SUMMARY of Research Articles

7/27/2019 SUMMARY of Research Articles

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Cereal-based fermented foods and beverages

A. Blandinob, M.E. Al-Aseeria, S.S. Pandiellaa, D. Canterob, C. Webba

Summary:

Cereal grains constitute a major source of dietary nutrients all over the world.

Although cereals are deficient in some basiccomponents (e.g. essential aminoacids),

fermentation may be the most simple and economical way of improving their

nutritionalvalue, sensory properties, and functional qualities. This review focuses first

on some of the indigenous fermented foods and beveragesproduced world-wide that

have not received the scientific attention they deserve in the last decades. Products

produced fromdifferent cereal substrates (sometimes mixed with other pulses)

fermented by lactic acid bacteria, yeast and/or fungi are included.Finally, newly

developed cereal-based foods with enhanced health properties will also be

reviewed.Since the beginning of human civilisation there hasbeen an intimate

companionship between the humanbeing, his fare and the fermentative activities of

microorganisms.These fermentative activities have been utilized in the production of

fermented foods andbeverages, which are defined as those products that havebeen

subordinated to the effect of microorganisms orenzymes to cause desirable

biochemical changes. The microorganisms responsible for the fermentation maybe the

microflora indigenously present on the substrate,or they may be added as starter

cultures. Cereal grains are considered to be one of the mostimportant sources of

dietary proteins, carbohydrates,vitamins, minerals and fibre for people all over

theworld. However, the nutritional quality of cereals andthe sensorial properties of

their products are sometimesinferior or poor in comparison with milk and milk

products.The reasons behind this are the lower proteincontent, the deficiency of

certain essential amino acids(lysine), the low starch availability, the presence

ofdetermined antinutrients (phytic acid, tannins andpolyphenols) and the coarse

nature of the grains. A fermented, thick suspension made of a blend of

rice(Oryzasativum) and dehulled black gram (Phaseolusmungo) is used in several

traditional foods in SoutheastAsian countries. Among them, idli and dosa are

verypopular in India and Sri Lanka (Sands &Hankin,1974). Traditionally, for idli

preparation the rice andblack gram are soaked separately. After draining thewater,

rice and black gram are grinded independently,with occasional addition of water


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during the process.The rice is coarsely ground and the black gram is finelyground.

Then the rice and the black gram batters aremixed together (2:1ratio) with addition of

a little saltand allowing to ferment overnight at room temperature(about 30 _C).

Finally, the fermented batter is placed inspecial idli pans and steamed for 58 min

(Nagaraju&Manohar,2000). The lactic acid bacteria Leuconostocmesenteroides,

Streptococcus faecalis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillusfermenti, Lactobacillus

lactis and Pediococcuscerevisiae have been found to be responsible for the

fermentationprocess, although L. mesenteroides and S.faecalis are considered to be

the microorganism essentialfor leavening of the batter and for acid productionin idli

(Purushothaman, Dhanapal, &Rangaswami,1993; Ramakrishnan, 1993). The yeasts

Geotrichumcandidum, Torulopsisholmii, Torulopsis candida

andTrichosporonpullulans have also been identified in idlifermentation

(Chavan&Kadam, 1989; Shortt, 1998).Fermentation of idli batter appears to have a

significanteffect on the increase of all essential amino acids and inthe reduction of

antinutrients (such as phytic acid),enzyme inhibitors and flatus sugars (Steinkraus et

al.,1993). Idli is a low calorie, starchy and nutritious food,which is consumed as

breakfast or snack. Steamed idlicontains about 3.4% protein, 20.3% carbohydrate

and70% moisture (Teniola&Odunfa, 2001). Large-scaleproduction of idli is carried out

in batch compartmentalsteaming units. This is labour intensive and has

limitedcapacity. With the growing demands for breakfastfoods, idlis are being

consumed on a large scale in someIndian institutions such as army, railways,

industrialcanteens, etc. In order to meet the demand, numerousstudies are carried out

for the development of continuousunits for the production of idli. Despite of the

conventional foods and beverages largelyproduced from cereals in the Western

world(breads, pastas and beers), there is a wide variety ofproducts produced

worldwide that have not received thescientific attention they deserve. These products

areoften fermented, and have an improved self-life andnutritional properties in

comparison with the rawmaterials used. The flora responsible for the fermentationis in

many cases indigenous and includes strains oflactic acid bacteria, yeast and fungi.

Singles of mixedcereals sometimes mixed with other pulses are used, andthe final

texture of the product can vary according tothe processing and fermentation

conditions.


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Contracting out food and beverage operations in hotels: Acomparative study of practice in north America and the United

KingdomGary Hallam and Tom Baum

School of Business, The University of Buckingham, Hunter St, Buckingham

MK18 lEG, UK

Summary:This paper addresses one of the most significant changes that is taking place

withrespect to the food and beverage area in hotels, that of contracting out operations

toexternal operators, whether individual restaurateurs or branded restaurant

chainnames. This development is widely regretted by many traditionalists but

represents areality in north America and, increasingly, in the United Kingdom as well.

This paperconsiders the current situation in north America and the UK and reports

the findings ofa survey of individual hoteliers and corporate interests in both localities.

The surveysought information on current attitudes to contracting out within the hotel

industry andmixed responses are reported here. What can be reported with some

confidence is thatthis practice will continue to grow in both locations.

Hotels around the world are rethinking the ways they operate and deliver their food

andbeverage. From limited service budget hotels to the luxury full service five star

hotels,increasingly establishments are looking to outside operators or proven franchise

conceptsto enhance customers' perceptions and to help increase profitability. The

hotel industry isre-evaluating its relationship with in-house food and beverage

operations. As a result,some hotel companies no longer consider food and beverage a

necessary amenity to beprovided in the traditional sense. However, whether provided

by hotel management orleased out to another operator, food and beverage is crucial to

image, and thereforeremains closely linked to success (Brennan, 1987).

Many hotels engage in some form of contracting out activities, such as their

laundryfacilities or pastry production. However, there are wide differences between the

policieswhich hotel groups adopt towards distancing. In general, the approach has

been tocontract out peripheral rather than core activities. These distancing strategies

that involvecontracting out operations, shift the burden of risk and uncertainty

elsewhere (Guerrierand Lockwood, 1989). Until recently, food and beverage had been

considered a centralactivity of most hotels and thus not within the scope of

contracting out.


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There are many reasons why hotels contract out portions or all of their food

andbeverage operations. These reasons vary with size, location, market level and

ownershipof each individual hotel. Bjorn Hanson, chairman of Coopers & Lybrand's

hospitalityconsulting group, argues "today's increased need to maximize cash flow is

sure to focusmore attention on increasing the F&B profit". Hanson says that this focus

on the bottomline is leading hotels to lease their food and beverage to entrepreneurial

operators, whilehotels with multiple food and beverage units are simply closing one or

more down(Wexler, 1993).With guest's expectations on the rise, operators in hotel food

& beverage departmentsincreasingly find themselves facing two choices to improve

value; lower prices orupgrading of service and quality. What most say is that they can

no longer afford to cut costs to enhance their profitability. Sean Handerhan, director of

F&B marketing forMarriott argues that the company's initiative had shifted from cost-

cutting to driving sales.And that means reinvesting in it's food and beverage

operations (Chaudhry, 1993).Hotel restaurants also are at a financial disadvantage in

relation to independentrestaurants. According to a 1992 study by Coopers & Lybrand,

payroll and benefits madeup almost 39% of sales for hotel restaurants, compared with

about 33% for the averagerestaurant (Chaudhry, 1993).

Tom Lattin, director of Coopers and Lybrand's national hospitality industry

consultingservices group notes the problem of trying to wear multiple hats. "Most hotel

managersmanage the food and beverage service in the traditional hotel style, which

means offering meals a day. But that's not their business, it's hotels". Lattin said

operating food andbeverage requires more accounting staff, more time from sales staff,

more administrationstaff, more payroll taxes, and higher maintenance costs (Rowe,

1993).Some of the main reasons for inviting outside restaurateurs to help with the

food andbeverage operation is to provide a hotel with a specialty restaurant, to give the

feeling thatthe guest is going out to a local bistro or trattoria: Secondly, the hotel may

be small, andwithout management capability to handle food and beverage. Finally the

hotel may justrequire a proven franchise concept to help boost sales (Wexler, 1993).

Goldman and Eyster (1992) also identified some of the advantages and disadvantages

oflease agreements, necessary success factors and implications for the future that

would helpimprove further agreements for both parties. Table 1 shows some of these

reportedadvantages and disadvantages from a restaurateur's perspective.


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Traditional fermented foods and beverages in BurundiNzigamasaboAloys, Nimpagaritse Angeline

Summary:Several traditional fermented foods and beverages are produced at the household level

in Burundi. Theseinclude milk products (urubu, amateregua and amavuta), cereal and

banana-based beverages (Urwarwa,Isongo, Impeke and Kanyanga) and cassava-based

fermented foods (Ikivunde, Inyange, Imikembe and Ubswage).Literature on Burundian

fermented foods and beverages is non-existent. Therefore, the objective ofthis review is

to document the methods by which these Burundian foods and beverages are

produced andto devise scientific means to improve their quality and optimize their

production methods.

Several traditional fermented foods are produced at the householdlevel in Burundi.

The presence of unspecified microorganismscomplicates the control of fermentation

process and gives productsof variable quality. The microbiology and the biochemistry

of thesetraditionally fermented foods need to be fully understood beforethe

predominant microorganisms in these fermentations are isolated,identified, character

sized and used in the development ofstarter cultures. These together with improved

processing andthe use of good quality raw materials for fermentations could beused in

the establishment of a small-scale industry of fermentedfoods. Further research

should be directed towards identifyingthe benefits and risks associated with

fermenting and possible contaminatingmicroorganisms.

Most of the traditional alcoholic beverages (Impeke and Urwarwa)can be distilled to

yield a more concentrated (in terms of alcoholcontent) and a relatively pure beverage

called Kanyanga. Toproduce Kanyanga, the brew is placed in drums, which are

thentightly closed and put on a fire in one room. A coiled copper tubeleading from the

drums to another room is placed in cold waterand the distillate is collected in a bottle.

The concentration ofKanyanga is higher (no study has been done yet); those who

drinkit get easily drunk. It is usually drunk by lower income individualswho cannot

afford expensive beer produced in Burundi. No localdistillers exist in Burundi and its

production, selling and consumptionis illegal because the spirit is alleged to be toxic

as its drinkinghas been associated with ill health and cases of sudden death.

Toxicityis attributed to several alcohols such as isoamyl alcohol, isobutanoland

methanol. The process of producing Kanyanga issimilar to that of making


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OugandanWaragi and comparable toZimbabwean Kachasu. Kachasu is usually

brewed using maizemeal but bulrush or finger millet meal, various fruits and

bananapeels may be used as alternative sources of carbohydrates. The

carbohydratesource is added to warm water in a pot with a holedrilled on the side,

which is used later during distillation of thespirit. The mixture is stirred into slurry

and allowed to simmerfor a few minutes before a pot is removed from the fire.

Sugarand yeasts are added after the slurry has been cooled to ambienttemperature.

The hole in pot is sealed with clay and mixture allowedto ferment for 47 days at

ambient temperature (Brett, Nyampingidza,&Gurira, 1992). At the end of fermentation,

the seal onthe hole is broken and a narrow pipe connected. The pipe transversesa

water-jacket containing cold water, which acts as a condenser.The fermented brew is

distilled over a small fire and theclear distillate is collected from the end of the pipes

into bottles.The alcohol content of Kachasu can range from 9% to 41%. The sellingand

consumption of Kachasu in Zimbabwe has been illegalsince 1971 because the spirit is

alleged to be toxic as its drinkinghas been associated with ill health and death.

(Gadaga, Mutukumira,Narvhus, & Feresu,1999). Contrary to Kanyanga and

Kachasu,Waragi has been industrialized. Small brewers sell their

traditionallyproduced Waragi to large distillery. The distillery then distils itto produce

a high quality bottled commercial product with up to40% (Mwesigye&Okurut, 1995). A

similar scheme could be introducedto upgrade and control the quality of Kanyanga

and to producea safer and regulated distilled spirit.

Cassava roots are peeled, washed, cut into pieces and sun-driedfor one day. They are

then heaped together and covered by plantainleaves or straw and left to ferment for 5

days. The end of the fermentationis marked by the appearance of moulds on the

surface of cassavapieces and the softness of the root. An appealing flavor isdeveloped

during fermentation. The fermented pieces are sun-driedafter scrapping off the mould

after which, the cassava pieces arepounded in a wooden mortar with a pestle and

sieved to get slightlydark colored flour called INYANGE. The production is

summarizedin Fig. 4. This cassava product is made into a paste (ubugali) by stirring

it with boiling water over a low heat. It is eaten with legumes,isombe and meats.

Moulds involved in fermentation are responsiblefor the color and the flavor of the flour

(Hahn, 1989; Musuku, 1995;Nzigamasabo A., 2007; Rwamudanga, 1988).


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Capturing the Spectrum of Household Food andBeverage Purchasing Behavior: A Review

SIMONE A. FRENCH, PHD; SCOTT T. SHIMOTSU, MPH; MELANIE WALL, PHD; ANNE FARICYGERLACH, MPH

Summary:

The household setting may be the most important level atwhich to understand the

food choices of individuals andhow healthful food choices can be promoted.

However,there are few available measures of the food purchasebehaviors of

households and little consensus on the bestway to measure it. This review explores

the currentlyavailable measures of household food purchasing behavior.Three main

measures are described, evaluated, andcompared: home food inventories, food and

beverage purchaserecords and receipts, and Universal Product Codebar code

scanning. The development of coding, aggregation,and analytical methods for these

measures of householdfood purchasing behavior is described. Currently,annotated

receipts and records are the most comprehensive,detailed measure of household food

purchasing behavior,and are feasible for population-based samples.Universal Product

Code scanning is not recommendeddue to its cost and complexity. Research directions

toimprove household food purchasing behavior measuresare discussed.

The variability of household food and beverage purchasesis an important issue to

consider in reliably capturinghousehold food purchasing behaviors but little is

knownabout this area. Variability in household food and beveragepurchases occurs at

multiple levels. Variation withinand between households in the frequency with which

theyshop at the supermarket or grocery store, or other foodstores, and in the

frequency with which they purchasefood and beverages from restaurants, fast-food

places,and other types of stores that sell food will affect thenumber of weeks of food

purchase data needed to estimatefoods or food groups. Households vary in the types

offoods they purchase, at the item level (eg, potato chips),and at the category level (eg,

prepackaged snack foods).The number of days or weeks needed to provide foodandbeverage purchase estimates may vary depending on thetarget food or beverage

item.A comparison with dietary recall estimates is instructive.The number of days of

dietary recalls needed toestimate an individuals total energy intake is muchfewer than

that needed to estimate intake of specific foodsor specific nutrients, because total

energy intake is lessvariable than intake of any specific food (37-41). Eachlevel of


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variability needs to be understood to better determinethe number of days or weeks of

data needed toprovide reliable estimates of the home food purchases.

Articles were located using a computerized search of thedatabases MedLine,

PsychInfo, and ISI Web of Sciencefrom 1990 to 2007. Key words included home, food,

UPC,barcode, food purchase, scanners, household food, receipts,tills, shelf inventory,

pantry, register tapes, andfood inventory. In addition, reference lists from key

publishedarticles were reviewed for relevant articles. Inclusioncriteria for this review

were that the research had toinclude a measure of foods and beverages currently

availablein the home or purchased. The measure could be anon-site observation by

trained research staff or by thehousehold participant, or it could be a self-report by

thehousehold participant to the research staff. Food sourcescould be grocery stores,

other food stores, restaurants andother eating out food sources.

Home Food Inventories (HFIs)HFIs have been used to describe the cross-sectional

availabilityof certain foods and beverages in the home environmentat a single point in

time and are completedeither by the participant or by a trained research staffperson.

Inventory studies have either attempted to captureall of the foods in the home, or else

have focused oncertain subsets of food types (eg, fruits and vegetables orhigh-fat

foods). Seven studies (six American, one Italian)were located that used HFIs (see the

Table). To captureall of the foods and beverages in the home environment,Crockett (13)

developed an 80-item shelf inventory aspart of an evaluation of a community-based

nutritionintervention. The HFI was mailed to a random sample of50 households

recruited from a telephone directory.Foods were checked as present or absent in the

household.Quantities were not recorded. Eating out foods wasnot measured. A

research staff person visited the home tocomplete a second HFI within 3 hours of the

participantscompletion of the HFI. Using the researcher-completedHFI, sensitivity and

specificity of the foods at the itemlevel were calculated (26) and found to be high

whencomparing the household and researcher completed inventories(0.86 and 0.92,

respectively).A similar study examined the validity of an HFI amongolder adults with

type 2 diabetes (15). The HFI includedall food and beverage items in the household.

Eating outfoods was not measured. Food items were coded aspresent or absent, and

no quantitative information wascollected.


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Traditional biotechnology for new foods and beveragesJeroenHugenholtz

Summary:The food and beverage industry is re-discovering fermentation as a crucial step in

product innovation. Fermentation can provide various benefits such as unique flavor,

health and nutrition, texture and safety (shelf life), while maintaining a 100% natural

label. In this review several examples are presented on how fermentation is used to

replace, modify or improve current, artificially produced, foods and beverages and how

also fermentation can be used for completely novel consumer products.

The process of fermentation was traditionally leveraged by the human population to

increase the shelf life of perishable agricultural produce such as milk, vegetables and

meat. This has resulted in a vast variety of fermented foods and beverages that is still

the main part of the human diet in many under-developed countries and in most

countries in South-East Asia. In North America and Europe which have extremely

efficient and rapid distribution systems and an overall availability of cooling and

freezing systems, most of the traditional fermented products, with the exception of

fermented dairy (yoghurt and cheese) and meat (sausages) have been replaced by fresh

agricultural produce, making the process of fermentation obsolete.

With the use of novel genomic technologies more detailed insight has been given in

some traditional fermentations such as sourdough [34], kefir [1], kimchi [35,36], cacao[37 _], yoghurt [38] and sau- sage [39] fermentations. Also several lesser-known fer-

mented products have been characterized using these genomics tools [40,41 _]. It has

clarified for instance which microorganisms are most active in these fermentations

and how they are adapted to their specific environments. This type of experimental

data is crucial when considering to up-scale these processes or when applying these

microorganisms on other substrates. Such data will also be used to build

comprehensive models of each fermentation process with the ultimate goal to

accurately predict the outcome of (novel) fermentations. The struggles and challengesfaced by the modelers are discussed in another chapter of this special Food

Biotechnology issue [42]. However, some early successes of the Systems Biology

approach are also reported [43 _,44,45] providing possible solutions for process

improvement and also providing the essential insight for much more extensive use of

the fermentation technology in the food and beverage industry.


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This trend away from fermentation seems to have come to a recent stop and is now

gradually reversing. More and more people (and food companies) are regain- ing

interest in traditional and more natural foods and there is a growing dislike for the

processing and energy-input that is needed to maintain freshness of agricultural

crops. In addition, the food and beverage industry is continuously trying to innovate

within the constraints of sustainability and naturalness. All these recent devel-

opments are leading to increased interest and activity in fermentation technology by

all consumer goods indus-tries, big and small. This trend is not really visible in the

scientific literature and (not yet) in the patent literature, so some referencing will be

made to company-websites as support of statements made in this contribution.

Fermentation, nowadays, is all about bringing unique signature flavors and other

benefits to consumer products in a 100% natural way. This is done using, mainly, two

different approaches. The easiest is to turn a traditional, home-grown, product into a

large scale process. Examples are the dairy product, kefir which is a traditional liquid

fermented dairy product using a mixture of lactic acid bacteria, yeast and fungi for the

fermentation of milk, resulting in a yoghurt-like, slightly alcoholic product which has

traditionally been consumed by millions of people in, especially, Eastern Europe and

supposedly conveys spectacular health benefits to the consumer. The fermentation

process is, typically, conducted at home on, or close to, the stove and using small left-

overs of previously produced kefir or a small kefir granule purchased at the local

grocery store, as inoculum. Only recently, the larger dairy companies have managed to

upscale this process to an industrial scale using active and stable starter cultures just

as is the daily practice for mainstream dairy products such as yoghurt and cheese.

Another example is the traditional drink of Kvass which is a result of fermentation of

kitchen left-overs mainly consisting of bread bits. This fermented product is also

traditionally made at home with a final composition depending on the type of left-overs

used and the nature of the locally evolved microbial culture. This traditional beverage

is now also marketed by larger companies, also outside the originating country,

Russia. The main challenge of these companies is to prepare this family drink with a

constant quality and, especially, without alcohol. This is basically done by using

controlled fermentations with standardized starter cultures and similar fermentation

conditions (short, low temperature) as used for non-alcoholic beer production.


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Efficient or enjoyable? Consumer values of eating-out and fastfood restaurant consumption in Korea

Cheol ParkDepartment of Management Information Systems, Korea University, Jochiwon-Eup, Yongi-Gun,Chungnam

339-700, South Korea

Summary:The Korean fast food industry has grown rapidly since the 1988 Seoul Olympic

Games.There are now 1500 fast food restaurants in Korea. This study investigated the

relationshipsbetween consumer values of eating-out and the importance of fast food

restaurant attributes inKorea. Using a questionnaire, 279 fast food restaurant patrons

were surveyed. The resultsshowed that consumer values of eating-out divided into two

factors; hedonic and utilitarian.The hedonic value of eating-out had positive

correlation with mood, quick service, cleanliness,food taste, employee kindness, and

facilities, the utilitarian value centered on reasonable price,quick service, and

promotional incentives. Also, the hedonic value more influenced buyingfrequency than

the utilitarian. This study presents empirical evidence showing that Koreanconsumers

choose fast food restaurants more by hedonic, not utilitarian, values of eating-

out.Consequently, fast food restaurant marketers in Korea should consider hedonic

aspects as themost important factors in attracting customers. Limitations and further

research issues aresuggested.

Due to global travel, communication, and media, cultures are converging andtheglobalizing of markets has led to a common culture worldwide. The fast food

restaurant is one typical form of global business (Emerson, 1990). As Korea is

notexceptional in this stream, fast food industry is growing up rapidly in recent

years.The total market size of the foodservice industry is estimated to be about

$16.2billion with an annual growth rate of 13%. In Korea, the fast food industry

hasgrown rapidly since 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. There are currently 1500 fast

foodrestaurants throughout the country. Many Korean adolescents are

becomingincreasingly more westernized and workers pursue greater convenience when

eating.Presently, there are four major fast-food restaurants chains in Korea:

Lotteria,McDonalds, KFC and Poppeyes. Lotteria, the Korean brand, ranks the first

bymarket share despite fierce challenges by foreign fast food competitors.Why was the

fast food industry in Korea grown so growing rapidly, and why isLotteria domestically

the most successful? There are some unique cultural differencesin Korean fast food


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consumption. For example, Koreans tend to consider fast foodrestaurants as

representative of western culture. In addition, they are recognizedbeing not only an

efficient and economic eating environment but also as an exoticplace for social

interaction and entertainment. There are negative viewpoints as towhether or not the

global standardization of restaurant operations is fit for Korea.This study focuses on

the unique points related to the adoption and use of fast foodrestaurants in Korea.

Fast-food restaurants should develop customer-orientedmarketing strategies based on

culture-specific characteristics to survive in fiercecompetition. Therefore, a better

understanding of Korean fast food restaurantbehavior is necessary in developing

effective marketing strategies. However,consumer behavior in connection to fast food

has received only limited attentionor study within the hospitality and food services

studies More specially, culturalresearch on consumption of fast food restaurant is

virtually unavailable. This studywas undertaken to explore the relationship between

consumer values of eating-outand consumption of fast food restaurant in Korea. Some

unique findings will beidentified through this work. There are various motivations for

eating out; economizing, efficiency, fun, tasteand social interaction. Eating out gives

consumers experiential values. Therestaurant is a place where we experience

excitement, pleasure and a sense ofpersonal well being argues that consumers

areincreasingly coming to value efficiency, calculability, predictability and control,

due to changes in lifestyle, demographic factors and technology in

restaurantconsumption.Values represent important and desirable end goals. A general

view of valuesguided this research, recognizing both (1) a utilitarian outcome resulting

from theconscious pursuit of an intended consequence and (2) an outcome related

more tospontaneous hedonic responses. The former is called a utilitarianvalue and the

latter a hedonic value. Utilitarian consumer behavior has been described as task-

related and rational. The hedonic value ismore subjective and personal than its

utilitarian counterpart and results more fromfun and playfulness than from task

completion.

Factor analysis of consumer values of eating-outFactor analysis, using the principal

component method with a Varimax rotationof factors, was performed to identify

characteristics of consumer values of eatingout.Cronbachs alpha was used to assess

the reliability for each factor.


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The essential balance: Risks and benefits in food safety and

quality

Barbara Burlingame_, Maya PineiroFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, VialedelleTerme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy

Summary:Food composition analysis is concerned with both beneficial and harmful food

components in the human diet: nutrients, bioactivenon-nutrients, anti-nutrients,

toxicants, contaminants and other potentially useful and dangerous elements. The

concept of food safety inthe past excluded elements of nutrition such as known risk

factors for certain chronic diseases and nutrients in the form of fortificantsand

supplements. Concerns about genetically modified foods, functional foods, high levels

of nutrient additives and nutritionalsupplements are now being taken into

consideration in the risk and safety activities of both the Food and Agriculture

Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Food safety generally refers to the content of various chemicaland microbiological

elements in food. More consumer awareness of food safety and quality issues, along

withgovernment and industryaction, is bringing about a more preventive, food chain

approachsometimes called from farm to tablein many countries, so as toimprove

traditional food safety systems. FAO has adopted this food-chain approach and defines

it as recognition that the responsibilityfor the supply of safe, healthy and nutritious

food is shared by all involved, from primary production to final preparation

andconsumption. Compositional changes (representing either risks or benefits) in food

can be introduced at every link. Althoughdevelopments may be largely beneficial, food

composition needs to be monitored to ensure that no harm results to consumers.

Finally,collaborative international efforts are needed in order to resolve issues of food-

quality and safety across boundaries in a global worldtrade context. A holistic food

chain approach would recognize that responsibility for supplying safe and nutritious

food lies with allthose involved in food production.

Food safety issues are causing more concern than ever, ifa glance at headlines over

the past few years is anyindication: mad cow disease,1 Escherichia coli

contaminationof green vegetables,2 dioxin in the food chain3 andongoing concerns

about mercury and pesticides in food. Inthe context of work carried out by United

Nations agenciesand international organizations, food safety is theassurance that


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food will not cause harm to the consumerwhen it is prepared and/or eaten according

to its intendeduse (Codex Alimentarius, FAO/WHO, 2001). Food composition

encompasses both the beneficial and theharmful components of food. In the first

editorialpublished in the Journal of Food Composition and Analysisin December 1987,

Kent Stewart (1987) wrote, Thehuman diet is a primary vehicle for our interaction

withthe environment. It is the major source of nutrients and canbe a significant

source of human exposure to infectious,toxic, and pharmacological agents. Food

quality and safety, and risks and benefits in food composition studieswere again

raised by Stewart in subsequent editorials. Indeed, the analysis of the compositionof

food is concerned not only withth e nutrients inthe human diet, but concomitantly

and significantlywithanti-nutrients, toxicants, contaminants and otherpotentially

dangerous elements. Other editorials in Journalof Food Composition and Analysis

have also underlinedthis direction: Food composition can and should beinclusive of

all intrinsic, deliberately added, and incidentalcomponents, including environmental

contaminants,additives, and bioactive non-nutrientsPreviously, the concept of food

safety excluded elementsof nutrition, suchfood components that are known riskfactors

for certain chronic diseases (FAO, 2005c), andnutrients in the form of additives,

functional foods andsupplements. More recently, requests have been made

atinternational forums to include these elements in risk andsafety activities

(FAO/WHO, 2006). The impetus has comefrom concerns about genetically modified

foods, functionalfoods, high levels of nutrient fortificants and nutrientsupplements.

Thus, as the global food supply evolves,certain aspects of food safety and nutrition are

seen moreas a continuum than as separate fields of activity. In arecent editorial,

wrote, Is dietaryanalysis different from an exposure or risk assessment? Notreally. Is

a food composition database different from anadditive, contaminant or toxicant

database? No, notfundamentally. Do we miss assessment opportunities inclinical and

epidemiological researchby not havingextensive compositional databeyond

nutrientsin ourfood databases? Surely we do.

Is a food composition database different from anadditive, contaminant or toxicant

database? No, notfundamentally. Do we miss assessment opportunities inclinical and

epidemiological researchby not havingextensive compositional databeyond

nutrientsin ourfood databases? Surely we do.


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Factors that influence beverage choices at meal times. An

application of the food choice kaleidoscope framework

S. Mueller Loose, S.R. Jaeger

Summary:Beverages are consumed at almost every meal occasion, but knowledge about the

factors that influencebeverage choice is less than for food choice. The aim of this

research was to characterize and quantifyfactors that influence beverage choices at

meal times. Insights into what beverages are chosen by whom,when and where can be

helpful for manufacturers, dieticians/health care providers, and health policymakers.

A descriptive framework the food choice kaleidoscope (Jaeger et al., 2011) was

applied toself-reported 24 h food recall data from a sample of New Zealand consumers.

Participants (n = 164)described 8356 meal occasions in terms of foods and beverages

consumed, and the contextual characteristicsof the occasion. Beverage choice was

explored with random-parameter logit regressions to revealinfluences linked to food

items eaten, context factors and person factors. Thereby this study contributedto the

food choice kaleidoscope research approach by expressing the degree of context

dependency in theform of odds ratios and according significance levels. The

exploration of co-occurrence of beverages withfood items suggests that beveragemeal

item combinations can be meal specific. Furthermore, this studyintegrates

psychographic variables into the person mirror of the food choice kaleidoscope. A

measure ofhabit in beverage choice was obtained from the inter-participant

correlation.

The study of contextual influences on food/beverage choices why does who eat what,

when and where? is of high importanceto better understand the complex interplay

of food choicedrivers. Researchers have used diverse paradigmsin the study of the

factors that shape food/beverage choice. In the research into contextual influences

onfood/beverage choices more attention is now being directed tothe joint influence of

multiple contextual factors. Although bulk demonstrated that interactions between

contextual factorsare important in shaping consumer behavior, this aspect of

contextualinfluences have not been prioritized by researchers, anddrew attention to

the need for research thatmore fully integrates and jointly examines the factors

alreadyidentified. focused on the situationalcontext of social surroundings as a

moderator for the suitabilityof different meal options. Authors jointly assessed the


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influence of temporal and social factors onthe stated intention to eat convenience food.

presented discrete choice experimentation as one optionfor jointly examining product,

context and person factors in foodchoice decisions. While most of these prior studies

relied on measuringintentions in a theoretical context isan example of a more

externally valid approach for studying thejoint influence of several context factors on

food choice. To investigatebeverage choices in bars with different ambiences,

theycreated experimental settings by systematically varying the furnitureand

music/videos shown. Participants enter the bar, experienceits ambience(s) and then

make beverage choices. Theauthors describe their approach as immersive and seek

to capturethe moment of consumption as this, they suggest, is wherecontextual

influences congeal to exert their joint influence.Although very different, these two

empirical approaches have incommon the need to define, a priori, the contextual

factors tobe studied. Research into contextual food choice factors requires

knowledgeabout what factors may interact, and approaches that enabledata mining to

search for interactions can, hence, be useful. Thefood choice kaleidoscope approach

serves this purpose. It offers a framework forthe joint and structured investigation of

product, place and personas sources of variation in food choices. The term

kaleidoscopewas coined as a metaphor for observing food choice events

throughdifferent lenses. To use the food choice kaleidoscope the researchermust

decide which mirrors (i.e., which food choice factor) to apply.A single or alternatively

multiple mirrors can be applied at once tothe food choice data to understand

contextual factor of mealconsumption.In data were obtained from 24 h food

recalldairies where participants for each meal recorded beverages andfood components

consumed, time, location, presence of other people,etc. While reliant on self-reports,

which can be biased, everydayfood consumption in its natural context is captured.

Becausethe data can be analyzed quantitatively, there is scope to determinethe

relative importance for food/beverage choices from maineffects and their interactions.

demonstrate this approach and directly confirm Belks findingsthat interactions

between contextual factors are important infood/beverage choice decisions.

The food recall data were obtained from a sample of 164 NewZealand consumers,

recruited to take part in studies about flavorpreferences in foods and beverages. The

inclusion criteria for theseprojects meant that all participants were between 18 and 50


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The relationship between technical efficiency and industrialconcentration: Evidence from the Indonesian food and beverages

industry.MamanSetiawana,b,*, GrigoriosEmvalomatis c, Alfons Oude Lansink c

Summary:

This paper investigates the relationship between technical efficiency and

industrialconcentration in the Indonesian food and beverages sector. Firm-level data

obtained fromthe Indonesian Bureau of Central Statistics (BPS) are used to estimate

technical efficiencyscores and calculate measures of industrial concentration. The

results show that the foodand beverages industry is characterized by high industrial

concentration and firms in theindustry are inefficient. The Granger-causality test

suggests a one-way direction ofcausality, with industrial concentration having a

negative impact on technical efficiency,at the sector level. This suggests that the quiet-

life hypothesis, rather than the efficientstructurehypothesis, applies to the Indonesian

food and beverages industry.

The food and beverages sector is one of the economic sectors that contributes

significantly to the Indonesian GDP and employment absorption. Since 2004, the

output of this sector accounted for about 7% of the Indonesian GDP and about 23% of

the total industrial manufacturing output. Additionally, the food and beverages sector

absorbed about 23% of total employment in the Indonesian manufacturing industry in

2006. However, as shown by Setiawan, Emvalomatis, and Oude Lansink (2012), this

sector is characterized by a tight oligopoly structure, with the concentration ratio for

four firms (CR4) being about 66%, and has experienced high price-cost margins in the

period 19952006. Given the importance of the food and beverages industry in the

Indonesian economy, efficient transformation of inputs into outputs is necessary to

ensure a competitive price and product quality for the consumers. Efficiency losses in

the food and beverages industry, either caused by firm-level technical or allocative

inefficiency or due to oligopolistic power, may have far-reaching consequences for theentire Indonesian economy and the well-being of the local population. This industry

fulfills primarily the needs of the local population with imports accounting for about

6% of total consumption in the sector and exports being less than 3% of the value of

output in the period 20052006. Furthermore, Indonesian households spent about

50% of their income on food and beverages products in the period 20052006. Any


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type of inefficiency associated with the sector will be translated to higher consumer

prices, which will increase the cost of living and may lead to social unrest.

Additionally, there may be interrelationship between the high industrial concentration

in the sector and firm-level efficiency. There are two competing theories that explain

the relationship between industrial concentration and efficiency, i.e. the quiet-life (QL)

hypothesis and the efficient-structure hypothesis. The quiet-life hypothesis (Hicks,

1935) suggests that high industrial concentration lowers competition among firms,

which in turn, reduces incentives for the firms to maximize their efficiency. Gumbau-

Albert and Maudos (2002) found that there is a negative relationship between

industrial concentration and efficiency, thus supporting the QL hypothesis. Their

study showed that firms operating in more concentrated markets had the lowest

technical efficiency scores. Also Al-Muharrami and Matthews (2009) observed that

more market power means less control on the costs, which makes firms less efficient.

Furthermore, Setiawan et al. (2012) found that anticompetitive practices exist in the

food and beverages manufacturing sectors that are characterized by high industrial

concentration. Thus, according to the QL hypothesis, one may deduce that high

industrial concentration may lead to inefficiency. The quiet-life hypothesis has been

challenged on theoretical grounds (Stigler, 1976) for not providing a viable alternative

to profit maximization as the objective of monopolists and oligopolists. The second

theory, the efficient-structure (ES) hypothesis, states that firms with higher efficiency

produce at lower cost per unit of output, which in turn leads to higher profits and

larger market share (Demsetz, 1973). This also causes the efficient firms to grow more

rapidly in size than less efficient firms. Therefore, profitability and market structure

can be a mirror of an efficiency difference among firms. In other words, this hypothesis

says that higher industrial concentration may be created by the efficient firms. In line

with this hypothesis, Allen, Shaik, Myles, and Muhammad (2005) found that the

efficient-structure hypothesis applied to the trucking industry in the United States. It

is important to find out which hypothesis is relevant for the Indonesian food and

beverages sector. Although previous research investigated technical efficiency in this

sector, the research did not clarify the relationship between technical efficiency and

industrial concentration. For example, Margono and Sharma (2006) estimated only

technical efficiency scores in food, textile, chemical, and metal product industries from

1993 to 2000 in Indonesia.


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Mapping of environmental and technological performance offood and beverage sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina

SandaMid_zi_c-Kurtagi_c, IremSilajd_zi_c*, TarikKupusovi_c(Hydro-Engineering Institute Sarajevo, StjepanaTomi_ca 1, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Summary:

The objective of this paper is to discuss the mapping methodology implemented in the

selection of BAT candidates and to present the results of the mapping of B&H food and

beverage sector, prepared as a baseline for the development of national reference

documents on Best Available Techniques. The subsectors subject to analysis were:

dairy, fish farming, fish processing, fruit and vegetable processing, meat processing,

breweries, and slaughterhouses. The sector was mapped from several aspects,

including socio-economic, legal, and environmental point of view. The socio-economic

aspect focused on understanding the sectors structure and financial capabilities,

pricing for water, energy, and solid waste consumption, as well as employee profiles,

in order to better assess the sustainability of decisions taken. Legal mapping focused

on relevant regulations, including policies from the following sectors: environment,

water use and protection, food safety, agriculture, and veterinary, in order to

determine legal requirements from an environmental protection aspect set in the

various sector policies. Environmental performance indicators were calculated in order

to assess present resource efficiencies and relevant environmental impacts. In

addition, the mapping process also addressed the existing level of BAT implementation

in the subsectors under consideration. The paper presents a rationale for methodology

selection, offers a review of the mapping methodology used, discusses mapping results

and provides conclusions in regards to that methodology used and discusses issues

that need to be considered in the selection of BAT candidates.

Similar to other countries with economies in transition, industrialcompanies in Bosnia

and Herzegovina (B&H), are facingnumerous challenges and changes on their road to

a marketeconomy. The current national environmental legislation, whichdefines the

relationship between industrial activity and the environment, requires industries to

obtain an environmental permitbased on the integrated pollution prevention and

control conceptpresented in the EU Directive 2008/1/EC (Directive 2008/1/EC ofthe

European Parliament, 2008). The permit is to include emissionlimit values, equivalent

parameters or technical measuresbased on Best Available Techniques, taking into


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account the technicalcharacteristics of the installation, its geographical location,and

the local conditions. Operators with the permit are legallyobliged to use Best Available

Techniques (BAT) to prevent or minimize the negative impact on the environment.In

order to be able to enforce the environmental law, theministries are required to

develop a number of bylaws and tools forthe successful implementation and

monitoring of legal provisionson integrated pollution prevention and control. One of

the basicrequirements is the development of national reference documentson Best

Available Techniques (Articles 6, 71, 86) for the majority ofthe industrial sectors (Law

on Environmental Protection).The European Union Best Reference Documents (EU

BREFs)were mainly developed based on the exchange of information onmedium to

large size companies having capacity thresholds correspondingto those of Annex I of

the EU Directive 2008/1/EC. Forcountries whose economy depends on small and

medium sizecompanies, EU BREF documents do not provide adequate informationthat

can aid both the industry and the regulating bodies inimplementing integrated

pollution prevention and control. Thereis a need to develop national reference

documents on Best AvailableTechniques using EU BREF documents; however they

need totake into consideration local conditions, further taking intoaccount

environmental performance and technology employed bylocal industries as well as the

countrys economic and socialsituation. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the

mapping methodologyused for the selection of BAT candidates and to present resultsof

the mapping process of B&H food and beverage sector, preparedas a baseline for the

development of national reference documentson BATs. The basic criteria for the

selection of BAT candidate requires theBAT to be developed in scale which allows

implementation inrelevant industrial sector under economically and technicallyviable

conditions, taking in considerations costs and advantages

(Directive 2008/1/EC of the European Parliament, 2008).Dijkmans (2000) presented

the first methodological approach toBAT selection. Various BAT candidates were

evaluated with respectto their technical feasibility, environmental benefits, and

economicaspects, leading to the proposal of BAT. The author introduceda term

average or typical enterprise whereby a certain BATcandidate can be applied with

reasonable costs. The methodologywas tested in fruit and vegetable processing

industry and resultswere published in 2002 (Derden et al., 2002).


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New forms of organization and R&D internationalization among

theworlds 100 largest food and beverages multinationalsFragkiskosFilippaios a,b,1, Marina Papanastassiouc,d,2, Robert Pearcee, Ruth Rama

Summary

This paper explores the strategic internationalization of Research and Development

(R&D) activities of theworlds 100 largest food and beverages (F&B) multinationals

(MNEs) in 1996 and 2000 with a sample ofnearly 8000 affiliates for each period.We

develop a global innovation strategy (GIS) structure where weanalyze the R&D

internationalization process of F&B MNEs.We argue that in a fully developed GIS

modelthe sourcing of creative inputs does not come exclusively from a central R&D

laboratory, but other overseasR&D laboratories or technological affiliates can also

undertake genuine knowledge creation activityfromcapitalizing on the scientific

heterogeneity fostered in individual host countries aswell as distinctivedemand

conditions. Our results indicate the increasing importance of overseas technological

affiliates inthe application of a GIS in the leading F&B MNEs, which determine the

degree of their technological internationalization.Two variants of technological affiliates

reflect two broad knowledge-related activities, i.e.adaptation and genuine forms of

knowledge creation.

One of the key changes during the refocusing of the competitiveorganisation of the

MNE over perhaps the last 40 years has beenthe decentralization of innovation and

R&D. In the years immediatelyafter the second world war, as modelled by Vernon

(1966) inthe original product cycle model,United States MNEs (in particular)created

sources ofcompetitive advantage intheirhomecountry andused processes of technology

transfer to apply these advantages asthe basis of internationalisation. Gradually an

ever-expanding literatureon innovation andR&Dhas drawn attention to the dispersal

oftechnology creation and application units throughout these firmsglobal networks.

We have characterized these internationalized processes and facilities as reflectinginterdependent individualism(Papanastassiou and Pearce, 1998). Thus the reason for

establishingparticular laboratories or innovation-oriented subsidiaries incertain

locations is to drawon specific creative/technological capacitythere. By internalizing

these attributes, laboratories/subsidiariesindividualize their contribution to group-

levelcompetitiveness. Butfor this indeed to work for the group these units also need


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tofunction interdependently with other similar units of the parentcompany (with

similarly individualized capacity and agendas) elsewhere.To achieve this mixture of

localized learning as part of groupknowledge generation the types of technology

affiliates (TAs) analysedlater in this paper have emerged. These can take

coordinatingand organisational roles in group evolution which are informed by,and

operative in, regional contexts as part of even wider overallgroup perspectives. These

perspectives can be schematically formalized in terms ofthe GIS of MNEs fulfilling

three key aims: firstly, to detect and internalizenew creative potentials from diverse

sources of science andtechnology; secondly, to derive from these the broad parameters

ofa new product concept (NPC); thirdly, to complete the competitivedevelopment of the

NPC in different forms that correspond to marketswith different tastes and at different

levels of development.Though the GIS ultimately targets the introduction of NPCs into

arange of market places it is also implicit in this approach to innovationthat processes

will be designed for each region in a way thattakes account of input availabilities as

suggested in the first key aimof a GIS. In this manner product innovation represents

the ultimatelink between the firm and the market place.3From an implementation

perspective, this GIS is being overseenand coordinated by a central R&D laboratory

and operationalisedthrough three types of decentralized and networked

laboratories.The first of these lab types is the internationally interdependentlaboratory

(IIL), which carries out basic/precompetitive

research by tapping into and internalizing distinctive strands ofits host-location

scientific agendas and technological capabilities.Assembling a network of IILs, each

accessing a different local scientificpotential, i.e. responding to technological

heterogeneity,provides an MNE with a range of complementary sources of

newknowledge. By encouraging knowledge exchanges between IILs,and by itself

seeking to understand and assimilate research outputfrom throughout the network,

the central lab aims ultimatelyto assemble the technological basis of a strong NPC.

The precedingpoint leads us to the coordinating role of a parent laboratory in aGIS,

and indeed of the status of a home-country parent headquarters(HQ) in an MNE which

is now placing significant emphasis onthe decentralization of much of its creative and

innovative strategicactivity.Once the bases of the NPC are in place, the second type of

decentralizedlaboratory, the locally integrated laboratory (LIL), comesinto play.


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Understanding alternative food networks: exploring the roleofshort food supply chains in rural development

HenkRenting & Terry K Marsden, Jo Banks

Summary:

In this paper we explore the development and incidence of alternative food networkswithina European-wide context. By developing a consistent definition of short food

supply chains, weaddress both the morphology and the dynamics of these, and then

examine empirical evidenceconcerning their incidence and rural development impact

across seven EU member states. Thesedevelopments need to be seen as one significant

contribution to the current transitions in ruralEurope concerning the crisis of

conventional intensive and productivist agriculture and the publicconsumer pressure

for a larger variety of distinctive `quality' food products.

In recent years we have witnessed the emergence of new forms of dynamism

inagricultural commodity markets. These are to be situated within the context of a

moregeneral transition in rural economies, characterised by some as the shift from

aproductivist to a `postproductivist' food regime whereas others speak of the

establishment of a new `rural development para-digm' (van der Ploeg et al, 2000). The

creation, operation, and evolution of `new' or`alternative' food supply chains is one of

the key dimensions of new rural developmentpatterns now emerging. As Marsden

(1998, page 107) states, ``food markets are becoming more differentiated on the basis

of a range of socially constructed food qualitycriteria'', resulting in the emergence of

new quality-food markets in addition to (andsuperimposed on) existing anonymous

mass food markets.The food chain dimension has become a key element enabling us

to understandbetter new patterns of rural development (Marsden et al, 2000a) and,

potentially alsoa significant building block for future policies designed to influence

these. In this paperwe explore some key aspects of the relation between food supply

chains and broaderissues of rural development. In this, a direct link between theory

and practice is made. It is contended that to understand the role of food supply chains

in rural developmentmore fully, we need to come to grips with the empirical richness

of emerging alternative food networksby examining how these are built, shaped, and

reproduced overtime and spaceand we need to understand better the extent to which

they actuallydeliver in terms of rural development objectives.In the analysis ample

reference is made to European examples of alternative foodnetworks. These are drawn


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from case studies presented in the COST A12 WorkingGroup and, most importantly,

from the results of European-wide IMPACT researchon the socioeconomic impact of

rural development practices. The construction of new food supply chain configurations

forms a crucial element in the strategies underlyingthese new practices, as is the case

with, for example, organic farming, qualityproduction, and direct selling. The

presented figures underline the impressive growthof new food supply chains in recent

years.At the same time, a comparative analysis makes clear that there is a diversity of

competing definitions of quality along these food supply chains, both between

andwithin countries. This is exemplified by the very different ways in which

consumerdemands and new producer supplies are articulated to specific (organic,

integrated,regional, artisanal, etc) production `codes'. These differences result from a

diversity infarming systems and territorial settings, different cultural and gastronomic

traditions, adiversity in the organisational structures of food supply chains, variations

in consumerperceptions, and also from substantial differences in institutional and

policy support.At the outset of the paper it is important to address some definitional

issues. Theterm alternative food networks (AFNs) is here used as a broad embracing

term tocover newly emerging networks of producers, consumers, and other actors

thatembody alternatives to the more standardised industrial mode of food

supply(Murdoch et al, 2000). This fits with the general use of this term by the COST

A12Working Group (see editorial of this issue). To understand the diverse nature

anddynamics of AFNs, however, we have found it necessary to employ more

specificempirically identifiable concepts and parameters. In this paper, therefore, we

attemptto explore these different dimensions by beginning to specify empirically

different typesof AFN. In the IMPACT study, for instance, three categories of alternative

or shortfood supply chains (SFSCs) are used: organic farming, quality production, and

directselling. These have been consistently applied to the collection and analysis of

empiricalevidence. The SFSC concept is more specific than AFNs, and, rather, covers

(theinterrelations between) actors who are directly involved in the production,

processing,distribution, and consumption of new food products.

As the analysis in this paper indicates, it is important not to overly `prejudge'

ortheoretically restrict definitions of AFNs given the current scarcity of theoretical

andempirical work conducted upon them.


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Consumer evaluations of fast-food services: Across-national comparisonMoonkyu Lee, Francis M. Ulgado

Summary

The growth of service industries is playing a significant role in the USeconomy

(Bateson, 1992; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Ginsberg and Vojta,1981). By 1992, the

service sector accounted for 72 percent of its grossdomestic product and 76 percent of

the domestic labor force employment(The Economist, 1993). It has accounted for most

of the recent growth innon-farm employment; 85 percent of all new jobs created in the

last decadehave been in service industries (Koepp, 1987).Services have also been a

fast-growing part of US trade, amounting to a 20percent share of the world market

and 30 percent of US exports. With 135companies, the USA has dominated the

Fortune Global Service 500(Fortune, 1993). In 1991, US cross-border receipts (orexports) for sales ofprivate services totaled $153 billion while cross-border payments

(orimports) for purchases of services were $99.9 billion, indicating a surplus of$53.2

billion (US Department of Commerce, 1992). This surplus has furtherwidened to $60.6

billion for 1992. For the period 1986-1992, the averageannual growth in exports was

almost triple that in imports (US Departmentof Commerce, 1993). In addition, services

have been a significant part offoreign investment, accounting for an average of 40

percent of the stock ofUS foreign direct investment (The Economist, 1993).The

proliferation and internationalization of services have not only offeredbusinessopportunities but also posed competitive threats for many USservice marketers.

Service marketing researchers have suggested that astrategy for the survival and

success of service firms is the delivery ofquality services that satisfy customer needs

and wants (Brown and Swartz,1989; Parasuraman et al., 1988; Thompson et al.,

1985). However, thedesign and implementation of such a strategy can never be

successful unlessservice marketers first determine how the quality and value of their

servicesare perceived by customers.Understanding of customer perceptions of service

quality and value isespecially important to international service firms because suchperceptionsare susceptible to cultural differences. In countries with different

cultures,tastes and living habits, US service companies need to be aware and

adaptiveto local needs (Hofstede, 1980; Prahalad and Doz, 1987). Hence, the

culturaldistance between the USA and the foreign host country would be a major


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concern for foreign investment of US service firms (Li and Guisinger, 1992).This paper

investigates the cross-cultural implications of customerevaluations of US fast-food

services. The US fast-food restaurant industry isone service sector whose growth and

internationalization have lately becomesignificant (Chaudhry, 1995; Kramer, 1995a;

Palmer, 1985; Tiegs, 1980;Woodman, 1980). The US domestic and Canadian markets

have becomesaturated and have primarily been characterized by competition for

marketshare rather than new growth (Restaurants and Institutions, 1994). Fast food

companies are looking to international markets for growth opportunities.American fast

food restaurant chains have been expanding more rapidly intoforeign markets than

domestically, with a 13.5 percent international salesgrowth reported in 1994,

compared to 7 percent in domestic sales growth(Kramer, 1995a). With such a

maturing and highly competitive domesticmarket, fast food chains such as

McDonalds (Paul, 1994), Wendys(Kramer, 1995b), KFC (Lee, 1995), and Dominos

(Green, 1993) haveexpanded operations to many foreign countries. In addition to the

traditionalsegments of hamburgers, pizza and chicken, international

growthopportunities in other food categories such as ice cream (e.g. Baskin-Robbins)

and donuts (e.g. Dunkin Donuts) have also been pursued(Restaurants and

Institutions, 1995). The potential in fast food franchising ininternational markets has

also been identified for smaller food servicecompanies (Nations Restaurant News,

1992; 1995).

Faced with less competition and national economic or market reforms, USfast-food

chains have been attracted to countries like Hong Kong (Lan andKhan, 1995), Belgium

(Wolf, 1994), Poland (Martin, 1994), Brazil (Bruce,1994), and China (Miu and Leung,

1994). South Korea is also one of themany countries these US fast-food companies

have entered successfully. Thesharp rise in personal income in recent years has

stimulated the performanceof numerous fast food chains in this country (Business

Korea, 1994).Nevertheless, the South Korean culture can be considered quite apart

fromthe US environment in which these firms were originally conceived. Thefollowing

study examines the US and Korean fast food customers,comparing their expectations

and perceptions of an international fast-foodchain. Implications of the results are

discussed for US fast-food servicefirms in international marketplaces.


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Developing Sustainable Food Supply ChainsB. Gail Smith

Summary:

This paper reviews the opportunities available for food businesses to encourage

consumers to eat healthier and more nutritious diets, to invest in more sustainable

manufacturing and distribution systems and to develop procurement systems based

on more sustainable forms of agriculture. The important factors in developing more

sustainable supply chains are identified as the type of supply chain involved and the

individual business attitude to extending responsibility for product quality into social

and environmental performance within their own supply chains. Interpersonal trust

and working to standards are both important to build more sustainable local and

many conserved food supply chains, but inadequate to transform mainstream

agriculture and raw material supplies to the manufactured and commodity food

markets. Cooperation among food manufacturers, retailers, NGOs, governmental and

farmers' organizations is vital in order to raise standards for some supply chains and

to enable farmers to adopt more sustainable agricultural practices.

In most of the world, eating habits have long been dependent on a mixture of local

production and imported conserved foods. More recently, manufactured foods have

become an important part of many people's diets, and many of the world's staple foods

are now traded internationally as commodities. Although goods, money and (less so)

knowledge and influence flow along all supply chains, the number and complexity of

transactions along an individual chain, and therefore the capacity for any actor to

exert a strong influence on others, varies enormously with the type of chain or

network involved (table 1). Local food supply chains are often considered to be

relatively sustainable (e.g. Nestle 2002; Sustain 2002) partly because they support

'mixed' and organic farming and reduce emissions and externalities created by long-

distance transport and high 'food miles' (Jones 2001; Pretty et al 2005). Local food

supply chains are also valued for their capacity to generate rural enterprise and

regenerate rural communities, break agribusiness monopolies and create spiritual

links between man and nature.

Food conservation is important for reducing losses and degradation during transport

from rural areas to urban populations and allowing people to enjoy a nutritious and


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varied diet throughout the year. Stable food products created by drying, salting,

smoking and fermenting have been stored and traded outside the local area in

'conserved' food supply chains for thousands of years. Canning, pasteurization and

freezing increased the variety of foods that could be conserved, and more recent

technologies such as chilling, aseptic and controlled atmosphere packaging (combined

with rapid inexpensive transport) have enabled many 'fresh' fruit and vegetables (Wu

Huang et al 2004) and dairy produce to be traded as 'conserved food', with

considerable impact on national and international patterns of agricultural production

and trade. Manufactured foods usually contain ingredients from different origins and

production systems. Although some may be derived from simple supply chains and

others may involve many transactions between farmers and manufacturers, it is

probable that the total number of the transactions involved in any one product is high.

Some ingredients (e.g. herbs, spices, dried fruit) may make up only a tiny proportion of

the finished product or may be required only for short product life of a particular

variety of product (e.g. bakery product, sauce, meal) and major ingredients may be

derived from dynamic international supply networks that overlap with those of

business competi tors; vegetable oils, for example, are often mixed or substituted to

compensate for seasonal unavailability or variation in quality and price. Mixing and

substitution along complicated dynamic supply networks may limit not only

traceability but also the flow of information and influence along the chain.

Traceability, knowledge and influence only trickle along many commodity supply

chains, where foods, bought and sold to standard specifications worldwide, are often

bulked for low costs and ease of transport and storage. Commodities are usually

simple conserved foods that can be stored and traded internationally, often using long-

distance sea transport. Prices are dependent on market mechanisms and may be

subject to future trading. Since production often exceeds demand for traditional food

commodities, prices tend to be low, unstable and declining (FAO 2004), making

commodity-based food stuffs (e.g. bread, sugar, rice and beverages) available to

consumers from all sectors of society, but having catastrophic impact on the lives of

farmers when prices fall dramatically.

Several, often contradictory, trends have emerged in the last 20-40 years. The removal

of trade barriers, relatively inexpensive transport and technical advances in food

conservation have encouraged international standardization.


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Exploring industry perspectives on implementation of aprovincialpolicy for food and beverage sales in publicly funded

recreationfacilitiesSuzanne Vander Wekken, Susanne Srensen, John Meldrum, Patti-Jean Naylor

Summary:

The global obesity epidemic threatens to skyrocket rates of chronic disease and

hasleveraged interest around the influence of food environments and settings on diet

and health [1,2]. Prominent obesity prevention strategies, including that of the World

Health organization, emphasizethe importance of multi-sectoral involvement in

creatingenvironmental change [1,3]; engaging the private sector in policy efforts to

limit the prevalence of non-nutritiousfoods while encouraging healthier options in

public settlingsis imperative [27]. One of the most frequently citedCanadian healthpolicy recommendations is the need toinitiate partnerships between sectors and to

push highernutritional standards in facilities for recreation and sport[8]. The snack

and beverage industry have well-paved inroadsinto food sales in these venues [9],

supported by acomprehensive knowledge of consumer demand and productmarketing.

As public health pursues action in these gettings, an understanding of the private

sector perspectiveis imperative.The BC Healthy Living Alliance developed the

HealthyFood and Beverage Sales in Recreation Facilities and LocalGovernment

Buildings initiative (HFBS) as a response tothe identified need to address food

provision and to supportimplementation of the new Guidelines. The HFBS

initiativeprovided seed funding, technical support and resourcesto facilitate the

voluntary adoption of the Guidelines inpublicly funded recreation facilities. At both the

provincialand local level there was recognition that interactionwith the snack and

beverage industry stakeholders was akey element of transition success since those

that manufacture,supply and distribute food and beverage productsplayed a key role

in defining the choice of products servedthrough vending machines, concessions and

programs [17].Acknowledging this, industry members were invited tocontribute to the

development of the planning toolkit forfacilities participating in the HFBS initiative

and a sectionon the initiative web page was dedicated specifically forindustry [18]. As

the initiative progressed, it became evidentthat there was a critical need for those

involved inimplementation to talk with industry partners, particularlyvendors, to

better understand their perspectives and thecontext in which they were operating.


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Therefore the purposeof this study was to explore industry perspectiveson the

transition to healthier food and beverage sales inpublicly funded facilities. Specifically,

we wanted to knowmore about their: (a) awareness and use of the provincial(state

level) Guidelines and implementation supports; (b)challenges encountered in the

transition to healthier products;and (c) thoughts on future trends and opportunitiesin

the snack and beverage business. We invited 60 food and beverage

companiesoperatingin the snack and beverage industry in BC to participate

in an interview. This list of contacts was provided by theBritish Columbia Recreation

and Parks Association, whofunded the study as part of a wider evaluation of theHFBS

initiative. We emailed each contact with and provideda description of the study, and

inviting them toparticipate and share their experiences and challenges inaddressing

the new Guidelines. Our goal was to interviewstakeholders that represented different

sectors ofthe industry. Sixteen representatives agreed to participateand two indicated

they would not be able to (total30% response rate). Participants included

manufacturers(who created or produced snack and/or beverages, n = 7out of 26,

27%), suppliers (who stored products and interfacedbetween manufacturers and

distributors, n = 3 of 6,50%) distributors and vendors (who delivered and

stockedsnack and/or beverages, n = 5 out of 22, 23%), and oneadvocacy and

education organisation that representednon-alcoholic beverage manufacturers (n = 1

of 7 industryrepresentatives, 14%). Participants had expertise in

the areas of production, marketing and retail of packagedfoods and beverages through

vending machines andother commercial and publicly supported food sales

outletsincluding recreation facilities, government buildingsand public schools in BC.

We obtained ethical approval from the Universityof Victoria Human Research Ethics

Board. We thenrecruited participants, gathered signed consents and conductedsemi-

structured telephone interviews, using a setof pre-established questions. We asked

participants todescribe their perspectives and experiences related tothe provincial

Guidelines and the transition to healthierfood and beverage sales in recreation

facilities. Weasked how they had used the Guidelines and the relatedsupport services

(i.e. BNFL and Dietitian Services) andexplored future market trends, opportunities and

needswithin the snack and beverage industry. Interviews lastedapproximately 2540

min and responses were recordeddigitally. the Nutritional Guidelines for Vending

Machines.


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Development of eco-efficiency indicators for theCanadian food and beverage industry

Dominique Maxime, Miche`leMarcotte, Yves ArcandSummary:

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada is developing eco-efficiency indicators (EEIs) in an

effort to build a framework for a sustainable production system for the Canadian food

and beverage industry (FBI). This paper presents the rationale and the framework of

the project currently under development addressing the following environmental

issues: energy use, emission of greenhouse gases, water use and wastewater

generation, organic residues, and packaging residues. Proposed EEIs are intensity

indicators and recycling ratios, and include environmental pressure modulators. They

will be developed based on collected data and estimated impact levels, and reported by

FBI sub-sector, geographical location, and establishment size. Objectives andmethodologies are outlined. Problems on getting quality and reliable data on selected

environmental issues are emphasized. The methodology will be published in 2005 and

first results are due by 2008. Benchmarking and linkage to specific processing

operations and management practices will help regulators and industries in promoting

and implementing cleaner production initiatives and will lead to operational cost

savings, product innovation, and enhanced competitiveness.2005 Elsevier Ltd. All

rights reserved.

We have defined a limitednumber of EEIs that address the mostsignificantenvironmental effects of the FBI for an environmentalreporting framework

that is standardized, simple andreliable and that can be used at both the macro

(AAFC)and the micro level (management and operation of anindividual establishment)

[9]. Such a framework is in linewith that of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)

[10],and will offer, in addition, a customized sectorial toolbetter fitted to FBI

specificities. The EEIs will make itpossible to set personalized eco-efficiency

objectives[8,11] achievable through the implementation of goodoperating or

management practices and cleaner production,in an effort to decouple industrialproductionfrom natural resource consumption and waste generation,and to do so in a

positive fashion.With respect to the information on the data collected,the methods

used will be based upon those of the datainventory step of an LCA [12]. The

advantages of thisapproach are two-fold: first, a high level of informationwill be

provided on the data to ensure transparency;second, it will be possible in the future to


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extend theanalysis using an LCA approach currently being developedin Canada,

specifically by integratingagriculture-related data collected by AAFC.

The following sections detail certain specificities foreach indicator. In general, a series

of five standardizedsteps is followed to develop the indicators: identificationof the

objective of the indicator; selection ofthe system boundaries where inputs and outputs

will beconsidered; selection of the reporting period (e.g.annually); identification and

quantification of allrelevant inputs and outputs; and calculation, strictlyspeaking, of

the indicator.Where necessary, reference is made to a physical unitof production in

order to facilitate intra-sectoralcomparison within the FBI. The indicators that

aredeveloped are first tested, and evaluated using existingdatabanks. The indicators

are aggregated and reportedin accordance with an FBI coverage plan that

includesthree classes of variables as described in Table 1. Inorder to make up for a

potential lack of data,establishments will be surveyed in accordance with thesame

coverage plan. A series of in-plant audits ordiagnostics is also planned to measure

parameters orgenerate data that could not be obtained throughsurveys. Data from

these audits are essential to validatethe indicators and could also be used in the

developmentof auxiliary indicators to improve precision at the levelof specific

processes, such as water use for sanitationand gaseous emissions from cooking

processes.The indicators are reported according to the physicalunit of production.

They make it possible to comparetypical processes within a sector, over time,

andaccording to coverage plan variables. Improvement inthe performance of a given

sector or the best performancesfrom region to region in the same sector can

behighlighted. Because of inherent differences among allsectors of activity, inter-

sectoral comparisons of theindicators are not recommended, except where

indicatorsare not based on the physical unit of production.Inter-sectoral comparison

may, however, be possible bycalculation of indicators relating to an economic unit

ofproduction. The indicators will have to be reportedannually in order to mitigate the

effect of seasonalmanufacturing variability in certain FBI sub-sectors.

The eco-efficiency indicator project for the FBI hasbeen underway since mid-2003. It is

in keeping with thecommitment by the Government of Canada andAgriculture and

Agri-Food Canada to take actions thatpromote sustainable development, and it is the

food andbeverage industrys first national effort toward this goal.