthebestsinglepredictoroflongdistanceor"non-local"Twitterties.This,theauthorssuggest,isalikelyreflectionoflongerstandingphysicaltiesbetweenplaces.Theirfindingsindicatethatplaceandproximitycontinuetomattereveninsocialmedia.Twitterdoesn’treplacethenetworksthatexistintherealworld—itreinforcesthemandmakesthemstronger.Ratherthanfreeingusfromplace,thisstudysuggests,theInternetappearstoenhanceandevenexpanditsrole.Question:Thethesisofthisarticleisthat“…Twitteractuallyworkswithandreinforcesthepowerofplace.”Place,asaconceptinhumangeography,referstotheuniquephysicalandculturalcharacteristicsofaparticularlocation.Withthisdefinitioninmind,describeinafewparagraphsthewayinwhichthearticlegoesontoprovethatTwitterhelpsreinforcetheconceptof‘place’

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8.Quinoa’sGlobalSuccessCreatesQuandaryatHome(NewYorkTimes-March19th,2011):LAPAZ,Bolivia—WhenNASAscientistsweresearchingdecadesagoforanidealfoodforlongtermhumanspacemissions,theycameacrossanAndeanplantcalledquinoa.Withanexceptionalbalanceofaminoacids,quinoa,theydeclared,isvirtuallyunrivaledintheplantoranimalkingdomforitslife-sustainingnutrients.ButwhileBolivianshavelivedoffitforcenturies,quinoaremainedlittlemorethanacuriosityoutsidetheAndesforyears,foundinhealthfoodshopsandstudiedbyresearchers—untilrecently.Nowdemandforquinoa(pronouncedKEE-no-ah)issoaringinrichcountries,asAmericanandEuropeanconsumersdiscoverthe“lostcrop”oftheIncas.Thesurgehashelpedraisefarmers’incomeshereinoneofthehemisphere’spoorestcountries.Buttherehasbeenanotabletrade-off:FewerBolivianscannowaffordit,hasteningtheirembraceofcheaper,processedfoodsandraisingfearsofmalnutritioninacountrythathaslongstruggledwithit.Theshiftoffersaglimpseintotheconsequencesofrisingglobalfoodpricesandchangingeatinghabitsinbothprosperousanddevelopingnations.Whilequinoapriceshavealmosttripledoverthepastfiveyears,Bolivia’sconsumptionofthestaplefell34percentoverthesameperiod,accordingtothecountry’sagriculturalministry.Theresultingquandary—localfarmersearnmore,butfewerBoliviansreapquinoa’snutritionalrewards—hasnutritionistsandpublicofficialsgraspingforsolutions.“Asit’sexported,quinoaisnowveryexpensive,”saidMaríaJuliaCabrerizo,anutritionistattheHospitaldeClínicas,apublichospitalhere.“It’snotafoodofmassconsumption,likenoodlesorrice.”Quinoa,domesticatedthousandsofyearsagoonBolivia’saridhighmountainplainsandnowoftenmisrepresentedasagrain,isactuallyachenopod,relatedtospecieslikebeetsandspinach.Itsseedshavealight,nuttytaste,andwhencookedbecomealmosttranslucent.WhiletheIncasreliedonquinoatofeedtheirsoldiers,itwasonlyrecentlythatBolivianfarmers,withthehelpofEuropeanandAmericanforeignaidorganizations,startedgrowingquinoaforexport.ThefocusonforeignmarketshasalteredlifeinisolatedplaceslikeSalinasdeGarcíMendoza,acommunityontheedgeofthesaltflatsinsouthernBoliviawheremuchofthecountry’squinoaisproduced.Agriculturalleadersclaimthatrisingexportsoftheplanthaveliftedlivingstandardsthereandinotherquinoa-growingareas.“Beforequinoawasatthepriceitisnow,peoplewenttoArgentinaandChiletowork,”saidMiguelChoqueLlanos,commercialdirectoroftheNationalAssociationofQuinoaProducers.Now,hesaid,risingquinoapriceshavealsoencouragedcitydwellerstoreturntotheirplotsinthecountrysideduringplantingandharvestseasons.Yettherearecausesforconcern.Whilemalnutritiononanationallevelhasfallenoverthepastfewyearsthankstoaggressivesocialwelfareprograms,Ms.Cabrerizo,thenutritionist,saidstudiesshowedthatchronicmalnutritioninchildrenhadclimbedinquinoa-growingareas,includingSalinasdeGarcíMendoza,inrecentyears.InSalinasdeGarcíMendozaandelsewhere,partofthischangeisduetoclimbingquinoapricesandmorequinoabeingdestinedforexport.“Iadorequinoa,butIcan’tafforditanymore,”saidMicaelaHuanca,50,astreetvendorinElAlto,acityofslumsabovethecapital,LaPaz.“Ilookatitinthemarketsandwalkaway.”OfficialsinPresidentEvoMorales’sgovernmentsaythatchangingfoodpreferencesandincreasedabilitytobuyprocessedfoodsalsoplayarole.“Ithastodowithfoodculture,becauseifyougivethekidstoastedquinoaflour,theydon’twantit;theywantwhitebread,”saidVíctorHugoVásquez,viceministerofruraldevelopmentandagriculture.“Ifyougivethemboiledwater,sugarandquinoaflourmixedintoadrink,theypreferCoca-Cola.”

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Theshiftawayfromconsumingquinoainthecradleofitscultivationhasalarmedsomeoftheplant’stopmarketersintheUnitedStates,wherequinoaisincreasinglycovetedbyhealth-consciousconsumers.“It’skindofdiscouragingtoseestufflikethishappen,butthat’spartoflifeandeconomics,”saidDavidSchnorr,thepresidentoftheQuinoaCorporationofLosAngeles,oneofthelargestimportersofquinoaintheUnitedStates,whichhasworkedwithBolivianproducerssincethe1980s.Mr.Schnorrsaidquinoa’sclimbingpricesintheUnitedStateswereraisingotherconcernsaswell.“At$5abox,onlysomanypeoplecanaffordthat,”hesaid,addingthathewouldpreferapriceabouthalfthatamount.“I’vealwaysbeenanadvocateofexpandingthemarket,keepingthepricestoapointwheremorepeoplecantryit.”HereinBolivia,governmentofficialsaretryingtoincreasedomesticquinoaconsumption,evenastheproductfacessteepcompetitionfromotherfoods.Atsupermarketshere,a1,000-grambagofquinoa,justovertwopounds,coststheequivalentof$4.85,comparedwith$1.20forabagofnoodlesthesameweightand$1forabagofwhiterice.PresidentMoralessaidthismonththatheplannedtomakemorethan$10millioninloansavailabletoorganicquinoaproducers,andhealthofficialsareincorporatingtheplantintoapacketoffoodssuppliedtothousandsofpregnantandnursingwomeneachmonth.Mr.Vásquez,theruraldevelopmentofficial,saidquinoawouldalsobeavailableinmealsforthearmedforcesandinmoreschoolbreakfasts.“That’salreadyunderwayinsomemunicipalities,”hesaid,“butwewanttoexpand.”Somehereclingtoeatingquinoadespiteitsrisingprice.PaulinaVásquez,52,ahousekeeperandmotherofthreechildrenintheir20swholivewithherinapoordistrictonasteepmountainsideofLaPaz,sowsthecropeachyearonherfamily’slandoutsidethecity.Thepackagedquinoafoundinsupermarketsisbeyondwhatherfamilycanafford.Instead,theyharvesttheirown,storeitandthenprepareitbyhand,apainstakingprocessthatincludeswashingawaytheresinlikesaponincoatingthatprotectstheseeds.Ms.Vásquezregularlypreparesasweetdrinkofquinoa,apple,cinnamonandsugarforherfamilyforbreakfast.Butshesaysmanyintheyoungergenerationhavemovedawayfromit.“Peoplemyageandolderareeatingquinoa,”Ms.Vásquezsaid.“Theyoungpeopledon’twantit.Ifthereisapotofnoodleseveryoneisthere,asifnoodleswerenutritious.Evenmychildrenarethatway.”Question:Thisarticlediscussesamajorthemeofhumangeography–globalizationversuslocalculture.Innolessthan2paragraphs,describeboththepositiveandthenegativeimpactsofWesterndemandforQuinoa–usesocial,agricultural,andeconomicexamplesinyouranswer(thearticletalksaboutall3)

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9.LanguagesDie,butNotTheirLastWords(ByJohnNobleWilford–NewYorkTimes):Oftheestimated7,000languagesspokenintheworldtoday,linguistssay,nearlyhalfareindangerofextinctionandlikelytodisappearinthiscentury.Infact,onefallsoutofuseabouteverytwoweeks.Somelanguagesvanishinaninstant,atthedeathofthesolesurvivingspeaker.Othersarelostgraduallyinbilingualcultures,asindigenoustonguesareoverwhelmedbythedominantlanguageatschool,inthemarketplaceandontelevision.Newresearch,reportedyesterday,hasfoundthefiveregionswherelanguagesaredisappearingmostrapidly:northernAustralia,centralSouthAmerica,NorthAmerica’supperPacificcoastalzone,easternSiberia,andOklahomaandthesouthwesternUnitedStates.Allhaveindigenouspeoplespeakingdiverselanguages,infallingnumbers.ThestudywasbasedonfieldresearchanddataanalysissupportedbytheNationalGeographicSocietyandtheLivingTonguesInstituteforEndangeredLanguages.ThefindingsaredescribedintheOctoberissueofNationalGeographicandatlanguagehotspots.org.Inateleconferencewithreportersyesterday,K.DavidHarrison,anassociateprofessoroflinguisticsatSwarthmore,saidthatmorethanhalfthelanguageshadnowrittenformandwere“vulnerabletolossandbeingforgotten.”Theirlossleavesnodictionary,notext,norecordoftheaccumulatedknowledgeandhistoryofavanishedculture.Beginningwhatisexpectedtobealong-termprojecttoidentifyandrecordendangeredlanguages,Dr.HarrisonhastraveledtomanypartsoftheworldwithGregoryD.S.Anderson,directoroftheLivingTonguesInstitute,inSalem,Ore.,andChrisRainier,afilmmakerwiththeNationalGeographicSociety.Theresearchers,focusingondistinctorallanguages,notdialects,interviewedandmaderecordingsofthefewremainingspeakersofalanguageandcollectedbasicwordlists.Theindividualprojects,somelastingthreetofouryears,involvehundredsofhoursofrecordingspeech,developinggrammarsandpreparingchildren’sreadersintheobscurelanguage.Theresearchhasconcentratedonpreservingentirelanguagefamilies.InAustralia,wherenearlyallthe231spokentonguesareendangered,theresearcherscameuponthreeknownspeakersofMagatiKeintheNorthernTerritory,andthreeYawuruspeakersinWesternAustralia.InJuly,Dr.Andersonsaid,theymetthesolespeakerofAmurdag,alanguageintheNorthernTerritorythathadbeendeclaredextinct.“Thisisprobablyonelanguagethatcannotbebroughtback,butatleastwemadearecordofit,”Dr.Andersonsaid,notingthattheAboriginewhospokeitstrainedtorecallwordshehadheardfromhisfather,nowdead.Manyofthe113languagesintheregionfromtheAndesMountainsintotheAmazonbasinarepoorlyknownandaregivingwaytoSpanishorPortuguese,orinafewcases,amoredominantindigenouslanguage.Inthisarea,forexample,agroupknownastheKallawayauseSpanishorQuechuaindailylife,butalsohaveasecrettonguemainlyforpreservingknowledgeofmedicinalplants,somepreviouslyunknowntoscience“Howandwhythislanguagehassurvivedformorethan400years,whilebeingspokenbyveryfew,isamystery,”Dr.Harrisonsaidinanewsrelease.ThedominanceofEnglishthreatensthesurvivalofthe54indigenouslanguagesintheNorthwestPacificplateau,aregionincludingBritishColumbia,WashingtonandOregon.OnlyonepersonremainswhoknowsSiletzDee-ni,thelastofmanylanguagesoncespokenonareservationinOregon.IneasternSiberia,theresearcherssaid,governmentpolicieshaveforcedspeakersofminoritylanguagestousethenationalandregionallanguages,likeRussianorSakha.FortylanguagesarestillspokeninOklahoma,TexasandNewMexico,manyofthemoriginallyusedbyIndiantribesandothersintroducedbyEasterntribesthatwereforcedtoresettleonreservations,

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mainlyinOklahoma.Severalofthelanguagesaremoribund.Anothermeasureofthethreattomanyrelativelyunknownlanguages,Dr.Harrisonsaid,isthat83languageswith“global”influencearespokenandwrittenby80percentoftheworldpopulation.Mostoftheothersfaceextinctionatarate,theresearcherssaid,thatexceedsthatofbirds,mammals,fishandplants.Questions:1.Describethemanywaysinwhichthearticlearguesthatlanguages‘die’off,orbecomeendagered2.Describethewaysinwhichendangeredlanguagescanbesavedorpreserved10.-TheUrbanClanofGenghisKhanAninfluxofnomadshasturnedtheMongoliancapitalupsidedown.ByDonBeltPhotographbyMarkLeongNotlongagoayoungMongolianlivestockherdernamedOchkhuuGenenloadedwhatwasleftofhislifeintoaborrowedChinesepickuptruckandmovedittoUlaanbaatar,Mongolia'ssprawlingcapital.Slenderanddignified,Ochkhuugavenooutwardsignofturmoilasheburiedhimselfinthemechanicsofpacking,lifting,unpacking,andassembling.Hemayhavebeendisappointedinhimself,evenshaken,butoutwardlyhewasassmoothandfocusedasasocketwrench.Withinhoursofarriving,Ochkhuuhadpitchedhisger—thenomad'straditionalrounddwelling—onasmall,fencedplotofbaregroundhe'drentedontheoutskirtsofthecity.Arounditwerethousandsofotherplots,eachwithagerinthemiddle,jammedtogetherontheslopesoverlookingUlaanbaatar.Oncehisstovepipewasraisedandthestakesdrivenin,heopenedthelowwoodendoorforhiswife,Norvoo;theirbabyboy,Ulaka;andtheirsix-year-olddaughter,Anuka.Norvooalsotookcomfortinthetaskathand.Sheputasideherworrieslongenoughtomakesuretheirgerwasascozyasithadbeeninthecountryside:linoleumfloor,cast-ironstove,andcotsaroundtheedges,withfamilypicturesneatlypinnedtothewallandasmalltelevisiononawoodentable.Outsidetheirdoor,however,theviewwasstarklydifferentfromwhatithadbeenonthesteppeanhoursouthwestofthecapital,wherethey'draisedtheirlivestocknexttothegerofNorvoo'sparents.Here,inplaceofrollinggrasslands,therewasaseven-foot-highwoodenfenceafewfeetaway.AndinplaceofOchkhuu'scherishedlivestock—thehorsesandcattleandsheep—therewasonlythelandlord'sdog,ablackandbrownmongrelstakedintheyard,whobarkedhimselfhoarseattheleastprovocation.Therewasplentyofprovocationjustbeyondthefence,intheramshackleslums,orgerdistricts,whereabout60percentofUlaanbaatar's1.2millionpeoplelivewithoutpavedroads,sanitation,orrunningwater.Asinotherurbanslums,thegerdistrictsarehighincrime,alcoholism,poverty,anddespair,whichiswhymanypeopleheredotheunthinkable,foraherder:Theylocktheirgatesatnight."Westepoutsidethegerandallwecanseeisthatfence,"Ochkhuusaid."It'slikelivinginabox."Nomadswerenevermeanttoliveinabox,butOchkhuuandNorvooweren'ttherebychoice.Duringthewinterof2009-2010,mostofthecouple'slivestockeitherfrozeorstarvedtodeath

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duringawhitedzud,adevastatingperiodofsnow,ice,andbittercoldthatfollowsasummerdrought;itlastedmorethanfourmonths.Bythetimetheweatherbroke,thecouple'sherdof350animalshadbeencutto90.AcrossMongoliasomeeightmillionanimals—cows,yaks,camels,horses,goats,andsheep—diedthatwinter."Afterthat,Ijustcouldn'tseeourfutureinthecountrysideanymore,"Ochkhuusaidquietly."Sowedecidedtosellwhatwasleftofourherdandmakeanewlife."Itwasalsoaclear-eyedcalculationtoimprovethelivesoftheirchildren.OchkhuuandNorvoofeelnogreataffinityforcitylife,buttheyseeitsadvantages.Inthecountrysidetheywerefarremovedfromnursesandschools,butheretheycangetfreemedicalcarefortheirinfantson,andAnukacanattendapublicschool.TherearemorethanhalfamillionOchkhuusandNorvooslivingthesedaysinUB,asMongolianscallUlaanbaatar.Manyhavebeendrivenfromthesteppebybadwinters,badluck,andbadprospects.AndnowthatMongolia'scoal,gold,andcopperminesareattractingbillionsinforeigninvestment,theyalsohavefloodedintoUBinsearchofjobprospectscreatedbytheeconomicupsurgefromminingmoney.Beyondthedowntownhigh-rises,UBoftenfeelslikeafrontiertownrunamok,strewnlengthwisealongarivervalleylikegravelleftbehindbyaflashflood.Foundedin1639asamovableBuddhistmonasticcenterandtradingpost,thesettlementtookrootinitspresentlocationin1778.Thetownwaslaidoutalongonemajorthoroughfare,whichrunsalongthebaseofalowmountain.TodaythatroadgoesbythenamePeaceAvenue,andit'sstilltheonlydirectwaytogetfromonesideoftowntotheother.Fromdaybreaktonightfall,it'sjammedwithtraffic.DrivingitislikegettingonaconveyorbeltthatinchespastcrumblingSoviet-eraapartmentblocks,sidestreetsthatrunpromisinglyfor50yardsandthenendatabarricade,unexplainedpilesofrustedironandconcrete,andofficebuildingssoclumsilysituatedandhiddenfromviewthatnotaxidrivercanfindthem.Addtothisafloodofnomads,manyofthemrecentarrivalswhoseskillsetdoesn'tincludecitydriving,crossingabusyroad,orthesubtletiesofsocialinteractioninanurbanenvironment,andyou'vegotaheadymix.It'snotunusualtobewaitinginlineatakioskandhavesomegnarledtreetrunkofamaninherderclothes—steppeboots,felthat,andthetraditionalwraparounddel—stomptothefrontoftheline,shoulderingcustomersoutofthewaylikeahockeyplayer,justtoseewhattheplaceisselling.Ifthereareotherherdersinline,hegetspushedbackjustashard.Therearenofights,nohardfeelings.That'sjustthewayitgoes."Thesepeoplearecompletelyfree,"saysBaabar,aprominentpublisherandhistorianwhowritesoftenaboutMongolia'snationalcharacter."Evenifthey'vebeeninUBforyears,theirmentalityisstillnomadic.Theydoexactlywhattheywanttodo,whentheywanttodoit.Watchpeoplecrossingtheroad.Theyjustlurchoutintotrafficwithoutbattinganeye.Itdoesn'toccurtothemtocompromise,evenwithaspeedingautomobile.We'reanationofruggedindividuals,withnoregardforrules."EarlyoneSaturdaymorningOchkhuu,Norvoo,andtheirkidsreturnedtothecountryforaweekendatNorvoo'sparents'hometopreparetheirfarmforwinter.OchkhuuhelpedNorvoo'sfather,Jaya,cuthayforeighthours,andbySundaynighttheyhadmovedenoughhaytothebarntokeephisanimalsalivethroughthewinter,evenadzud.Jayatoohadlosthugenumbersofanimalsduringthelastdzud—hisherdhaddroppedfrommorethanathousandto300animals—buthewasdeterminedtomakeacomeback,bankingondecadesofexperienceasaherderbothduringandaftercommunism,whichherathermisses."Therewerebadthings,ofcourse.Ihatedbeingtoldwhattodobybureaucrats.Butcommunismprotectedusfromdisasterslikelastwinter,"hesaid."Evenifyoulostallyouranimals,youwouldn'tstarvetodeath."AlthoughtheysupportedOchkhuuandNorvoo'sdecisiontomove,Jayaandhiswife,Chantsal,oftensaidhowlonelytheywerewithoutthemnextdoor.ButmovingtoUBwasoutofthe

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question."Iwouldn'tlastaweekinthatcity,"Jayascowled."Toomuchnoise,toomuchjanglingandbanging.I'dgetsickanddie."MenlikeJayaandOchkhuuareauthenticlivestockherders,unlikeotherswhofailedduringthedzud,saidhistorianBaabar.Afterthecollapseofcommunism,whenmanySoviet-erafactoriescloseddown,thousandsofpeopleleftUBtoreclaimtheirpastoralroots.But"they'dforgotteneverythingtheyknewaboutbeingnomads,howtoraiselivestock,howtosurvivethesetoughwinters,"hesaid.Thepity,saysBaabar,isthattheyarealsonotfittocompeteinthecity.AllthiscomesatatimewhenMongolia,communistuntil1990,isseekingtoreassertitselfbetweenthetwopowersnextdoor,RussiaandChina,thathavepusheditaroundforcenturies.Nationalism—evenxenophobia—isontherise,andforeignersareincreasinglyblamedforMongolia'sproblemsinthesamebreathaslocalandnationalpoliticians,whoarewidelyconsidered,withjustification,asdeeplycorrupt.VisitingChinesebusinessmen,accusedofenrichingthemselvesatMongolia'sexpense,nolongerventureoutafterdarkonthestreetsofthecapitalforfearofbeingattackedbyyoungguysinblackleatherchannelingGenghisKhan,whoisbackinvogueasasymbolofMongolianpride.BannedduringSoviettimes,imagesofGenghisareeverywhereyoulooktoday,fromvodkalabelsandplayingcardstothecolossal,131-footsteelstatueoftheconqueroronhorsebackthatrisesfromthesteppeanhoureastofUBtocastthemotherofalldirtylookstowardChina.He'snottheonlyonelookinginthatdirection.Bymanyestimates,Mongoliaissittingonatrilliondollars'worthofrecoverablecoal,copper,andgold,muchofitconcentratedneartheChineseborderaroundOyuTolgoi,orTurquoiseHill.ThereIvanhoeMines,theCanadianmininggiant,istappingtheworld'slargestundevelopedcopperandgolddepositinpartnershipwithRioTinto,anAnglo-Australiancompany,andtheMongoliangovernment,whichholdsa34percentshareoftheproject,potentiallyaddingbillionsofdollarstothenationaleconomy.Howmuchofthatwillmigrate340milesnorthandintothepocketsofordinarypeoplesuchasOchkhuuisanopenquestion.ExpertsattheWorldBankandtheUnitedNationsareurgingMongoliatoinvestthatmoneyininfrastructure,training,andgrowingtheeconomy,althoughthecurrentgovernment,ledbyPrimeMinisterSukhbaatarBatbold,tookamoredirectapproach,pledgingtogranteveryman,woman,andchildapaymentofabout$1,200fromtheminingwindfall.Ochkhuudoesn'tbelievehe'lleverseethatmoney.Butinthemeantime,heneedstowork.Atfirsthetriedhishandasanentrepreneur;havingidentifiedwhathethoughtwasaneedinthecommunity.Heandapartnerrentedaroomatalocalhotelandthenmarketedittogerdwellers,wholackrunningwater,asaplacetotakeashowerorabath.Hewentdoor-to-doorlookingforcustomers.Therewereveryfewtakers.Ochkhuulostmorethan$200onthedeal,asizablechunkofhissavings.Nowhe'sthinkingofbuyingausedcarandturningitintoataxi.He'dneedtoborrowthemoney,buthe'dmakeaprettygoodliving,andthefreedomofdrivingandbeinghisownbossappealstohim.Moreimportant,he'dbeabletodrivehisdaughtertoandfromschool."WemaynotbeabletoraiseouranimalsinUB,"hewenton."Butit'sagoodplacetoraiseourchildren."Passingthroughthefenceintohisyard,Ochkhuudragsthewoodengatebehindhimuntilthelatchclicks."God,Imissmyhorses,"hesays.Question:Thisarticlealsoaddressesthemesofthemodernworldinconflictwithtraditionalculturalpractices.Italsodiscussestheroleofmoderncitiesinthisprocess.Describeindetailtheconflictsthathavearisenbetweenthenomadicandnon-nomadicpeopleoftheMongoliancapital.