Egypt Ramesside Period SummaryOption C Egypt: Society in New Kingdom Egypt during the Ramesside Period,

Dynasties XIX and XX

Principal Focus: The investigation of key features of New Kingdom society during the Ramesside period, through a range of archaeological and written sources and relevant historiographical issues

Option C Egypt: Society in New Kingdom Egypt during the Ramesside Period, Dynasties XIX and XX Principal Focus: The investigation of key features of New Kingdom society during the Ramesside period, through a range of archaeological and written sources and relevant historiographical issues Students learn about: 1 The geographical environment – geographical setting, natural features and resources of New Kingdom Egypt and its neighbours – significant sites: Memphis, Thebes, Per-Ramesses, Deir el-Medina, Abu Simbel, Valleys of the Kings and Queens 2 Social structure and political organisation

– roles and images of the pharaoh; concept of maat – roles of the vizier and members of the religious, administrative and military

elites – nature and role of the army – roles and status of women: royal and non-royal – scribes, artisans and agricultural workers

3 The economy – importance of the Nile: agriculture, animal husbandry, transport – crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal – economic exchange: unit of value (deben), taxation, tribute and trade – technological development: tools, building materials, techniques and

construction, shadouf – workers’ strike, tomb robberies and corruption 4 Religion, death and burial

– gods, goddesses, cults and priesthoods: Amun, Re, Ptah, Osiris – personal religion: magic and personal piety – festivals: Opet, Beautiful Feast of the Valley, Heb-Sed Festival – funerary customs: afterlife concepts and mummification – funerary texts: The Book of the Dead and the Am Duat (Book of What is in

the – Netherworld), The Book of Gates– temples: architecture and function: Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum, Medinet

Habu – tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes, Memphis, Deir el-Medina

5 Cultural life – art: sculpture, jewellery and wall paintings

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– writing and literature: love poetry, The Tale of the Two Brothers, Horus and Seth, The Report of Wenamun 6 Everyday life – daily life and leisure activities – food and clothing – housing and furniture – occupation

Students learn about:

1 The geographical environment

Geographical setting, natural features and resources of New Kingdom Egypt and its neighbours:

The Nile: central to Egypt, constant factor daily life annual inundation regulated the seasons, provided life giving water and

fertile silt, vital as no rain in Egypt Hapi god of the river, man with huge belly, breasts of women >

represented the fertility the river brought the people poor flooding disasterous, pharaoh might be given the boot fertile land from the nile from either 3-18km delta the lower and more fertile area

The land: Concept of duality or opposing forces, duality of the land and water.

kmt the black fertile land and deshret the red land of the desert deserts dangerous places, jackals and weild animals fertile area lush

and ordered desert provided mining resources the lands itself upper and lower Egypt duality in the crown of the

pharaoh people lived on the east and buried in the west religious beliefs partly inspired by the land and the climate, many gods

symbolised some aspect of the environment sun and the river showed the cycle of death regeneration and rebirth

affected beliefs

Resources: central to resources was the river depositing kmt, allowing the

production of crops and animals farmers grew: barley, fruit and veg flax emmer wheat Resources: poultry. birds, fish, papyrus papyrus also used for boats ropes isolation of the Nile valley by the deserts mean that Egypt had long been

self sufficient

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natural resources of E: grain natron, precious metals, allowed the pharaoh to trade and participate with gift exchanges with neighbours

E lacked large good timber, iron, tin, lead

significant sites: Memphis, Thebes, Per-Ramesses, Deir el-Medina, Abu Simbel, Valleys of the Kings and Queens

deir el medina: Small settlement 2km west of the Nile pop approx 300, 50 by 100m long Home to the workers of the royal necropolis. built purely for the purpose of building the royal tombs in the valley of kings began beginning 18th Dynasty reign of tuthmose Best craftsmen in all E, painters, masons, scribes and their families. discipline hereditary Tombs rock cut, lavishly decorated. built of stone enclosed wall housing terraced, shared common wallworkers worked on own tomb in spare time

Memphis: West bank of the Nile, capital during the old kingdom, located just before delta. founded 3000 BC pharaoh menes centre of worship, temples, E trade high density workshops, factories warehouses distributed throughout E strategically positioned before the delta eventual downfall to loss of eco signfrise of Alexandria reduced sign of religiongreat pyramids there

Abu Simbel 2 temples, west bank, completed by 1264 BC ramesses 24 colossal seated statues of R at the front, carved façade, (200 feet wide 100 feet high) pillored interior (hypostyle) hall which features R2 as osiris on pillars, and most complete pictorial rep of battle of kadesh and a shrine at the reardedicated to the sun gods, impress southern neighbours, nubia for gold and princesses smaller temple built for nefertiti and godess hathor inside of the temple extends into the cliff, numerous rooms/hallways upper E, E name waset

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Thebesheight of power and religious capital of E during the new kingdom Karnak and luxor (luxor VP, dedicated to the Theban triad) VP temples es built here, biggest in Thebes and some of the biggest in E west bank held the VOK and VOQ and deir el medina dry climate preserve monuments first city, model for all others chief of Theban gods Amun Re Obscure until rise of the Theban family?rapidly became prominent as the royal residence and seat of worship for amun served as the centre of gold and loot from captured countriesas empire declines, power shifted to the delta, Thebes declined peaked during 18th dynasty temples most important/ wealthiest in the land, tombs on the west bank most luxuries temple at luxor, built on by various pharaohs, e.g hatshepsut

valley of the kings and queens built between 18th , 19th dynastiesMost of the pharaohs in the VOK, in the west of Thebes. Pharonic wives in the VOQguarded/protected constructed by workmen of deir el medina during Ramesside period some tombs actually used for storage, many labelledVariation in architecture, tombs become more formalised after the war?

per Ramesses Means "House or Domain of Ramesses".

modern village of Qantir marks probably per Ramesses, about 60 miles north-east of Cairo

Ramesses II builds the grandest temple of all: Per Ramesses, a city built to honor and glorify him.

strategic importance:location of strategic importance, near

the rout the northern E provinces concentration of military facilities

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including: military workshops for the

manufacture of arms and chariots Had a harbour into the delta, gave

access to the Mediterranean and enabled tribute and troops to be transported to and fro from per Ramesses

military barracks that held forcesa huge stable complexwell situated for international trade,

developed closer links with Syria/Palestine/Asiatic regions, proximity to the Med sea enabled trade with Crete and Cyprus

Ramesses II moved the capital from Thebes into the Delta to escape the influence of the powerful priests at Thebes, AND to be nearer to the costs of modern Turkey and Syria in order to protect Egypt's borders.

Functioned as an administrative city in the eastern delta, Extension of his father Seti I summer palace

granaries and storage depots demolished during Dynasty XXI,

when the eastern branch of the Nile began to dry up, stone reused

Contained temples, jubilee hall for ramesses various festivals , administrative buildings and offices, recreational lake, glaze (style of pottery) factory and garden zoo

2 Social structure and political organisation

roles and images of the pharaoh; concept of maat– Both god and king, P was the law owner of the land and responsible for its

prosperity. high priest of the gods and commander of the army – Main function to uphold maat, divinely established order of the universe:

truth, justice and harmony between man and the gods. intermediary between E and gods, responsible for prosperity. A balance had to be maintained between balanced world and chaos (wild animals, desert etc)

– P organised and responsible for: – collection of taxes and tribute– civil order– building works – mining expeditions – heard difficult lawsuits– supervised officials under them – liaised with temple authorities– reported to the king daily

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– one of the V minister for war – P was divine, a god. god hours on earth, son of osiris. linked amen as

his son.– P’s officials, governors and ministers represented the person and the

command of the king. P’s authority everywhere– represented the union of religious and secular powers and duties– took part many feasts festivals, restored/built temples– also warrior P, protector of E, learnt skills of a warrior, led armies into

battle, campaigns depicted on temple walls. often hunted wild animals “conquering chaos”

– Building projects important way to display respect for gods/emphasise power. constructed tomb and mortuary temple

– Believed always superior to all other kings. held receptions for foreign guests married princesses

– attended to much of admin of E, supported by large bureaucracy, often involved in fairly minor concerns. Must have been informed of events in foreign lands that were in E’s interest. supreme legal power, only one who could hold the death penalty

roles of the vizier and members of the religious, administrative and military elites

religious admin– P high priest of all cults– religious admin delegated to overseer, post usually held by V or the chief

priest of Amun– temples had own parallel admin and semi autonomous >each had own

hierarchy of officials and huge civil services– only four highest priests AKA four prophets were full time priests – chief priest responsible for daily cleansing temple ritual presenting

offerings to the gods – second prophet resobile for eco organisation of the temple: controlled large

areas of agriculture, craftsmen, workers> responsible for collection and redistribution of food

– most priest part time, most members of …?, who worked one month in the temple and three months in their normal profession

– temples usually exempt from tax – priests underwent ritual purification:– bodies clean shaven– did not eat certain foods– wore fine clean clothes– washed 4x times daily – abstained from sex during period of office – four types of priest: high, lector, sem, wab

Vizier – Sources come from official documents recorded, and tombs of the viziers,

tomb of rekhmire – admin for the P done by the V two of them, one upper E other lower– held the title of tjaty and was the highest office under the P, equivalent PM

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– chosen from noble families and their position depended o the favour of the P

– they administered:– chief magistrates– ministers of taxation– ministers of war– chiefs of police– organisers of building and all public works – receives embassies from foreign lands

– vizier had enormous respbilities: king and country’s prosperity, for the kings buildings, for the country’s food supply.

– Represented the pharaoh and applied the law as chief magistrates

Nature and role of the army

Military admin– army pro during rammesside, full time soldiers, fully developed hierarchy – P head of the army, assisted by the vizier in his role as overseer of the

troops > P also had advisory group of generals – Army made up of four divisions under R2. each level had own offices and

scribes in every sphere reporting everything– place where people could advance social eco position, many men

promoted from military to civil adminRole of the army

– mainstay foot soldiers: bows, arrows, slings, spears, axes. round shields, light body armour

– small No. of chariots, archers used them– army transported up/down the nile, coastal areas by boat – army was pro, although could be supplemented by nomes– military had numerous roles:

– enabled P to maintain maat by defeating chaos foreign offensive and defensive campaigns occurred

– used in defence and guard duty in nubia, eastern, western deserts – used to control movement of people and maintain public order – guarded commercial, exploratory missions esp mining

roles and status of women: royal and non-royal

royal women– P could have multiple wive, one designated royal wife. she second only to

the king in terms of the political, religious hierarchy. she associated with gods maat and hathor. position of gods wife of amun usually held by royal wife or princess

– Accompanied her husband at important events, religious rituals and festivals. owned her own palace and estates. could administer property, donate goods to temples and loyal officials, appoint nobles to official posts and get services from them. some royal wives literate

– mother of the king important member of the royal family, often depicted alongside king on his monuments

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– diplomatic marriages took place between E and other countries to ensure good relations

– harem/female entourage several hundred women, nurses, weavers etc – another traditional function is that of the wife acting as regent if the king

was to young

normal women– girls illiterate, no education– rank within society that of father or husband once married – Large families as high infancy death rate. average age of marriage

thirteen, short life span, had to start early – Remarriage/divorce common, both simple legal acts. If man divorced

for any reason other than adultery, wife gets third of their property. if women left other adultery, had to pay some compensation

– Had many rights: – Women could own buy and sell property, including land

goods and slaves. – initiate divorce or marriage, own and dispose property, often

inherited same share as brothers – represented in court

– Generally most women supervised the home, but many performed other work, could be priestesses, mourners singers, dancers, bakers and millers. poor women often worked in the fields or were household servants

– majority women buried in husbands tombs – could be female preists, usually nobel women, cpuld use their magical

powers to predict events remove curses and heal people

scribes, artisans and agricultural workers

Scribes – AKA sesh, highly regarded. ranked in importance to the nobility – essential for gov, religious, economic management, e.g. tax – 1% pop literate – Profession open to anyone, often hereditary. Employed by religious army etc

for admin, supplies etc– Part of the middle class. Could rise in social rank without family name or

status – Temples and palaces conducted scribal schools. Enrolled at, 5, trained

rigorously in writing.– Scribes worked with priests and ruling class, and mainly lived with the

temples and palaces.– Thoth was the god of wisdom, inventor of writing, patron of scribes and the

divine mediator.– Brushes were made from rush stems and they were kept in small leather bags– Scribes were written in hieroglyphs and the quicker hieratic text.– A few exceptional scribes were deified after death – Scribes were ranked in importance to the nobility – The priesthood of Amun-Re employed scribes to monitor wealth, assets and

welfare

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– Training of scribes was difficult, the most suitable candidates were from the official class

Artisans – employed in royal workshops and temples and occasionally private workshops – deir el medina goldmine of artists and craftsmen and their families. Most of

the info comes from their tombs located here – They had high standards of woodworking and carving for luxury furniture and

boat building.– Semi precious stones such as turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian and amethyst

were frequently used in inlays and faience was used for decorating objects and amulets. Gold was used for jewellery.

– Beads were made by breaking up precious stones and rubbing them together to smooth the rough edges.

– Inscriptions in stone were made using drills and copper chisels.– Hard stone pounders and polishing stones were also used.– Alabaster was used for funeral vessels as well as statues and alters. Many

alabaster jars were found in kings tombs.– Stone cutting consisted of drilling several holes and driving timber wedges in

them and pouring water to expand the timber therefore cracking the sandstone where the timber was located. An example of this was the unfinished obelisk.

Farmers– main things they grew:– flax, veges, grain wheat, barley, vegetables, figs, melons, pomegranates and

vines, flax > (linen) and livestock– The ancient Egyptians used grain to make bread, porridge and beer. Grain

most important crop. first crop grown after inundation. Once the grain was harvested, they grew vegetables such as onions, leeks, cabbages, beans, cucumbers and lettuce.

– simple farming tools such as winnowing scoops, hoes, rakes, flint-bladed sickles and ploughs.

– They had both hand ploughs and ones pulled by oxen. The ploughs were used to turn the soil.

– shaduf. Used to lift the water from the canal. Large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a rope and bucket on one end and a heavy counter weight at the other.

– He then swung the pole around and emptied the bucket onto the field.

3 The economy

importance of the Nile: agriculture, animal husbandry, transport

central to Egypt, constant factor daily life annual inundation regulated the seasons, provided life giving water and fertile

silt, vital as no rain in Egypt Hapi god of the river, man with huge belly, breasts of women > represented

the fertility the river brought the people poor flooding disastrous, pharaoh might be given the boot. Vital to ensure the

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productivity of the land for the coming season. fertile land from the Nile from either 3-18km delta the lower and more fertile area The economy revolved around the pharaoh and because his close relationship

with gods, he was responsible for it. Much of the internal economy was based on the Nile. The inundation of the Nile and the depositing of silt was vital to the crop and hence to the economy. Prosperity of the country depended to a great extent on the height of the flood, to little meant starvation and too much meant devastation.

The flood determined the calendar, which was divided into 3 seasons. Akhet (Inundation),Peret (Spring time when crops became to emerge), Shemu ( Harvest Time)

After the inundation the pharaoh organised the clearing of the canals and the reestablishment of the boundaries.

Most of the population worked on the land of the pharaoh, or the land he had granted to temples.

The Temples had to pay the agricultural workers, temple priests, artisans, general servants and tax from its revenue of grain, cattle and other agricultural produce.

The Nile provided fish, which were caught using traps and nets. It was also used as a highway with boats ranging from papyrus skiffs to barges

provided transport for men, grain, animals and stone. Flocks of geese were raised from the earliest times and supplied eggs, meat

and fat.

Crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal

– Craftsmen worked in either royal or temple workshops or in the community of royal tomb builders at Deir El Medina. The supplier of their raw materials was the pharaoh, either directly or indirectly through gifts to temples or individuals.

– Bronze was much harder and the demand for copper and tin was large. – Metals were also used for decorative objects. – A Bronze portable altar, resembling a chest with holes in the top was found in

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the burial of king Psusene]se’s jubilee.– Bronze was worked by either heated or hammered or melted or casts in

moulds.– Gold was worked to produce fine jeweller, statues and coffins.

Economic exchange: unit of value (deben), taxation, tribute and trade

– No coinage in Ramesside Egypt. All exchanges were made by bartering on good for another. The unit used to set an items value was the Deben

– The Deben was based on weight of metals, oils or grains and measured against stone weights on a measuring scale.

– Ostraca found at Deir El Medina and dated from dynasty XX provides evidence of the value of everyday items.

– Internal taxation system administered by the Pharaoh was central to the economy, with people paying tax in kind. Scribes measured crops before they were harvested to assess the agricultural produce due.

– Cattle counts were an annual event to determine increases in herds, which were taxable.

– Farmer’s orchards, gardens and vineyards were taxed and hunter and fishermen had to pay a proportion of their yield.

– Tax was paid to the local nomarch who administered it to pay workers, temples and other expenses for the king.

– The proportion of tax due is thought to have been determined by the height of the inundation measured at the nilometer.

– international trade with byblos Syria and Palestine, exhcnages of E’s fine crafts and produce for timber, silver, slaves

– Trade with developed states in the Mediterranean and the Near East took the form of diplomatic gifts, although they are often regarded as a tribute. southern regions also traded livestock, ebony, ivory and animal skins

– Tribute and trade were two of the principal sources of Egypt's economic wealth throughout the New kingdom period.

– The expansion of the empire provided access to many new resources and ports. During the reign of Ramesses III for example, trade expeditions were undertaken to Sinai and punt.

– Tribute and trade goods were also supplemented by the huge dowries that accompanied diplomatic marriages.

technological development: tools, building materials, techniques and construction, shadouf

due to large scale imperial expansion of the period, Egypt became exposed to new resources and items, which contributed to ne technological advancements resulting in eco, social and military benefit for E

new tools introduced such as upright looms, Bellows of leather to make smelting of copper and bronze easier, Manufacture of glazed ware and Manufacture of Hittite – style shields

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new techniques such as improved balances for weight crude metal and plumb lines and set squares for improved accuracy

Building materials such as Mud = Mudbricks, stone, necropolises, Pyramids, Obelisks. Mortar. Wood, limited supply, imported, only wealthy

Shaduf: device used for lifting water. Could raise 2500L of water per day. It consisted of a long, tapering, nearly horizontal pole mounted. A skin or bucket is hung on a rope from the long end, and a counterweight is hung on the short end. The operator pulls down on a rope attached to the long end to fill the bucket and allows the counterweight to raise the bucket. The user was then able to be rotated to desired position. To raise water to higher levels, a series of shadufs are sometimes mounted one above the other. It allowed the Egyptians to deposit water into canals and during the Ramesside period, its use was widespread and allowed easier irrigation of fields.

Workers’ strike, tomb robberies and corruption

In the 20th Dynasty the Egyptian economy was in decline due: Ramesses III’s extensive building program Lack of tribute from Western Asia. lost sphere of influence in palestine Many trade routes were closed. Termination of copper mining to Sinai,

Nubian gold diminishes Corruption among Theban priests. priests strip gold from the ramesseum,

blatant tomb robbery VOK, VOQ became common Economic conditions worsen Low inundations of Ramesses 5,6,7 8 = poor harvest These all led to: A high rise in inflation, especially with grain prices Workers at Deir el-Medina went on strike in 29 because they weren’t paid

their monthly rations, due to grain shortage. Wheat rations not paid for four months. Workers had been short of supplies for four years

Government officials accused of stealing food An assassination attempt on Ramesses III hard times, corruption becomes rife

4 Religion, death and burial

gods, goddesses, cults and priesthoods: Amun, Re, Ptah, Osiris

Osiris

One of the earliest gods, resurrected to live again as god of the dead in the kingdom of the underworld

Status as the god of resurrection rose significantly with the democratisation of religion. By NK, P nad all subjects became identified with Osiris on his death

Important repercussions, or the deceased to be able to achieve an afterlife it was necessary for the body to resemble Osiris as closely as possible, therefore mummification was essential.

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This, however, was only one aspect of a true Osirian burial. The deceased also required the correct funerary equipment, including a tomb, canopic chest or shrine, funerary goods and a funeral with all the appropriate ritual. Only when all this achieved could the deceased re-enact the resurrection myth and gain eternal life.

amun

An invisible god, created himself and who spirited himself anywhere at will. Often depicted as a crowned king. Champion of the poor and central to personal piety

re

Daiky cycle of sun across the sky- the belief that the sun was reborn every morning.

The deceased sailed in the boat of re across the heavens Egyptian sun god, created all forms of life. Travelled on the solar boats and

represented as a falcon

ptah

God of craftsmen , called creation into being, portrayed as bearded mummified man

Local god at Memphis

priesthoods

By the 20th century prosperous, influential and very powerful. Role was to perform daily temple rituals and fulfil the cult of the dead king

During NK, the priesthoods were supported to ensure their allegiance to the pharaoh.

Wealth of the temples increased greatly from the tribute of conquered lands Paid no taxes, collected booty as tribute after battles P made payments to the temples and the priests estates in thanksgiving to the

gods for military success Priesthood of amun Re: amun re the state god and the priesthood controlled

vast amounts of land within E and the empire Their eco power a threat to the P Money which should have gone toward state projects is given to the

priesthoods to sure up support

approx 2,000 temples in E at this time, many major cult centres such as Ptah in Memphis re in Heliopolis Osiris in Abydos Amun in Thebes

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personal religion: magic and personal piety

Religion VP, strongly influenced by tradition Divine kingship: Pharaoh was not only the King (political ruler) but also a

god. Concept and positional power of P very strong in E. P associated with Horus, the son of the sun god Ra

Priests also held considerable powe polytheistic religion, about 700 different gods and goddesses Not uncommon for deities to be combined to form a new deity Two of the most well known household gods were Bes and Tauert Bes foreign god from nubia, jolly fond of music and dancing. His image

carved onto bedposts to scare away demons Egyptians saw themselves and their world beset by dangers. Major threats

were averted by the ceremonies performed in the temples by the king and his substitutes, the priests. Personal, every-day “disasters” were caused by demons, had to be countered by addressing the appropriate deity using prayer, bringing them offerings and conjuring them with magic. Great many different gods were invoked. Small No. of them hoped to protect believers under most circumstances, others were called upon on special occasions only.

A few gods considered so dangerous that protection against them was basically necessary e.g Seth and Sekhmet. Seth had wax models of himself ceremonially destroyed in order to combat him. His birthday was considered unlucky, a day on which one had to take special precautions. Sekhmet had two aspects as well: she was both a fierce lion goddess of war and destruction hurtful to people, as well as a protectress against disease caused by demons.

Some gods had special affinities with certain groups of people. The name of Hauron, the divine herdsman, would probably quite often be on the tongues of herdsmen, repeating spells for the protection of their cattle against wild animals

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Egyptian magic– Magic was a real and potent force, tangible means of communicating,

manipulating and controlling the gods– Considered a regular occupation (architecture, literature, medicine etc)– Used for practical and religious purposes– Divine creation to benefit humanity– Life depended dependant on agriculture and weather. – Magic used for varity of purposes: after death for safe passage through

afterlife, control weather, predict future through oracles, – Defence against enemies nad ward off spiritual enemies, wax and clay figures

ritually destroyed. Personal spells used against someone’s enemy, e.g invoke bad dreams,

– Magic prescribed to people like modern day medical prescription – E gods invoked using magic (Isis)– Dreams conduit through which the gods could communicate to humans.

“Incubation” practiced, whereby a person would sleep in a temple in order to receive prophetic dreams from a god

Amulets Offered magical protection, used by both the living and the dead, found in

tombs, wrapped up with mummies Took the shape of gods, animals, objects, body parts Made from different materials, stone, clay, wood, different substances had

different powers. Magical writing also considered as amuletsMagic in medicine

– Magic used in medicine Spells used for: Snake Bites Childbirth Pregnancy Conception Birth Protection of babies Providing of milk Against childhood diseases.

Festivals: Opet, Beautiful Feast of the Valley, Heb-Sed Festival

heb sed festival: AKA the Feast of the Tail, is derived from the name of the animal's tail that

typically was attached to the back of the pharaoh's garment in the early periods of Egyptian history.

One of the oldest festivals of ancient Egypt, celebrated by the king after 30 years of rule and repeated every three years thereafter.

Possible purpose: king would perform a ritual run and dance aimed at proving that he was still physically able to rule the country. In doing so, seems to have been the renewal of the physical and supernatural energies of the king. Akhenaton and his wife Nefertiti and even the royal daughters seem to have taken part in the ceremony.

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He then ran a ritual course four times, before being carried in procession to the chapels of the gods of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The same type of ritual run or dance could also be represented on temple walls or in mortuary complexes to convey the idea that the king would eternally rejuvenate. Representations of the ritual run and dance should therefore not be taken as evidence that the king in question did have a real Heb Sed.

In the Step Pyramid complex of King Djoser at Saqqara, there were provisions for this ceremony to be eternally re-enacted. The heb sed festival was depicted in the colonnaded court of the Temple of Aten at Karnak

Jackal god Sed or Wepwawet, was closely related to kingship ideology, and the ancient Sed-festival. Sed was also associated with goddess Maat, (the personification of the concept of maat) in certain ways and may have been viewed as a champion of justice similar to Ma'at herself.

Another suggestion of the event was that it was probably a ritual re-enactment of the unification of Egypt, traditionally accomplished by Menes c. 3000 BC

After beginning the celebration by offering a sacrifice to the gods, the king was crowned with the white crown of Upper Egypt, followed by the red crown of Lower Egypt.

There is clear evidence for early pharaohs celebrating the Heb Sed, such as the first dynasty pharaoh Den and the third dynasty Djoser. In the Pyramid of Djoser there are two boundary stones in his Heb Sed court, which is within his pyramid complex. He also is shown performing the Heb Sed in a false doorway inside his pyramid.

Opet festival AKA Beautiful Feast of Opet, celebrated annually during the New Kingdom

in Thebes during the period and later, greatest Theban festival of the year Celebrated in the second month of Akhet, the season of inundation, linked to

the symbolic fertility of the rising of the Nile. Originally, eleven-day celebration, expanded over time to nearly an entire

month during the reign of Ramesses III. A great procession went from Karnak to Luxor. Amun-Re (most typical god

represented at Opet), carried on a veiled barque by waeb priests, made a visit to the 'inner chambers' to Amun at Luxor.

—Also known as the solar barque or sun boat—Symbolises the chariot of the Sun God, Re—The journey for the afterlife

The specific process of the procession at Thebes varied between rulers. Pharaoh’s did things according to his (or her) desire, but still kept to a general formula.

The procession began at Karnak and ended at Luxor. The journey was made south via boat along the Nile River to the temple at

Luxor Dignitaries, dancers, singers, musicians and common people followed the

procession. Priests carried incense, sistra were shaken, singing, dancing, clapping etc The King first offered at Karnak to Amon-Re and to Mut, and promises that he

will renew the god’s cult Next the King offered incense and water before the festival boats of Amon,

Mut and Khonsu, which were still resting in Karnak. Next the King offered incense and water before the festival boats of Amon,

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Mut and Khonsu, which were still resting in Karnak. From there they were carried by barge to Luxor.

At Luxor, the god was greeted by high dignitaries, sacrifices were made, and there were several offering booths along the way from the river to the temple.

When the procession reached a triple shrine, it halted. Here Amun, Mut and Khonsu were brought to their respective shrines inside the temple.

We don’t know all the content or the meaning of the rituals which were now performed inside the temple. However, it is known that it constituted the renewal of the King’s right and power to rule, as he entered the temple.

The beautiful feast of the valley Celebrated annually during the second month of Shomu, the Harvest Season,

which was the beginning of summer. During this festival, the sacred icons of Amun-Ra, his consort Mut and their offspring Khonsu left the temple at Karnak in order to visit the funerary temples of deceased kings on the West Bank and their shrines to the Netjeru of the West, including Het-Hert as Lady of the West and Wesir, King of the Dead. 

believed to have been held originally in remembrance of the dead, but acquired through time and by annual repetition both importance and a regenerative aspect as well.

Preparations: Gathering of flowers for offerings to Amun and tombs of the deceased Early

in the morning People would meet the procession as it emerged out of the temple and started

on its path. procession singing, dancing, playing music celebrating the forging of the links between the living and the dead

Priests prepared the statue of Amun, placed it in an veiled shrine then carried

it on a ceremonial boat or bark While the townspeople went on to visit their own family chapels, the shrine of Amun-Ra was brought into the heart of Djoser-djoseru and left overnight. This was considered a sacred period during which the bond between Amun-Ra, king of the gods, and the pharaoh, king of the people, was reaffirmed. The following morning, the procession began again as Amun-Ra was taken to mortuary temples of earlier pharaohs, including Montuhotep, who were identified with Osiris.

Amun-Ra travelled in his shrine, veiled from view, on a portable sacred barque, carried by 24 priests. Barque elaborately decorated, then crossed the Nile on huge barge covered in gold precious metals, on leb cedar.

Starting out from Karnak shrines were carried to the river accompanied by a

mass of people. set on board barges, towed across the river to the western side. The gods in their shrines made visits to pharaoh’s mortuary temple and to the temples of other deities. Offerings and hymns were performed at each of these places

The whole procession then stopped at the necropolis where rituals for the deceased ancestors and family members would be performed

*Tombs of more wealthy people had shrines attached for the performing of rites for the dead. These were then entered and people prepared themselves for meeting with their deceased ancestor during an all night vigil

A wah was given to each participant in the procession alive or dead, with the purpose of bringing the deceased nearer to the living

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Feasting began almost like a family reunion and in this case including also the deceased family members boisterous feasting began. Feasting like this made it possible to cross the border between the living and the dead in so called rites of incorporation.

Funerary customs: afterlife concepts and mummification

After life concepts Old Kingdom, the afterlife was a royal privilege only; in the NK, afterlife

became available to all who could afford it. called the democratisation of the afterlife

most elaborate preparations for the afterlife were made by royalty and the nobility

members of all strata of New Kingdom society strove to ensure a tomb or proper burial preparations designed to guarantee a resting place for their spirit for eternity and a place for their mortuary cult to be maintained by relatives

ka, ba ad khet Several parts to one’s personalities: and central idea to their funerary beliefs.

There were five parts to the personality: the khet (physical body), the ka (creative life force), the ba, the ‘name’ and the ‘shadow’.

At birth, individual provided with a khet as well as a ka. At death, the khet ceased to function, but the deceased’s ka continued to live, requiring food and drink, (why food/drink placed into tombs), among other items in the tomb. ka restricted to the tomb

Individual’s personality also included the ba, or spirit force or power. Unlike the ka, the ba was free to roam far away during the daytime, returning at night to dwell in the mummy. Like the ka, the ba also had needs for food, drink and sexual gratification.

The NK funerary texts reveal afterlife full of danger for both king and commoner

These had to be overcome, mostly by magic, before the deceased could reach their goal of:

joining the gods, particularly Osiris, joining in the solar cycle as a member of the ‘boat of millions’ Working for eternity in Yaru, the ‘fields of reeds’. Once safely in the realm of Osiris, the deceased had several obligations to

perform: Vital task of the P was to assist the bark of the sun to navigate the duat, or

underworld, during the twelve hours of the night. The bark could be caught in the reeds and sandbanks, and the P would be needed to help push it free. the P also helped fight the evils that attempted to attack the bark in an attempt to prevent the sun appearing for a new day. Horus and Seth in the boat, and the P also a crew member. Scenes depicting this nightly journey adorned the walls of royal tombs only.

The cultivation of the field of reeds was the responsibility of the dead. The field of reeds was a paradise, the Book of the Dead depicts the various crops growing and being harvested.

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Ushabti figures—small figurines made of faience, wood or stone that were placed in Middle and New Kingdom tombs— servants of the dead who could carry out this agricultural work for their masters. Usually equipped with implements for such work—picks, hoes and adzes—and were inscribed with spells that would animate them. By the end of the NK a tomb might be equipped with as many as 401 ushabti figures—one for each day of the year and thirty-six overseer ushabtis to make sure that the rest worked hard!

mummification From Old Kingdom times attempts had been made, with varying degrees of

success, to preserve the deceased. Once the khet was dead it was vital to preserve it for the afterlife. The ka was believed to enter the body of the deceased to benefit from the food

and drink offerings left in the tomb. It needed to be able to recognise the body in order to do this, so the

preservation had to be effective. A New Kingdom innovation, which considerably improved preservation, was

the removal of the brain. 21st Dynasty: materials like linen, sawdust, sand inserted beneath the skin in

an attempt to give the dried body a plumper, more realistic appearance, but not always successful.

No contemporary E accounts of mummification process survives, we have the following sources: written evidence from the classical authors Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus wall scenes from tombs, which depict some stages of the process The remaining mummies themselves.

The process of mummification 1. The body was taken to the per-nefer, or house of mummification, where it

was washed and placed on a board. The brain was removed using an iron hook, which was introduced through the broken ethmoid bone (situated at the root of the nose).

2. The mouth was washed and packed with resin soaked linen. The eyes were allowed to fall back into the orbits. Linen pads were then placed between the eyeballs and eyelids as false eyes.

3. The lungs, liver, stomach and intestines were removed through an incision made in the left flank with a flint knife. The heart was left for religious reasons, and sometimes also the kidneys, probably because they were difficult to reach.

4. The body cavities were washed with palmwine and spices and temporarily packed with natron and resinated bandages. This probably assisted the dehydration process and helped to maintain the body’s shape.

5. The viscera were washed with palm wine and spices and dehydrated with natron. They were made into four parcels and placed into canopic jars with stoppers in the form of the four sons of Horus. In the 21st Dynasty the parcels were replaced in the abdominal cavity.

6. The body was straightened into the horizontal position, packed and covered with natron in its natural dry form and left for no longer than forty days.

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7. The temporary stuffing was removed and the body was rubbed with wine. In the 21st Dynasty packing was inserted under the skin at this stage.

8. The body was anointed with cedar oil and unguents. New stuffing was placed inside and the incision was either sewn or covered in resin and a metal plate. The body was then wrapped in layers of linen bandages with amulets inserted for protection, and returned to the family.

Funerary texts: The Book of the Dead and the Am Duat (Book of What is in the Netherworld), The Book of Gates

The book of the dead AKA coming forth by day. Consists of collections of spells to aid the dead in

reaching the afterlife. Several versions/renditions of the work, namely the Helipolis, Thebes, and Salis. Each version mainly the same except for the differences found in the translations made by the colleges of priests at the various centres.

Theme is thaumaturgic (Magical, wonderful) as its purpose is to protect dead from dagers they face in trying to reach the afterlife. Spells were usually found on papyrus or leather in intimate association with the corpse - - beside of it in the coffin, actually inside the mummy wrappings, or inserted inside of a small statue of a funerary deity.

Believed that priests at the funeral recited many of the spells. As long as the books presence was near to the deceased its spells/protection would work. Many Book of the Dead sections have been inscribed on tombs, pyramids, and sarcophagi.

The earliest examples from the 18th dynasty. But some sections of these examples have been found in earlier known Egyptian funerary texts e.g pyramid texts. These Pyramid Texts insured the survival only of the pharaoh whose name they contained and his subjects over whom he would rule in the Hereafter. Royal relatives and courtiers who were granted favour to be buried in tombs surrounding the pyramid were perhaps fortunate enough to reach the realms of the blessed through the agency of the ruler.

Most of the texts of the Book of the Dead are arranged in vertical columns and often are written in simplified linear hieroglyphs or in old-fashioned hieratic script. A few late examples exist where the lines are horizontal and in contemporary script.

Sometimes plain black ink was used, red ink used frequently for titles of spells and important words. Illustrations could range from few to many; they varied from plain black-line drawings to beautiful drawings in lavish colour.

First joe blogs would need knowledge to prevail to the afterlife. The dead would need to combat malignant spirits and other dangers.

Also needed the knowledge to influence/coerce deities judging him at his trial in the Hall of Two Truths. The work abounds with magical references. This is why many are of the opinion that the material in the work gives the conception that stipulation is mingled with the idea of circumvention by sorcery in the most extraordinary manner.

The amduat• Important New Kingdom funerary text. Like many funerary texts, it was found

written on the inside of the pharaoh's tomb for reference.

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• Reserved only for pharaohs (until the 21st Dynasty almost exclusively) or very favoured nobility

• Tells the story of the sun god Ra, who travels through the underworld, from the time when the sun sets in the west and rises again in the east. It is said that the dead Pharaoh is taking this same journey, ultimately to become one with Ra and live forever.

• The underworld divided into twelve hours of the night, each representing different allies and enemies for the Pharaoh/sun god to encounter.

• Amduat names all of these gods and monsters, main purpose being to give the names of these gods and monsters to the spirit of the dead Pharaoh, so he can call upon them for help or use their name to defeat them.

The book of the gates• Ancient E funerary text from the New Kingdom, narrating the passage of a

newly deceased soul into the next world, corresponding with the journey of the sun though the underworld during the hours of the night.

• Soul required to pass though a series of 'gates' at different stages in the journey. Each gate associated with a different goddess, and requires that the deceased recognise the particular character of that deity. The text implies that some people will pass through unharmed, but that others will suffer torment in a lake of fire

• Text and images associated with the Book of Gates appear in many tombs of the New Kingdom, including all the pharaonic tombs.

• Most of the goddesses are specific to the Book of Gates, and do not appear elsewhere in Egyptian mythology, and so it has been suggested that the Book of Gates originated merely as a system for determining the time at night, with the goddess at each gate being a representation of the main star appearing during the hour.

Temples: architecture and function: Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum, Medinet Habu

Function: the most imporatn religious buildings, two basic types 1. Cult temples: housed the cult statue of the god. Were the location of daily

rituals. Controlled vast estates and workforces. Acted as redistribution centres. Also self supporting community of living quarters, workshops and schools

2. Mortuary temples: celebrated the cult of the deceased king. Dailiy offerings presented to the kings image. Location of festivals. Rooms dedicated to various deities

Architecture:

Prosperous economy enabled rulers of the period to undertake extensive building programs and experiment with new architectural styles. These included:

Arrangement of cult temples on an axial plan to suit processional ceremonies Elaborate column decoration Free standing mortuary temples built from stone Numerous subsidiary buildings within temple complexes

Building style of temples focused on bulk and mass, possibly a symbolic response to

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the success of the empire: e.g abu simbel Karnak ramesseum

The gods temples were huge walled, sandstone structures that had: Monumental gateways Roofless colonnaded court Hypostyle halls Inner sanctum of the god

The R period was characterised by architecture on a monumental scale best exemplified by Abu simbel

Ramesseum • Mortuary temple of RII. Located in the Theban necropolis in Upper Egypt,

western bank, of the city of thebes • Facing degradation, mostly due to its location on the very edge of the Nile

floodplain, with the annual inundation gradually undermining the foundations of this temple, and its neighbours.

• Entrance through the two pylons, (gateways, some 60 m wide), each leading into the first courtyard.

• first courtyard contained huge statue of R2• 2nd courtyard, , columns on four sides statues osiris face the king, battel of

kadesh continued • beyond the second courtyard is covered 48 column hypostyle hall, scenes of

the king in battle • behind the hypostyle hall are two smaller halls, first decorated with

astronomical symbolks and the symbols R2 bruns incense to the gods • It was a place of worship dedicated to the pharaoh where his memory was kept

alive after his passing from this world. the main shrine was dedicated to amun• the two Pylons and outer walls were decorated with scenes commemorating

pharaoh's military victories, esp the battle of kadesh in the R2’s case, and depictions of his dedication to, and kinship with, the gods.

• Site of an important scribal school• complex made up of many buildings, a temple for royal worship, a royal

palcace used by the king during ceremonies and a temple for the worship of his mother an wife nefertari, large storerooms

Medinet Habu• Mortuary temple of R3, one of the largest in Egypt. 320 m in length (East to

west) and about 200 m in width (North to south). Built to commemorate Ramses III, after his death, by orders of the King himself. A huge mud brick

enclosure wall surrounds the Temple. • Basically consists of a huge gate, which takes the shape of a Syrian fort, and is

decorated with battle scenes of the King’s wars in Syria. After accessing the gate there is a shrine, which dates back to the 18th Dynasty, on the right hand side. There is also a wide-open court that leads to a huge pylon, which has both towers decorated with battle scenes. On one tower the King, wearing the red crown with his “Ka” or “double”, smiting his enemies in front of Re-Horakhty. On the other tower, the King is represented with the red crown of

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Lower Egypt, smiting his enemies in front of the God Amon Ra.Temple at Karnak

• comprises a vast mix of ruined temples, chapels, pylons, a sacred lake and other buildings, notably the Great Temple of Amun and a massive structure begun by R2

• Located near Thebes (modern day Luxor). The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian "The Most Selected of Places" and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes.

• It consists of four main parts (precincts): the Precinct of Amun-Re, the largest, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV.

• A few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main precincts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.

• There also are a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts, as well as several avenues of goddess and ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re, and the Luxor Temple.

• the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re, a hall area of 5,000 m2 with 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows. 122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters.

• Unique cause of the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started Middle Kingdom, continued through to Ptolemaic times. Approx 30 pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to periods much later.

Temple at Luxor • Large temple complex located at Thebes, (modern day Luxor) east bank 4000

BC. Temple dedicated to the Theban triad of amun, mut and chons, the focus of the opet festival

• Numerous P’s have added to it • Temple proper begins with the 24m high Egyptian pylon (the massive stone

rectangular thing at het beginning of buildings). The pylon is decorated with R2 military triumphs, particularly the battle of kadesh

• The main entrance was flanked by six colossal statues R2, four seated and two standing, only two (seated survived) there were also two obelisks at the front of the building, one which is now in paris

• Just past the pylon are barque chapels. Past the pylon is a peristyle courtyard, past that is the processional colonnade, a 100 metre corridor lined by 14 papyrus styled capitals, beyond ahta is another peristyle courtyard

• To the rear of the temple are the numerous chapels built by Tuthmosis III, and Alexander. During the Roman era, the temple and its surroundings were a legionary fortress and the home of the Roman government in the area.

Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes, Memphis, Deir el-Medina

Decoration

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ramesside period, tombs featured scenes of osirian mythology and astrological scenes painted on the ceilings

Nobles tombs featured depict deities, funerary rites and texts from the book of the dead. magical spells and hymns used more frequently in burial inscriptions

royal burials continued in the VOK, VOQ, while nobles, officials commonly buried in Thebes and Memphis

access to the afterlife was more democratised as more people could the desired ceremonial burial

Royal tombs tombs of the P rock cut axial tombs, cut into living rock along an axis common to all tombs specific architectural and decorative features all parts of

the royal tomb were decorated and some new funerary texts appeared in particular astronomical scenes on the ceiling of the burial chamber

Private tombs The two major locations of private tombs in the Ramesside period

were Thebes and Memphis.Thebes

Noble tombs rock-cut structures consisting of a courtyard, a T-shaped chapel and a shaft that descended from inside or outside the chapel to the burial chamber.

The statue niche was situated at the end of the long passageway. Painted and relief scenes depicted the daily life of the deceased, the funeral

and various scenes of a symbolic nature, including banquets, fishing and fowling, and hunting in the desert.

In the 19th Dynasty many of these motifs were abandoned in favour of renditions of the Amduat, Book of the Dead and Book of Gates.

At Deir el-Medina Tomb-builders of the VOK built their own small tombs, consisting of an upper

chapel topped with a pyramid, a forecourt from which descended a shaft leading to the vaulted burial chamber and a chapel partly cut into the hillside and partly made of mud-brick.

The underground chambers were brightly painted with motifs copied from the royal tombs and also depictions of the tomb owner’s family and friends going about their daily activities.

Memphis The tomb of a Memphite noble had a mortuary chapel built on the desert

surface with pylons, pillared courtyards and roofed halls leading to a central offering room. This closely resembled a New Kingdom temple.

The structure could also feature a small pyramid. A rock-cut shaft led to the subterranean burial chambers.

Typical Memphite tomb–chapel, built of mudbrick and featuring three large stelae located in the central court. Interestingly, archaeologists found evidence of four small trees planted in the courtyard. The substructure of the tomb consisted of rough-cut, undecorated rooms.

5 Cultural life

Art: sculpture, jewellery and wall paintings

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Wall paintings and reliefs Mainly tombs and temples Reliefs either raised or sunken lots of battle scenes most had religious function, but also valued for artistic value paintings more funereal changed to whitewashed clay foundation instead of stucco more and religious

Art reversion to traditional styles during ramesside period better quality in seti’s time, less quality but more volume in R2 some aspects remained most art from tombs, tomb Peshedu served an important religious purpose art production increased during the period and dominant features included size

and grandeur rather than beauty of earlier periods. Monumental structure s of R2 nad R3 evidence of this

due to the expansion of the empire, foreign influences such as agean and bablonia

the content of artwork also changed as ordinary people and everyday activities became the subject of a number of artworks. E.g the tombs of deir el medina

Statues almost all had religious function deities imbued within statues usually tombs, temple courtyards if your mummy destroyed your spirit would live on in your spirit ushabtis, servants in the afterlife

jewellery worn by men and women adornment and social status earrings, studs, pectorals, rings gold, electrum, silver, semi precious stones

Writing and literature: love poetry, The Tale of the Two Brothers, Horus and Seth, The Report of Wenamun

Generally written in simple hieratic script in ink on papyrus. Scribal errors. E.g papyrus Harris 500

most people illiterate, so mainly the upper class write/read Pop literature mostly love poems and stories Love poetry in usually arranged in groups or cycles, about a common theme Direct first person monologues addressed to speakers own heart Annals, prayers, official records/accounts, journals

Report of Wenamun: Trading expedition by wenamun to get timber from Byblos for the sacred barque of amun. Gets robbed beaten mistreated complains to the king. Story illustrates the decline of E’s prestige and power in the near east during the late new kingdom, probs true

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Horus and Seth: Osiris and Seth the son of geb and nut. Osiris popular because he taught the Egyptians how to farm. Seth locks him in a chest throws it into the Nile in a jealous rage. Osiris rescued by his wife Isis, but Seth found his body, cutting it into pieces and scattering it into pieces all over E. Isis and her sister nepthys found his remains and with the help of Anubis mummified him and brought him back to life. Osiris became king of the underworld, and Horus his son avenged his fathers death and became king of E

The tale of the two brothers: bata and Anubis, Anubis wife tries to seduce bata. When he rejects her, she claims he beat her. Anubis tries to kill bata but he escapes. Anubis kills his bata’s wife instead. Bata remarries but is murdered by his new wife. Bata is reincarnated as a bull but is slain. His blood helps the soil to produce two persea trees, a splinter of which causes his wife to become pregnant with the new king.

6 Everyday life

Daily life and leisure activitiesDaily life

Wife mainstay of the domestic scene. Staple family diet bread and beer, women assisted in agricultural work

E basically group of agriculturally communities along the Nile. Life revolved around, sowing harvesting etc and inundation, when corvee work might be done for the P

Lived in crowded communities of mud-bricked houses, walked to the fields. Usually kept small No. of animals to milk, wool, meat. life of manual labour only broken by festivals, where food and gifts distributed. Hygiene and cleanliness valued people bathed in the nile

Burial consisted of wrapping body in mat or coffin, placing a few grave goods or amulets and chucked in the desert. average age of death at around 36

Deir el medina enjoyed better standard of living. paid in kind from local temples on behalf of the P. specialised craft, fairly wealthy

Minority of people who were officials were literate and wealthy. Most official’s part time with a temple, some full time with the P. short life span, childbirth dangerous on average four years less than men. many men appear to have more than one wife, although many would have been death in childbirth

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and infertility Doctors practised mixture of medicine and magic. high incidence of disease,

instructional literature of the time stressed having children and treating people properly

Family important, as seen in the reliefs. Children esp. males considered blessing

Ramesside preoccupation of living well to attain afterlife reflective of uncertain times

Leisure activities Most evidence comes from tomb decoration and some remaining artifcacts Social class played a role in what activities were available. Wealthier people

had servants to carry out menial tasks, had more leisure time on their hands. Hunting, boating fishing, dancers blind harper, board games such as senet,

Gymnastics and athletic games appear to have been popular leisure pursuits. Music and dance, if one could afford them, including flutes and harps Hunting the sport of kings, courtiers and dignitaries. Leisure activities seem to have included sports (mostly to do with hunting,

swimming and gymnastics For the ordinary citizen, leisure activities probably took place in evenings after

work, days off, holidays. Some leisure time was probably spent in inns, beer houses and brothels.

Food and clothingFood

Staple diet beer, bread and onions, supplemented with fruit or veges grown. Meat generally eaten by the nobility, more expensive. Fish eaten break making important task, made from emmer wheat. Ground down teeth thought to have been from grit in the bread from the grinding stone or pestle

Prepared for both the living and the dead. Tuts tomb good example Beer and wine very popular, particularly in the lower classes. Texts warn of

the abuse of alcohol Clothing

Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics.

Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12

Housing and furnitureHousing (info from deir el medina)

Although differed according to wealth, all structures had: Build of sun dried mud brick Small high set windows or light wells Flat roofs King and family lived in luxurious palaces: Gardens and pools

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Ornate furnishings Colourful wall and floor decorations

Furniture

Furniture reflected a person status, as only wealthy people could afford expensive materials such as wood

Basic items for all items included stools, chests and boxes, low tables Upper class citizens might have had chairs inlaid with ivory, beds cushions or

couches

Occupations

Variety of occupations during the period including Brick makers Potters Carpenters Tradespeople: jewellers, stonemasons and weavers State workers in high demand: the army, quarrying, building projects Farmers

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