SUMMARY OF THE ETHIOPIAN HISTORY

WHICH CONTRIBUTED TO THE CREATION OF

TOURISM ATTRACTIONS

INTRODUCTION

This paper makes a summary of the History of Ethiopia that contributed to the creation of tangible and intangible tourism attractions.

This period run from the ancient times where proper civilizations arouse on the Horn of Africa to the era of Emperor Haile Sellassie I.

The Derg regime and the actual EPRDF on power might have directly or indirectly contributed to tourism attractions, but my paper intended that specific period indicated above.

THE NATURE OF HISTORY

History is a systematic study of the past. It studies changes in the development of societies. It also studies the political, social, economic and cultural life of the past societies.

Prehistory is the study of the past before the art of writing developed.

Sources in History

All historical writings have to be supported by sources/evidences. There are two types of sources in history: Primary and Secondary.

Primary sources

These are materials that have direct relations to the event they describe. E.g. written accounts, monuments, tools, coins etc... They are more reliable than secondary sources.

Secondary sources

These sources do not have direct relations to the event they describe. E.g. history books, movies, nobles etc.

Dating in History

In history, past events are organized according to their sequence of time called chronology. Calendars are used in arranging events chronologically. The two widely used calendars in the world are Gregorian and Islamic Calendars. Gregorian calendar uses the time of Birth of Jesus Christ to count time. The Islamic calendar uses Hijrah (the flight of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina) to count time.

The Ge'ez calendar is the principal calendar used in Ethiopia and also serves as the liturgical calendar for Christians in Eritrea and Ethiopia belonging to the Orthodox Tewahedo churches, Eastern Catholic Church and Lutheran Orthodox Church.

HUMAN EVOLUTION

Modern human is different from other animals physically and culturally. Modern human has larger brains and smaller jaws and teeth, is bipedal, manipulates objects, uses language etc… These unique characteristics of modern human took millions of years to develop.

Humans and apes originated from a common ancestor. Then the human branch known as hominid passed through various stages of evolution until the emergence of modern humans.

The oldest hominid species is known as Australopithecus Afarensis. The most famous of these findings is Lucy (3.18 million years old) found in Afar region (Hadar) in 1974.

Other important remains of this species have been found in other parts of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

In 1974 another hominid remains known as Australopithecus Ramidus (4.5 million years old) was found in Afar Region.

The genus homo believed to have emerged 2 - 2.5 million years ago has three sub species (Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens) listed chronologically.

Habilis (denotes growing human ability to make tools). Erectus (walking upright). Sapiens (improvement in knowledge).

Note: The region of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa has sites illustrating the three species mentioned above. Remain of Homo habilis has been found in lower Omo basin. Remains of Homo erectus have been found in lower Omo basin, Konso Gardula area and Melka Kunture. Remains of Homo sapiens have been found in Bodo (Middle Awash), Kibish area in the lower Omo basin and Porc Epic Cave near Dire Dawa.

LANGUAGES OF ETHIOPIA

The languages spoken in Ethiopia can be broadly categorized in to two major groups: Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

1.Afro-Asiatic

This covers the largest parts of Ethiopia. It is further divided into Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic language groups.

Cushitic Language group includes: Beja, Agaw, Afar, Oromiffa, Somali, Hadya, Kembata, Sidama etc…

Semitic Language group includes: Geez, Amharic, Tigrigna, Argoba, Guraghe, Harari etc…

Omotic Language group includes: Wolayta, Gamo Gofa, Kullo Konta, Sheko, Maji etc…

2.Nilo-Saharan

Languages that belong to this group are found on the western border lands of the country. E.g. Agnuak, Gumuz, Kunama, Berta, Nuer, Mejenger, etc...

CLASSES AND STATE FORMATION

Civilization

This refers to every aspect of organized social life and behavior: material basis, interaction in the community and how the community regulates its affairs and relates with other communities around it. The emergence of civilization was a gradual process. The beginning of division of labor based on sex and age was one aspect of civilization.

The main cause for the beginning of civilization was the domestication of plants and animals. Explanations for the shift from hunting and gathering to domestication include: climatic changes and an increase in the population of hunters. Both lead to reduction of animals.

The beginning of domestication of plants and animals is generally placed at about 10,000 years ago. The process of domestication took place independently in various parts of the world (Mesopotamian valley, Nile valley, China, India etc…) Domestication of plants and animals is believed to have begun in North East Africa around 4000-6000 years ago. Evidences about domestication of plants and animals are found near Aksum (Gobo Dura rock), on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana, Laga Oda rock (near Chercher), around Lake Basaqa (near Metehara).

Farming brought about a significant change in patterns of human settlement:

Farmers begun to live around their plots building house. It led to population growth as a result of surplus food production

Led to technological revolution.

Sophistication in the spiritual life of humans (religious paintings, Priests emerged).

Calendars came in to existence.

States which assumed the character of a theocracy (rule by priests) emerged.

Craftsmen evolved.

Emergence of states

Civilizations and states have their own indigenous roots. The development of material conditions of society led to greater social differentiation and division of labour.

Causes of state formation in Ethiopia and the horn:

Beginning of farming. Class and wealth differentiation (craftsmen, traders, priests, chiefs).

Growth of trade (because of surplus production).

LAND TENURE SYSTEM

It refers to the rules and regulations about the holding and use of land in a society. The most ancient system of land holding is the communal land tenure system (people had communal right to land they lived on. It is a group right. Gradually the ancient form of land tenure changed in many parts of Ethiopia.

Rist: - a kind of birth right to the land. A right enjoyed by members because they are born on the land, because they belong to a particular family or clan settled on the land. It is inherited from generation to generation.

Gult: - this is not a land right. It is a right to levy tribute on the owners of rist and the produce of their rist land. This was started when states begun to collect tribute form the people. This tribute was collected mainly through a hierarchy of officials who were granted a gult. These officials who were granted gult were called “bale gult”. Gult was not hereditary.

The Gult right holders:

Collect tribute from the local people. They administer the area and maintain law and order.

They ensure the safety of the trade routs.

They administer justice in the area.

They recruit local militia when needed.

Gult right was given for individuals, institutions like churches and monasteries. Those who were granted gult right had right to impose labor and other personal services on the local people. The people who were required to pay tribute and render such wide range services were called “gebbar”.

Rist gult- hereditary gult right.

RELIGIONS IN ETHIOPIA

Traditional Religions

This refers to variety of beliefs and practices in Ethiopia. It is based on different natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, rivers etc …

E.g.: Ezana’s paying tribute to Mahren (god of War) and belief in supernatural power (Waqa) among the Oromos.

Traditional religions are fused with Christian and Muslim beliefs by practitioners and practiced till this day.

Christianity

Christianity emerged in 1st c A.D in Judea part of Palestine with the teachings of Jesus. The teaching included a belief in single God, eternal salvation in heaven.

Roman emperors considered Christianity as threat to their power as it teaches loyalty to Jesus against the worship of Roman emperors as lord.

At the beginning, Christianity attracted the poor and the oppressed as it teaches equality of men before God and eternal salvation in heaven. Later Roman Emperors Constantine (324 - 337) became Christian and Theodosius (379 - 395) declared it as official religion.

Roman Empire had two parts (East and West) Rome and Constantinople that competed for religious power. Conflicts over church rituals language arouse. In 1054 the two churches were separated into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In 1517 with the Reformation, the western church was split into two Roman Catholic and Protestant church.

The introduction and Expansion of Christianity to Ethiopia

Christian roots

Although Christianity existed long before the rule of King Ezana the Great of the Kingdom of Axum, the religion took a strong foothold when it was declared a state religion in 330 AD. Pinpointing a date as to when Christianity emerged in Ethiopia is uncertain. The earliest and best known reference to the introduction of Christianity is in the New Testament (Acts 8:26-38) when Philip the Evangelist converted an Ethiopian court official in the 1st Century AD. Scholars, however, argue that Ethiopian (which in Greek means "having a dark skin color") was a common term used for black Africans, and that the Queen Candace served by this official actually ruled in nearby Nubia (modern Sudan).

According to church historian Nicephorus, the apostle St. Matthew, later preached the Christian Gospel to modern-day Ethiopia (then called Colchis) after having preached in Judea.

Saint Frumentius

Saint Frumentius was the first Bishop of Aksum (or Axum), and he is credited with bringing Christianity to the Aksumite Kingdom. He was a Syro-Phoenician Greek born in Tyre.

According to the 4th century historian Rufinus, circa 316 A.D., two boys called Frumentius and Aedesius accompanied their uncle Metropius on a voyage to Ethiopia. When their ship stopped at one of the harbors of the Red Sea, people of the neighborhood massacred the whole crew, with the exception of the two boys, who were taken as slaves to the King of Axum. The two boys soon gained the favor of the king, who raised them to positions of trust, and shortly before his death, gave them their liberty. The widowed queen, however, prevailed upon them to remain at the

court and assist her in the education of the young heir, Ezana, and in the administration of the kingdom during the prince's minority. They remained and (especially Frumentius) used their influence to spread Christianity. First they encouraged the Christian merchants present in the country to practice their faith openly; later they also converted some of the natives.

When Ezana came of age, Aedesius returned to Tyre, where he stayed and was ordained a priest. Frumentius, on the other hand, eager for the conversion of Ethiopia, accompanied Aedesius as far as Alexandria, where he requested Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, to send a bishop and some priests to Ethiopia. By Athanasius' own account, he believed Frumentius the most suitable person for the job and consecrated him as bishop, traditionally in the year 328, or according to others, between 340-346. Frumentius returned to Ethiopia, erected his Episcopal see at Axum, baptized King Ezana, who had meanwhile succeeded to the throne, built many churches, and spread Christianity throughout Ethiopia. The people called Frumentius Kesate Berhan (Revealer of Light) and Abba Selama (Father of Peace), and he became the first Abune — a title given to the head of the Ethiopian Church.

Christians in contemporary Ethiopia

Christianity in Ethiopia dates to the 1st century AD, and this long tradition makes Ethiopia unique amongst sub-Saharan African countries. Christianity in this country is divided into several groups. The largest and oldest is the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is an Oriental Orthodox church in Ethiopia that was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church until 1959, when it was granted its own Patriarch by Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa Cyril VI.

The only pre-colonial Christian church of Sub-Saharan Africa, the Ethiopian Church has a membership of between 40 and 45 million, the majority of whom live in Ethiopia, and is thus the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches. Next in size are the various Protestant congregations, who include 13.7 million Ethiopians. The largest Protestant group is the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus, with about 5 million members. Roman Catholicism has been present in Ethiopia since the 16th century, and numbers 536,827 believers. In total, Christians make up about 60% of the total population of the country.

Islam

Emerged in the Middle East in the early 7th century (610 A.D.) with the teachings of prophet Mohammed who was born in 570 A.D. Pre-Islamic Arabia was politically disunited and Arabs were organized in to clans. According to the teaching there is only one God and Mohammad is his messenger or prophet and all Muslims are equal before God.

The introduction and Expansion of Islam to Ethiopia

History

Muslims arrived in the Axumite Empire as immigrants from Mecca, persecuted by the ruling Quraysh tribe. They were received by the ruler of Axum, whom Arabic tradition has named Ashama ibn Abjar, and he settled them in Negash located in the Tigray Region. On the other hand, the principal center of Islamic culture, learning, and propagation has been Harar in Eastern Ethiopia which according to UNESCO is "considered 'the fourth holy city' of Islam," with 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, and 102 shrines. The Quraysh sent emissaries to bring them back to Arabia, but the King of Axum refused their demands. The Prophet himself instructed his followers who came to the Axumite Empire, to respect and protect Axum as well as live in peace with the native Christians. While the city of Medina, north of Mecca, ultimately became the new home of most of the exiles from Mecca, a 7th-century cemetery excavated inside the boundaries of Negash shows the Muslim community survived their departure.

Islam later developed more in the coastal regions of the southern horn of Africa, particularly among the Somali. This was challenged by the mostly Christian northern people of Abyssinia, including Amhara, Tigray and north western Oromo. However the north and northeastern expansion of the Oromo, who practiced mainstream traditional Waqa, affected the growth of Islam in its early days. Historian Ulrich Braukamper says, "The expansion of the non-Muslim Oromo people during subsequent centuries mostly eliminated Islam in those areas." However, following the centralization of some Oromo communities, some of them adopted Islam and today constitutes over 40% of their population.

In the 16th century, Muslims from Adal invaded the Ethiopian Empire under the command Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi.

The First Muadhdhin

The Abyssinian Bilal was one of the foremost companions of Muhammad and the first Muezzin, the caller to prayer.

The First Hijrah

When Mohammed saw the persecution to which his followers were subjected to in Mecca, he told them to find safe haven in northern Ethiopia, Abyssinia, where they would "find a king there who does not wrong anyone." It was the first Hijrah (migration) in Islam history.

Muslims in contemporary Ethiopia

Much as the rest of the Muslim world, the beliefs and practices of the Muslims in Ethiopia are basically the same: embodied in the Qur'an and the Sunnah. There are also Sufi brotherhoods present in Ethiopia such as the Qaddiriyah order in Wollo. The

most important Islamic religious practices, such as the daily ritual prayers (Salat) and fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, are observed both in urban centers as well as in rural areas, among both settled peoples and nomads. Numerous Muslims in Ethiopia perform the pilgrimage to Mecca every year.

In Ethiopia's Muslim communities, as in neighboring Sudan and Somalia, many of the faithful are associated with, but not necessarily members of any specific Sufi order. Nevertheless, formal and informal attachment to Sufi practices is widespread. The emphasis seems less on the contemplative and disciplined mysticism, and more on the concentration of the spiritual powers possessed by certain founders of the orders and the leaders of local branches.

PRE-AKSUMITE STATES

Punt

One of the ancient states of the horn of Africa which existed in the third millennium B.C.

The exact location of this state is not known (Just North East Africa). Had extensive trade relations with Egypt.

D’mt

Was a state located south of Aksum. Had trade relations with south Arabia. Used Adulis port for trade.

AKSUMITE STATE (1st c. AD – 7th c. AD)

The first verifiable kingdom of Great Power to rise in Ethiopia was that of Axum in the 1st century AD. It was one of many successor kingdoms to D’mt and was able to unite the northern Ethiopian plateau beginning around the 1st century BC. They established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time.

Inscriptions have been found in southern Arabia celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as "negashi of Habashat [i.e. Abyssinia] and of Axum." Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King Endubis toward the end of the 3rd century.

The Christian Axumite Empire

Christianity was introduced into the country by Frumentius, who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria about 330. Frumentius converted king Ezana, who left several inscriptions detailing his reign both before and after his conversion. One inscription found at Axum, states that he conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. Later inscriptions show king Ezana's growing attachment to Christianity, and king Ezana's coins bear this out, shifting from a design with disc and crescent to a design with a cross. Expeditions by king Ezana into the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe in Sudan may have brought about its demise.

Toward the close of the 5th century, a great company of monks known as the Nine Saints are believed to have established themselves in the country. Since that time, monasticism has been a power among the people, and not without its influence on the course of events.

The Axumite Kingdom is recorded once again as controlling part – if not all – of Yemen in the 6th century. Around 523, the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas came to power in Yemen and, announcing that he would kill all the Christians, attacked an Aksumite garrison at Zafar, burning the city's churches. He then attacked the Christian stronghold of Najran, slaughtering the Christians who would not convert. Upon request of Emperor Justin I of the Eastern Roman empire, around 525, king Kaleb invaded and defeated Dhu Nuwas, appointing his Christian follower Sumuafa' Ashawa' as his viceroy.

The downfall of the Axumite Empire

Details of the Axumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even scarcer after this point. The last king known to mint coins is Armah, whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614.

Some people believed the end of the Axumite Kingdom is as much of a mystery as its beginning. Lacking a detailed history, the kingdom's fall has been attributed to a persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, plague, a shift in trade routes that reduced the importance of the Red Sea - or a combination of these factors.

THE ZAGWE DYNASTY (1150-1270)

After the downfall of Aksum the Zagwe dynasty took over the political center in northern Ethiopia. This dynasty was the dynasty of the Agaw people. The founder of the dynasty was Mera Teklehaimanot around 1150 AD. The Agaw had closer interaction with the Aksumite state.

The capital of this dynasty was Adefa in Lasta (later renamed Lalibela). The territorial extent included the former highland Aksumite provinces in the north and the present northern Shewa in the south. In the west it extended to the Lake Tana region. The economy of the Zagwe Kingdom was based on agriculture and trade. The trade was conducted in two outlets: The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast and the Zeila port.

The Zagwe maintained the cultural traditions of the Aksumite state:

Christianity continued to be official religion of the state. Geez was maintained as language of church and writing. The cordial relation with Egypt continued. The tradition of visiting the Holy Land in Palestine continued.

The Zagwe dynasty is renowned in Ethiopian history for building the monolithic rock-hewn churches. Eleven rock-hewn churches were built during the reign of Emperor Lalibela (1190 - 1225).

The downfall of the Zagwe dynasty

Reasons: Conflict within the dynasty. Problem of succession among the Zagwe princes. External opposition to the Zagwe based on the legend of queen Sheba

according to which all the Christian kings must trace their descent from Menelik I.

On the battle field, an Amhara chief, Yekuno Amlak defeated the last Zagwe King Yitbarek. Then Yekuno Amlak (1270 AD - 1285 AD) declared himself an emperor and restored the Solomonic dynasty.

MEDIEVAL ETHIOPIA (1270 AD - 1529AD)

Restoration of Solomonic dynasty

The Solomonic dynasty which is based on the legend of Queen Sheba was restored by Yekuno Amlak in 1270 and all Ethiopian monarchs claimed descent from the dynasty until the deposition of Emperor Haile Sellassie I in 1974.

Characteristics of Medieval Christian Kingdom

The kings maintained the political and cultural traditions of Aksum. Christianity continued to be official religion of the state and expanded to

different areas. The rulers exercised both political and religious powers. There was large scale territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom in this

period. The Christian kingdom used a feudal system of administration (gult system). In this period the Christian kingdom had no permanent capital like

Aksum and Lalibela(They ruled from mobile capital). The Christian kings continued foreign relations with Egypt, Middle East, and

Europe. The Europeans had interest to build alliances with Ethiopia at that time because they were engaged in crusades with Muslim rulers of Palestine. Europeans had reports of stronger Christian king in the east (Ethiopia) and the tradition of priest John of the Indies, who could assist Europeans to fight the Muslim rulers of the Middle East, developed.

There were continuous conflicts between Christian and Muslim states in this period over the control of the eastern trade.

The Muslim States in Ethiopia during the Medieval Period

Since the beginning of 8th century Islam spread in Ethiopia and the horn. Since then many Muslim communities and states had been established along the main trade route from Zeila to the interior. The earliest one was the Muslim sultanate of Shewa founded around 896 by those who claimed descent from the Makhzumite clan of South Arabia. They founded the Makhzumite dynasty.

Yifat was another Muslim sultanate founded by Umar Walasma who established the Walasma dynasty. It was the importance of these Muslim states in the 13 th century which controlled the main trade route from Zeila in to central provinces of Amhara and Shewa.

Other Muslim states include Fatagar (South West of Yifat), Dawro (between Awash and Wabishebele), Bale (south of Wabishebele), and Hadya (West of Bale and Dawro).

Characteristics of the Muslim States

The economy of these states was based on agriculture and trade. They were ruled by a local elite group. The internal organization and administration structure of these states seem to

have been generally similar to central Christian state. Like the Christian kings the Muslim rulers exercised both secular and religious powers.

The Muslim rulers were also hereditary rulers.

Note: - By 1332, during the reign of warrior king, Amdetsion (r. 1314 - 1344) the Christian state had incorporated all these states as tributary states. This domination of Christian state over the Muslim states continued until the end of the 16th century.

Dynastic marriages were also used as a means to smooth the relations between the Christian highland state and the Muslim states. The Christian kings like Zarayaqob, his successor Beide Maryam and Lebna Dengel were married to Hadyia princesses.

The Muslim states were important for the Christian kingdom because of their rich natural resources and also because they were located on the trade route from Zeila to interior pass way. After the destruction of Adulis port by Arabs Zeila became the main out let for external trade.

Conflicts between the Muslim and Christian states

The whole period of medieval Ethiopian history was characterized by conflict between Christian and Muslim states. The need to control the Zeila trade route became the main source of conflict between the two states.

From the 14th century onwards Muslim resistance against the Christian kingdom begun to revive with the emergence of the Muslim sultanate of Adal in Harar. Adal

was established by the descendants of the Walasma ruling family of Yifat. So the center of Muslim resistance was shifted from Yifat to Harar. This resistance was led by Haqadin II and later by Sabradin who descended from the Walasma dynasty. Both were defeated by Amdetsion as mentioned in the account named “The glorious victories of Amdetsion”.

The sultanate of Adal coordinated the whole lowland communities to rebel against the Christian rule. The Christian kings, Dawit (r. 1380-1412) and Yishaq (r. 1413-1430) made unsuccessful campaigns against Adal. Emperor Zarayaqob (r.1434-1468) defeated and killed the ruler of Adal, Sultan Ahmed Badley. Another Muslim leader, Emir Mahfouz also died in the 1517 fighting with Libne Dengel.

The Christian dominance continued until Emperor Libne Dengel (r. 1508-1540) who was defeated in late 1520s. In 1520s Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Alighaz (Gragn) became the leader of Adal. He was able to rally the lowland populations against the Christian kingdom. Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim defeated the Christian king Libne Dengel at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529.

International dimension of the conflict

Ottoman Turks and Portuguese were engaged in a struggle for supremacy over the Red sea and Indian Ocean. The Portuguese sought the alliance of the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia. The Portuguese sent about 400 soldiers led by Christopher Da Gama (the youngest son of Vasco Da Gama) to help the Christian kingdom led by Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559). The Ottoman Turks also supported the Muslim army. Finally in 1543, with the support from Portugal, the Christian army defeated the Muslim army at the battle of Woina Dega. Ahmad Gragn was also killed at this battle.

Major Population Movements

1. Population Movements of the Afar and Somalis

This was begun before the Oromos population movements at about 1522 AD. The Afar and the Somalis movement were from southeastern parts of Ethiopia towards the Harar plateau. This movement was caused by drought, famine and land pressures. The objective of this population movement was to occupy new territories. This population movement had strengthened the sultanate of Adal and helped Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim (Gragn) to win the Christian kingdom.

2. The Oromo Population Movements

The original place of the Oromos is believed to be in the South eastern highlands (east of the Rift Valley lakes). Before their movement, the Oromos were grouped around tribal confederacies. The two most important confederacies were the Barentu and the Borena. Before their movement, the Oromo practiced a mixture

of sedentary agriculture and pastoralism. In terms of their social and political organization, the Oromo had an age grade system known as the Gada.

Causes for the Oromo population movements

The wars of late 15th and early 16th centuries have put pressure on the Oromos.

Climatic changes in their area. The need to acquire new territories as the number of people is increasing.

The Gada system

Gada refers to a system whereby age-sets succeed each other every eight years in carrying out political and military functions. The transfer of power was marked by a military campaign in to a new territory. This was the Buta ceremony which combines a joyous occasion of feasting and singings as well as a campaign where by the age set due to assume power. This ceremony had important implications for the successful military campaigns that carried the Oromo through much of Ethiopia.

According to the Gada system, the male members of an Oromo tribal community were divided in to generation sets and gada grades. Each age grade lasted for a period of eight years. Gada classes succeed each other every eight years. People moved from one age grade to the other as they advanced in age. While the gada cycle normally consisted of ten grades, the first five are important age grades (period of 40 years) when the Oromo youth were trained to assume leadership of the community. The first five gada grades are described as follows:

Daballe for Children aged 1-8 years Folle 8-16 years Qondalla 16-24 years Raba 24-32 years Dori 32-40 years

The sixth age grade is stage of political, social, military and ritual leadership. The main decision making body in the Gada system is the gada assembly known as the Chaffe. All power ultimately emanated from this assembly. The gada system is egalitarian and the head of the assembly is elected democratically among the gada age grade. The head of the assembly had the title of Abba Boku or Abba Gada. The military leader (Aba Dula) was also elected by the assembly.

In the Gada system there is peaceful transfer of power from one gada class to the other every eight years.

Factors for the success of the Oromo

Their socio-political organization. The mutual exhaustion of both the Christian kingdom and Muslim

sultanates by the wars of 1529-1543. Their mechanism for the adoption of subdued people. The adoption had

both collective and individual forms. Adoption of individual by a clan is moggassa while the adoption of a child by a foster parent was known as guddifecha.

Consequences of the Oromo population movement. The Muslim power came to be confined to the walled city of Harar. The wall was constructed by Emir Nur to defend the city from the Oromo. The Christian Kingdom lost most of its territories and established its

center in Dembiya (North of Lake Tana). Some medieval kingdoms such as Bizamo and Damot disappeared. Cultural assimilation of the Oromos with other peoples.

CATHOLICISM AND THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM

The 16th century witnessed the first significant contact between Ethiopia and Europe. The legend of Priest John of the Indies had played significant role in this relation. In 1520, the Portuguese sent an official mission to the court of the Christian kingdom.

Catholic missionaries known as the Jesuits (the Society of Jesus) came to Ethiopia in 1557. The society was one of the products of the Counter Reformation (the movement within the Catholic Church to withstand the challenge of protestant reformation). These missionaries came to Ethiopia to convert the Ethiopians to Catholicism. They

tried to convert the Christian Emperors. Their attempt to convert Emperor Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) failed. However, they succeeded with Susenyos (r 1607-1632) who accepted Catholicism in 1612.

Susenyos was attracted to the Jesuits not so much by their catholic faith as by the prospect of getting arms from the Portuguese. He also admired the organization and discipline of the Jesuits.

These were the qualities that he needed to revitalize the monarchy which had been seriously undermined by the wars of Gragn and the attendant insubordination of the nobility. As the clergy had tended to side with the nobility, Susenyos found in the Jesuits an alternative ideological support. It was such considerations that moved Susenyos to embrace Catholicism and try to impose it on the country as a whole.

In 1622 Susenyos declared Catholicism as official and state religion of Ethiopia. That involved the prohibition of circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath. It also meant re-baptism and lifting the food restrictions and rigorous fasting of the Orthodox faith. Because of this, Susenyos faced widespread rebellion from the nobility, peasantry and clergy. Realizing the effects of the opposition, Susenyos handed over power to his son Fasiledes (r. 1632-1667).

Fasiledes restored the Orthodox faith and expelled the Jesuits from Ethiopia. This brought to an end a period of Ethiopia’s intimate contacts with Europe. Ethiopia closed her door to all Europeans and everything European until the beginning of 19 th

century. During this period of closed door policy, Ethiopia had good relations with the traditionally hostile Muslim neighbours on both sides of the Red Sea.

ARTS AND CRAFTS

As a region which has witnessed the emergence and consolidation of successive civilizations, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa has hosted considerable advances in arts and crafts.

Before Aksum, the temple of Yeha represented a high level of architectural achievement.

Some of the achievements from the Aksumite civilization are: building technology (such as palaces, giant stelae which served as tombstones monuments with inscriptions in Geez, Greek and Sabean languages, minting of coins from bronze silver gold.

The introduction of Christianity during Aksum gave rise to the construction of churches of high architectural merit and to religious art, music and the carving of elaborated crosses, The works of Yared (the father of Orthodox liturgy who lived in the 6th century), the monastery of Debre Damo (founded in the 5th century), monolithic churches of Lalibela and the Gonderine architectural forms.

The Gonderine period brought these artistic traditions to its height. The castles, which were built by a succession of Gonderine kings beginning from Fasiledes, are major indicators of this achievement. Unlike the monolithic churches of the late Aksumite and Zagwe periods, these buildings were erected with the use of mortar. The Gonderine period was noted not only for its castles, but also for its bridges and numerous churches.

In addition to the contribution of Christianity to the artistic development, there were also some representatives of Islamic architecture for instance in the Walled City of Harar, the Palace of Aba Jifar in Jimma and the shrine of Sheikh Hussein in Bale.

The southern peoples of Ethiopia have also left us a fine tradition of art and crafts. Examples include the wood carvings of Konso, the elaborate and colorful weaving skills of the Dorze and the Wolayta, the artistic houses of the Dorze and the Gurage.

One major challenge that has impeded the advancement of secular crafts and technical skills has been the fact that in much of the highland Ethiopia, craftsmen were a despised class and in many cases, social outcast. The Felashas in Northern Ethiopia, the Fuga in Gurage, Kembata and Hadya, the Weyto in many parts of Ethiopia are few examples. As a result of these discriminations, crafts and technology could not fully realize their potentials and attain higher level of development.

THE GONDERINE PERIOD AND THE ZEMENE MESAFINT

After he expelled the Jesuits from Ethiopia, Emperor Fasiledes established Gondar as his capital around 1636. With that, the medieval tradition of ruling from mobile capitals ended and Gonder became capital of Ethiopia like Aksum and Adefa (Lalibela). Gondar remained a permanent seat of imperial power until the middle of the 19th century. The selection of Gondar as a capital was partly because of its commercial importance as it is located on the long-distance trade linking the southern regions to Massawa on the Red Sea coast and Metemma on the Sudan border.

The city was densely populated. Prostitution and the payment of cash for domestic service were started in the city. A significant Muslim population engaged mostly on trading and weaving, resided in a separate quarter known as Addis Alem. Another quarter was reserved for the Felashas who dominated the crafts. Gondar also had a significant foreign community consisting of Armenians, Greeks and Indians.

Gondar experienced its period of glory and splendor during the first three kings: Fasiledes (r. 1632-1667), Yohannes I (r.1667-1682), and Iyasu I (r.1682-1706). The assassination of Iyasu marked the beginning of a period of instability that lasted for nearly two decades. Thereafter, the monarchy could not regain its former prestige and power.

Gondar declined as political center because of political disorder, military weakness. Gondar was also noted for the relative sophistication of its ruling class who led a life of leisure. Gondar’s court life was also marked by what has come to be known as Byzantine politics (a life of intrigues and poisoning, of mutinies and assassination).

The period from 1728 to 1768 is dominated by Itegue Mentwab who came to the Gonderine court as wife of king Bakaffa (r.1721-1730). When Bakaffa died in 1730, their young son, ascended to the throne as Iyasu II (r.1730-1755). The Queen (Mentwab) exercised power in her son’s name. In 1732, she appointed her brother, Ras Welde-Leul to the most powerful and prestigious post of Ras Bitweded. When Iyasu II died in 1755 she and Welde-Leul continued to rule by putting on the throne her grandson, Iyoas (r. 1755-1769). In 1767, Ras Bitweded Welde-Leul died. From 1767 to 1769, there was power struggle in Gondar between groups of Wollo (represented by Wubit, the wife of Iyasu II) and Quara (represented by Mentwab).

Mentwab had given a power base to the Wollo Oromo by arranging political marriage between her son Iyasu II and Wabi from the Oromo family. Her intention was to secure the military support from Wollo to consolidate her own power. Gradually the Wollo Oromo began to play leading political role.

This endangered Mentwab and she invited Ras Michael Sehul, powerful lord in Tigray. Ras Michael Sehul became Ras Bitweded and killed Iyoas in 1769. After this, the period of Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) was started and the prestige and authority of the monarch declined. Also the post of Ras Bitweded became important. From then on, the regional rulers begun to compete for the possession of the post of Ras Bitweded to influence the Gonderine monarch.

From 1769 to 1771, Michael Sehul became kingmaker. He enthroned and dethroned different kings such as Yohannes II, Teklehaimanot. Because of this, Michael Sehul was opposed by the regional warlords of Gojam, Wollo and Lasta who defeated him at the battle of Sabarkusa in 1771. However, the tradition of making and unmaking kings continued after Michael Sehul.

In 1786, Ali Guangul (Ali I) member of the Yejju Oromo family founded a new dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty or the Warasheh. This dynasty dominated the imperial politics until the middle of 19th century. Members of this dynasty made Debre Tabor their base and ruled from there.

The Yejju dynasty strengthened its power during its strongest ruler, Ras Gugsa (r. 1803-1825) who managed to secure the submission of the lords of Gojam, Wollo, Lasta, Semien, Wogera and Dembiya. The two important provinces that were not fully under the control of the Warasheh dynasty were Shewa and Tigray. Shewa continued to lead a more or less independent existence. Shewa’s most powerful ruler, Sahile Sellassie (1813-1847) assumed the title of Negus. Ras Wolde Sellassie of Tigray also challenged the Warasheh hegemony. After the death of Ras Gugsa in 1825, the Warasheh dynasty faced series of challenges from Semien, Gojam, Dembiya and Tigray. This dynasty came to an end in 1853 when its last ruler, Ali II, was defeated by Kassa Hailu (Emperor Tewodros) at the battle of Ayshal.

Religious disputes within the orthodox faith

The political power struggle of the Zemene Mesafint had an ideological dimension. The priests in the church were engaged in doctrinal debates. The controversy had its roots to the teachings of Jesuits during Gonderine period. The controversy was over the nature of Christ. The Jesuits had propagated the catholic doctrine of two different natures of Christ, the divine and the human. The doctrinal controversies were usually subsumed under the two, Hulet Lidet and Sost Lidet. The Tewahedo represented Hulet Lidet.

Different rulers tried to resolve these doctrinal disputes, but failed because the different doctrines had come to be associated with particular regions.

Characteristics of Zemene Mesafint

Imperial power was dominated by regional war lords. Weaker monarchs. Endless civil wars. Doctrinal controversies in the Orthodox Church. Impoverishment of the peasantry. Gondar declined as political and cultural center.

The development of trade was also affected because of insecurity.

THE STATES OF SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA

Many states flourished in the southern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Some of these states emerged before the Gonderine period and others during the Gonderine period. These states had virtual independence from the north. The historical developments for some of these states are described below.

1. The Omotic States

These states were located around the Omo River. The major states in this group include Keffa and Wolayta.

Keffa: emerged in 14th century and come to prominence in 17th century. It was ruled by members of the Minjo dynasty. It had close contact with the medieval kingdom of Enarya from which Keffa got its royal title, Tato as well as Christianity. Although Christianity spread among the ruling elite, the masses continued to practice a traditional religion.

Economically enset constituted the staple diet of the population. The natural wealth of the kingdom made possible a prosperous trade with the Oromo states of the Gibe region. The major items of trade were ivory tusk, coffee, honey gold, slaves.

Politically the authority of the Tato was moderated by a powerful council of advisors known as the Mikrecho. The Kingdom had a very good defense mechanism against invasion. The Gojeb River and a strong tradition of digging defensive trenches and fences contributed to the survival of the Kingdom as independent state. Finally it was Emperor Menelik II who conquered Keffa and captured the last king of the kingdom, Gaki Serocho, in 1897.

Wolayta: the origins of this state go back to the medieval state of Damot which was conquered by Amdetsion. King Motalami (who was converted to Christianity by Abuna Teklehaimanot in 13th century) is traditionally referred as the founder of Wolayta state. His dynasty known as the Wolayta Malla was succeeded by another dynasty of northern origin known as “Tegre” in 15th century. Economically it was a prosperous state which enabled it to exercise a prominent influence in the eastern Omo region among both Omotic and Cushitic speaking peoples.

The kings were known by the title of Kawo and they were assisted by a class of warriors, the goqa. Kawo Tona was the last independent king of Wolayta state who was defeated and captured by Emperor Menelik II in 1894.

2. The Oromo Monarchies

Two groups of Oromo monarchies emerged towards the end of the 18th and the beginning of 19th centuries: The Gibe states and the Leqa states.

The Gibe states: were clustered around the Gibe River. The earliest of these states was Limmu-Enarya which was founded over the remains of the medieval kingdom of Enarya. It controlled the long distance trade as a result of its strategic location. It attained the height of its power during the period of Aba Baggibo (Ibsa) who ruled from 1825 to 1861.

Towards the mid 19th century it was replaced by a new state, Jimma. Jimma became popular under the rule of Abba Jifar. Jimma submitted to Menelik II in 1881 under its ruler Aba Jifar (r. 1875-1934), but Jimma survived as an autonomous state until 1934.

Other Gibe states that emerged at about the same time were: Gumma, Gomma and Gera.

The Leqa States: in the present day Wollega, a similar process of state formation took place among the Leqa Oromo. Two powerful states that emerged in the early 19th

century were Leqa Neqamte (founded by Bakare and expanded under Moroda and Kumsa) and Leqa Qellam (founded by Tulu and Jote).

3. The Shewan Kingdom

Shewa had been the center of the medieval Christian state. Because of the wars of Ahmed Gragn and the Oromo expansion of the 16th century, the centre of imperial power moved to the north and Shewa was marginalized.

The Menz ruler Negasi was able to establish a dynasty which reached its peak of power under Sahile Sellassie (grandfather of Menelik II). Shewa under Sahile Sellassie attracted a number of foreign travelers. In 1841 the British sent an official mission which concluded a “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the king.

4. The Harar Emirate

Harar continued to serve as the capital of the Walasma rulers until 1577 when they were forced to move to Awsa as a result of the pressure of the Oromo who had begun to occupy the Harar plateau. It was at this time that the Harar wall was built to defend the city from the Oromo.

Towards the mid 17thcentury, its ruler Emir Ali ibn Daud (r. 1647-1662) founded a dynasty that ruled for two and half centuries. The emirate of Harar continued to serve as a strong center of Islamic culture and political power. Trade links, marriage alliances and the spread of Islamic teaching, all helped the establishment of Harari hegemony over the surrounding Oromo and Somali.

Since 1875, Harar was occupied by the Egyptians for about a decade. The local Harari Emir Abdullahi revived the Harari dynasty between 1885 and 1886. Harar was finally incorporated in to Menelik’s Empire in 1887.

5. The sheikdoms of the Ethio-Sudanese Borderland

A number of sheikdoms were established through a parallel process super-imposition of Arabic speaking mercantile families of Sudanese origin over the Berta and Gumuz inhabitants of the region. By virtue of their rich gold deposits and the Sudanese origin of the ruling class, the region attracted first the Egyptian and then Mehadists penetration. Finally the region became part of Ethiopia in 1897.

EGYPTIAN EXPANSION

The first phase of expansion

The first phase of expansion was started by Muhammad Ali and continued by his successors. This expansion came from the west. In 1821 Muhammad Ali’s troops overrun the Funji Kingdom of Sennar. Since then, Egyptians ruled Sudan until the Mehadists revolution of 1881.

After the occupation of northern and central Sudan, the Egyptians pushed on towards the Eastern boarders. This brought them into confrontation with Ethiopians on three fronts; in the Semien, in the Metemma area and further south in the sheikdoms of north-western Wollega. Dejach Wube in Semien and Dejach Kinfu in Dembiya resisted the Egyptian aggression. Dejach Kinfu defeated the Egyptians at the battle of Wad Kaltabu in 1837. During this phase, due to the weakness of the imperial power, the local chiefs and peoples along the Ethio-Sudanese border were responsible to check the Egyptian expansion.

Kassa Hailu (half brother of Kinfu) also continued the struggle with Egyptians whom he referred the “Turks”. The Egyptians defeated Kassa Hailu (Tewodros) at the battle of Debarq in 1848. Kassa’s enduring interest in military organization and modern arms was born in this battle.

The second phase of expansion (1871-1876)

This expansion came from the East in the Red Sea direction under the Egyptian ruler Khedive Ismail Pasha. In 1848, Egypt occupied Massawa claiming to be the legitimate

successor to Ottoman Turks. Although the Ottoman Turks occupied the Red Sea port since 1557, they had exercised little effective control over the region in the following centuries. They only ruled indirectly through their agents.

The Egyptian leader during this phase, Khedive Ismail had the ambition of building an empire that had complete control of the waters of the Nile. As the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia became an important target of this expansion. The agent who put Ismail’s policy into effect was the Swiss born adventurer Werner Munzinger. Munzinger launched the penetration of the Ethiopian interior with the occupation of Bogos (Keren in present day Eritrea) in 1872.

At this time, the Ethiopian Emperor was Yohannes IV (r. 1872-1889). He sent diplomatic mission to European powers requesting their support against the Egyptian occupation of Ethiopian territory. But Europeans support did not come to Emperor Yohannes IV. Ismail justified his expansion by saying that the expansion was to promote western civilization and to eradicate slavery and slave trade in the region.

In 1875 Egyptian aggression to Ethiopia came in three fronts:

In south-eastern direction a force led by Ra’uf Pasha occupied Harar (pretending to be on a scientific mission).

In the northeastern direction from Tadjoura (in present day Djibouti) Munzinger led Egyptian penetration in the direction of Shewa. This force was defeated by Afar people and Munzinger himself was killed.

In the north from Massawa Egyptian army led by Danish Colonel Arendrup penetrated to Ethiopian interior.

The Egyptian aggression in the northern direction was the most serious one. But Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia was still hoping for European diplomatic intervention, but that did not work. At the battle of Gundet in 1875 (November) Egyptians were defeated by Ethiopians led by Emperor Yohannes IV.

The Egyptian to Ethiopia came again in March 1876 with better organization led by Muhammad Ratib Pasha and American General Loring. Again the Egyptians were defeated by Ethiopians at the battle of Gura.

The Aftermath of Gura

Ethiopia and Egypt did not make conclusive peace agreement after the battle of Gura. Egyptians requested Emperor Yohannes IV to return the arms captured from the battles and to free prisoners of war. Emperor Yohannes IV released the prisoners of war but refused to the captured weapons.

Emperor Yohannes IV sent an envoy Blatta Gebre Egziabher to Cairo to transmit his conditions for peace: restoration of Bogos (Keren) and free access to the sea.

Egyptians detained the envoy. Egypt agreed to free trade with Ethiopia but Egypt was not willing to restore Ethiopian territories.

In 1877, Khedive Ismail of Egypt sent the British General Gordon to Ethiopia to negotiate on behalf of Egypt. But this also failed because Gordon was not prepared to make any significant concessions either on the question of the restoration of Bogos (Keren) or that of a sea outlet for Ethiopia.

The Hewett Treaty and the Ethio-Mehadists conflict

Emperor Johannes’s request for peace was realized only in 1884 as a result of two important developments. First, in 1881 the Mehadists movement against the Egyptian rule was started in Sudan. Second, in 1882 Egypt was occupied by the British. So Britain intervened on behalf of Egypt. The concern of the British was the evacuation of Egyptian troops that had been trapped in eastern Sudan following the Mehadists movement. The only way to evacuate them was across the Ethiopian territory and then through the Red sea.

In 1884 the British sent their envoy Rear Admiral William Hewett to Ethiopia to negotiate with Emperor Yohannes IV in the name of Britain and Egypt. Then a treaty which was also known as Hewett treaty (after the British negotiator) was signed on June 3, 1884.

According to Hewett treaty, Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia agreed to facilitate the evacuation of Egyptian troops trapped in Eastern Sudan. In return the British agreed to restore Bogos (Keren) to Ethiopia and to give Ethiopia free use of the port of Massawa.

Emperor Yohannes of Ethiopia assisted the process of evacuation of Egyptian troops through Ethiopian territory. With that Ethiopia entered in to series of conflicts with Mehadists:

Ras Alula defeated the Mehadists at Kufi in 1885. Ras Gobena defeated the Mehadists at Gute Dili in 1888. In the direction of Gondar, the Mehadists raided Gondar in 1888. In 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia was killed by Mehadists at the battle

of Metemma, but the Mehadists did not proceed with their victory and they left Ethiopia.

According to the Hewett treaty the British restored Bogos (Keren) to Ethiopia. However the question of free use of the port of Massawa remained unresolved. In 1885 Britain invited Italy to take control of the Port of Massawa instead of returning it to Ethiopia. The British did this in order to stop the possible French occupation to that area.

EMPEROR TEWODROS II (r.1855-1868)

Before he was crowned Emperor, Kassa Hailu defeated powerful warlords of Zemene Mesafint between 1852 and 1855.

He defeated Dejach Goshu of Gojam at Gur Amba in November 1852. He defeated Biru Alighaz and other warlords at the battle of Gorgora Bichen in

April 1853. He defeated Ras Ali II (the last ruler of Warasheh dynasty) at Ayshal in June

1853. He defeated Dejach Wube of Semien and Tigray at the battle of Deresghe in

February 1855.

Unlike his predecessors, during the Zemene Mesafint, Tewodros II (the former Kassa Hailu) had the intention to restore the imperial power and wanted to become a ruler of an empire that is united. In order to achieve this, Emperor Tewodros had taken many reform measures some of which include:

He tried to create religious unity. He declared the Orthodox Tewahedo as official faith and expelled the leader of Catholics in Ethiopia (De Jacobis).

He tried to create a centralized state by conquering the different independent and semi-independent regional rulers.

He tried to establish a national salaried army. He also introduced a hierarchy of command in his army.

He planned to manufacture modern arms in Ethiopia by bringing in skilled craftsmen from Europe.

The downfall of Emperor Tewodros II

Finally Tewodros’s restoring the imperial power failed and his period ended in 1868 because of internal and external factors.

Different regional lords fought against his centralization idea. He entered into conflict with the clergy due to his plan of redistributing church

lands. He also imprisoned the bishop Abuna Selama in 1864. This antagonized the mass.

Tewodros entered in to conflict with Europeans because they did not respond to his request for skilled technicians. Because of this he imprisoned some Europeans. Then the British military expedition led by General Robert Napier came to Ethiopia and defeated the army of Tewodros II at the battle of Eroghe on April 10, 1868. Then Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868.

Note: Although Tewodros’ policy of strengthening imperial authority failed, the idea of strong imperial power that he initiated survived after his death. There was no return to the period of Zemene Mesafint. All the three power contenders after him (Wag Shum Gobeze Gebremedhin of Lasta, Ras Kassa Mircha of Tigray and Negus Menelik of Shoa) wanted to become emperor over a politically united empire.

Immediately after the death of Tewodros II, Wag Shum Gobeze Gebremedhin of Lasta, took the throne and became emperor Tekle Giyorgis (r. 1868-1871). In 1871 Ras Kassa Mircha of Tigray defeated emperor Tekle Giyorgis at the battle of Assem in Tigray. Then Kassa Mircha became emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia (r. 1872-1889).

THE PERIOD OF EMPEROR YOHANNES IV (1872-1889)

As successor to Tewodros II, Yohannes inherited regional opposition and foreign threats. Unlike Tewodros, Yohannes did not persist with the use of force for building imperial authority. Instead he recognized the local hereditary chiefs as long as they accepted him as overlord and paid him annual tribute. So, he shared power with local rulers. The local rulers of Shoa (Menelik) and Gojam (Teklehaimanot) were recognized as kings.

The Liche Treaty

Since the death of Tewodros, Menelik was competing for the throne. He did not recognize Yohannes as an emperor and Menelik called himself as king of kings. Menelik had also foreign contacts with the states like Britain, France, Egypt, Italy and he imports fire arms from these countries.

Menelik and Yohannes IV signed Liche treaty in 1878 in Shoa near Ankober. With the treaty Yohannes secured peaceful submission of Menelik. Menelik also agreed to pay annual tribute to Yohannes, to drop the title “King of Kings” and to use only the title king, to stop independent contacts with foreigners. On his part Emperor Yohannes recognized king Menelik and his descendants as hereditary rulers of Shoa. He also accepted Menelik’s control over Shoa.

In spite of the Liche treaty, Menelik continued to be a threat to Yohannes: he continued his secret contacts with foreigners and he continued expansion of his Shoan territories. In 1882, Menelik’s army from Shoa led by Ras Gobena was expanding in the southwestern direction. At the same time the army of Gojam under Dejazmach Dereso was expanding in the same direction. The two forces fought at the battle of Embabo on June 6, 1882 on which the army of Gojam (Teklehaimanot) was defeated by Menelik’s army.

Yohannes punished both: he took Keffa and Agaw Midir from Teklehaimanot and Wollo from Menelik. Yohannes also arranged political marriage between Menelik’s daughter Zewditu and his son Ras Araya Sellassie.

Boru Meda council

In May 1878, Yohannes called a religious council at Boru Meda in Wollo to solve religious problem. At the end of the council Yohannes declared the Orthodox Tewahedo faith as the only official doctrine. He also declared that all Muslims should become Christians. The two prominent converts were Mohammed Ali who became Mikael and Ahmed Liben who became Haile Mariam.

Italian Aggression during Emperor Yohannes IV

After their occupation of Massawa in1885, Italians started gradually to move into Ethiopian interior. The governor of Mereb Melash Alula Engida or Abba Negga defeated the Italians at the battle of Dogali on Jan 25, 1887.

To revenge this defeat the Italians first they strengthened their force at Massawa, second they started to look for local collaborators against Yohannes and third they needed British support. The British intervened by sending a negotiator, Gerald Portal in November 1887 called the portal mission. The portal mission asked Yohannes to apologize for Alula’s “unjust” attack on Italians at Dogali, but Yohannes refused this and the portal mission failed.

Italians tried to get the support of strong local regional lord, Menelik of Shewa. They wanted Menelik to fight Yohannes from south. But Menelik refused this and he signed treaty of neutrality with Italians in October 1887. With that Menelik promised to remain neutral in the fight between Yohannes and Italians on condition that they would not take Ethiopian territory.

Emperor Johannes’s effort to solve the problem diplomatically failed. As a result he declared war on Italians and he marched to Saati in March 1888. But Italians refused to come out of their fort to fight with Ethiopians. Meanwhile Yohannes heard about Mehadists invasion of Gondar and rebellion of Menelik (Shewa) and Teklehaimanot (Gojam). Consequently he came to south and got the submission of Teklehaimanot, then he went to fight with Mehadists and he died fighting in Metemma on March 9, 1889.

THE PERIOD OF EMPEROR MENELIK (1889-1913)

Menelik was the king of Shewa and main contender to power during the period of Yohannes. After the death of Yohannes, Menelik declared himself Emperor.

The period of formation of modern Ethiopian Empire was completed during Menelik. Menelik had already begun territorial expansion towards the southern, south-western and south-eastern regions of Ethiopia when he was king of Shewa. After he became Emperor, Menelik continued territorial expansion. The Territorial expansion under Menelik can be divided into three phases:

First Phase (1875-1889)

During this phase, Menelik conquered Guraghe, Illubabor, Wollega, Gibe States, Arsi and Harar.

Arsi resisted but defeated at the battle of Azule in 1886.

The Musil Gurage resisted led by Hassen Enjamo but defeated in 1888.

Harar resisted but defeated at the battle of Chelengo in January 1887.

Second Phase (1889-1896)

During this phase, Menelik conquered Wolayta, Bale (other than Borena). Wolayta under Kawo Tona resisted Menelik but defeated in 1894.

The expansion coincided with the Great Ethiopian Famine known as Kifu Qen caused by cattle epidemics.

Third Phase (1896-1900)

The motive for territorial expansion during this phase was to demarcate boundary between Ethiopia and neighbouring colonial powers. During this phase, Menelik conquered Ogaden, Assosa, Gambella, Benishangul, Borena and Keffa. Keffa resisted led by Tato Gaki Serocho but defeated in 1897.

The present shape and size of Ethiopia is the result of territorial expansion carried out by Menelik and demarcation of Ethiopian boundaries with neighboring colonial powers.

Administration in the conquered areas

Menelik used both forceful subjugation and peaceful submission. Menelik followed different types of administration in different areas. Peacefully submitted areas were saved from raids and quartering and of neftegnas. In those areas local rulers kept positions. In those areas submitted by force locals were looted and in some cases were forced to flee. In these areas Menelik appointed his own representatives known

as neftegnas: Tesemma (Illubabor), Wolde Giorgis (Keffa) and Ras Mekonnen (Harar). Neftegna-Gebbar relationship developed in those areas between the locals and the appointed rulers.

Wuchalle treaty

This treaty was signed between Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia and Italians in 1889. The treaty has created conflict between Menelik and the Italians. The main controversial issue in the treaty was article 17 (XVII). This article has different meanings in Amharic and Italian language. Amharic version of the article says Menelik could use Italy in his contact with foreign countries. Italian version of the article says Menelik must use Italy in his contact with foreign countries.

In 1890 Italy declared Eritrea as its colony. They used this as a stepping for their occupation of Ethiopia. Menelik refused to accept the Wuchalle treaty and publicly abrogated the treaty in 1893. The Italians secured the agreement of almost all European powers except Russia.

Mereb Convention

In this convention Ras Mengesha Yohannes (heir of Yohannes) expressed their solidarity with Italians in 1891, but later they changed their decision. In Eritrea there was peasant uprising in Akale Guzay led by Dejazmach Bahta Hagos.

Adwa Battle

Before Adwa, Ethiopians led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu and Italians fought at Ambalage in December 1895. Italians were defeated in this battle. Between January 7 and 21, 1896 Italians were also defeated At Mekelle. Finally the Italians were defeated by Ethiopians at the battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896.

After the Ethiopians victory at Adwa, the treaty of Addis Ababa was signed between Ethiopia and Italy on October 26, 1896. According to this treaty, the Wuchalle treaty was void. Also it recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia. The treaty marked the Italian occupation of Eritrea. Ethiopia’s boundary with Eritrea was formalized in boundary delimitation agreement which the two parties signed in 1900, modified in the agreement of 1902. The eastern boundary was defined in 1908.

Also neighbouring colonial powers signed boundary agreements with Ethiopia: French Somaliland or Djibouti (March 1897), British Somaliland (June 1900), Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (May 1902), British East Africa or Kenya (December 1907) and Italian Somaliland (May 1908).

Italy was able to use her two colonies Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to launch a relatively more successful invasion in 1935.

The Attempt at Modernization

Contacts with Europeans impressed on Ethiopian rulers the importance of introducing European technologies into Ethiopia. No ruler was more acutely aware of this need than Tewodros. He expressed this in his letters to European rulers. His attempt to introduce reforms also indicates his desire to modernize the country. But much of Tewodros’s modernizing effort was frustrated by his difficult relation with both his own people and the foreigners.

Yohannes IV had been very busy fighting with Egyptians, Mehadists, Italians and he had no time for introducing reform measures.

The relative peace and security after Adwa were conducive to the introduction of reform measures like the following ones:

The construction of Ethio-Djibouti railway line. Establishment of postal service and telecommunications. The setting up of ministries. The opening of Bank (Bank of Abyssinia) – 1905. The opening of hotel (Itegue Taitu hotel) – 1907. Modern school (Menelik II school) – 1908. Hospital (Menelik II hospital) – 1909.

The founding of Addis Ababa in 1886 brought to an end the tradition of ruling from mobile capital.

The Great Ethiopian Famine (1888-1892) also known as Kifu Qen affected the whole of Ethiopia. It was caused by cattle epidemic and it had affected also the people.

PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND EMERGING AUTOCRACY (1906-1935)

Tripartite Treaty

This was signed between Britain, France and Italy in 1906. This treaty partitioned Ethiopia into three spheres of influence belonging to each signatory. These powers were attracted to Ethiopian internal crisis in 1906. In that year Menelik suffered a stroke. Also Ras Mekonnen Wolde Michael a cousin of Menelik and who was expected to become Menelik’s successor died. The three neighboring colonial powers expected that the country had internal crisis and they want to take the opportunity to maintain their interest.

Despite the deterioration of his health Menelik took the following measures:

He wrote a letter to the signatories of the tripartite treaty in which he underlined the need to maintain the unity and independence of his country.

He established a council of ministers in October 1907 to ensure the normal running of his government.

To solve the problem of succession, he officially announced Lij Iyasu (grandson of Menelik from his daughter Shewareged and Ras Michael) as his heir. Iyasu was only 12 during this time and Ras Bitweded Tesemma Nadew was assigned as regent to Lij Iyasu.

Power struggle between Empress Taitu and Shewan nobility

Taitu resisted the selection of Lij Iyasu as heir to the throne. She was worried about her political future after the death of Menelik. She feared that the coming to power of a ruler with no blood or marriage ties to her might affect her role in the future politics of the country. Taitu preferred Zewditu (the daughter of Menelik by other women) to Lij Iyasu. Zewditu was married to Taitu’s nephew Ras Gugsa Wole.

Using her positions as the wife of the emperor, Taitu tried to build a power group centered on her blood and marital relations. She appointed her close allies and relatives while she dismissed her political opponents. These measures by Taitu threatened the political supremacy of the Shoan nobility. The father of Iyasu, Ras Michael allied with the Shoan nobility and Taitu was removed from politics in 1910. Menelik died in 1913 and Taitu died in 1918.

THE REIGN OF IYASU (1913-1916)

Lij Iyasu started to exercise his power with the death of his regent Ras Bitweded Tesemma in 1911.

Some reforms introduced by Iyasu

Banned the practice of confiscating the property of someone accused of embezzlement.

Introduced a regulation for the levying of Asrat (Tithe) on the basis of the declaration of peasants themselves.

Took measures against the Quaregna system whereby both accused and accuser were chained until justice was delivered.

Abolished the Lebashay practice (way of detecting thieves). Introduced municipal police. Iyasu’s reign was more controversial because of his religious policy. He tried to

introduce an equitable system whereby both Christians and Muslims would live as equal citizens.

Opposition to Iyasu

Internal

Shewan nobility opposed Iyasu (since he was son of Ras Mikael of Wollo). Also his religious policy created opposition. Iyasu also dismissed many old Shewan nobilities and replaced them with new ones. He also made his father Negus of Wollo and Tigray in 1914.

External

Iyasu had opposition from Britain, France and Italy because he was strengthening friendly relations with Germany and Ottoman Turks who were enemies of Britain, France and Italy during WWI (1914-1918).

Finally Iyasu was deposed in 1916. His father (Mikael) tried to restore his son to power. But he was defeated at the battle of Segele in 1916.

The coup makers made daughter of Menelik, Empress Zewditu and the nominated Ras Teferi Mekonnen as heir to the throne.

THE DIARCHY (DUAL RULE)

From 1916 to 1930 Empress Zewditu and Teferi ruled Ethiopia in alliance. Gradually Teferi’s power grew while the empress became increasingly powerless. Teferi was more ambitious and he had also foreign support. Teferi had also the support of almost all educated Ethiopians.

In this period of diarchy, the power struggle was between the traditionalists and the progressives. The traditionalists consisted of the old nobility, the Empress Zewditu and the council. The progressives include the commercial strata, the young, educated and Teferi himself. The traditionalists opposed the growing power of Teferi, modernization. The progressives had opposite ideas.

In 1918 Teferi dismissed the council of ministers and it was replaced by a new crown council known as the crown council. In 1923 Teferi won the Ethiopia’s admission to the League of Nations. In 1926 the death of Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and Abuna Mathewos removed serious obstacles to Teferi. In 1927 Teferi obtained the surrender of one of the powerful opponents to power, Dejazmach Balcha Safo (Balcha Abba Nefso). Finally, on March 31 1930, Teferi’s forces defeated and killed Ras Gugsa Wole (husband of Empress Zewditu) at the battle of Anchem. Zewditu died two days later and Teferi ascended to the throne as Emperor Haile Sellassie I (1930-1974).

EMPEROR HAILE SELLASSIE I (1930-1974)

The emergence of Autocracy (1930-1935)

Since his coronation to the Italian invasion in 1935, Haile Sellassie was able to consolidate his power by taking series of administrative and legal measures. The first step he took was the promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931.The constitution was designed to bring the nobility under the full control of the monarchy. This constitution served as legal basis for the autocratic rule of the Emperor. Emperor Haile Selassie I built his government with a highly centralized system of rule. Jimma and Gojam became under the full control of the central government in 1932.

The Italo-Ethiopia war and the patriotic resistance (1935-41)

Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia on October 3, 1935 and occupied for five years. The root cause for Italian aggression was the sense of humiliation that the Italians had felt as a result of their defeat at the battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896. The leader of Italy, Mussolini who came to power in 1922 was determined to restore the power and glory of ancient Rome. The immediate cause of the war was the clash between Ethiopian

and Italian troops at Wal Wal in Ogaden. The clash arose out of a dispute over the ill-demarcated boundary between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland.

In 1935, Italian aggression to Ethiopia came from two directions. In the north, the Italian military operation was led by Marshal Emilio De Bono who was replaced by Pietro Badoglio. In the south the Italian army was led by General Rodolfo Graziani.

In the north the Ethiopian patriotic resistance was led by Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, Ras Kassa, Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Ras Imiru HaileSellassie. The Ethiopian army did not stop the Italians though scored some minor victories.

In the south the Ethiopian resistance was organized by Dejazmach Nesibu Zeamanuel, Dejazmach Desta Damtew, Dejazmach Balcha Safo and Dejazmach Mekonnen Indalkachew. But they were defeated by Italians.

Ethiopian better trained army led by Emperor Haile Sellassie fought the Italians at the battle of Maychew on March 31, 1936. The Ethiopians were defeated by Italians at this battle. On May 2, 1936 Emperor Haile Sellassie left for Europe via Djibouti. On May 5, 1936 Italian army led by Marshal Badoglio controlled Addis Ababa.

Factors for success of Italians

Military superiority. Lack of proper coordination on the Ethiopian resistance.

Italians obtained some local collaborators.

Fascist Rule over Ethiopia (1935-1941)

In 1936 Italy declared the establishment of Italian East Africa by putting the three territories together. Badoglio was assigned as Italian viceroy first but later he was replaced by Graziani who was later replaced by Amadeo D’Aosta.

Some factories were established during the Italian period. Also there was expansion of hotels, prostitution and road construction.

Throughout their occupation Italians faced nation-wide opposition. The first attempt to liberate Addis Ababa was led by Black Lion Organization headed by Ras Imiru HaileSellassie. But this failed. The second attempt to liberate Addis Ababa was organized by Dejazmach Aberra Kassa, Asfawossen Kassa, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, Ras Abebe Aregay and Dejazmach FikreMariam.

On Feb 19, 1937 Moges Asgedom and Abreha Deboch made an attempt to assassinate the Italian viceroy Graziani. Italians revenged by carrying out large scale massacre of Ethiopians in the city.

Another patriotic resistance which assumed the character of guerrilla warfare was carried out in the regions of Shewa, Gojam, Gondar organized by Haile Mariam Mammo, Geresu Duki, Abebe Aregay, Bekele Woya, Belay Zeleke and Amoraw Wubineh.

The liberation of Ethiopia

In 1940 Italy entered WWII on the side of Germany. This led to the British military intervention in the liberation campaign of Ethiopia. A joint Anglo - Ethiopian liberation campaign was launched from the Sudan and Kenya. The two British officers Wingate and Sandford led a joint army known as Gedion force that entered Gojam in April 1940. Another British commander, Cunningham entered Ethiopia through Kenya and his army controlled Addis Ababa on April 6, 1941. Emperor Haile Sellassie re-entered Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941.

Restoration of the Monarchy, British and U.S domination

After the liberation, Emperor Haile Sellassie I restored the monarchy. In the post liberation period the British dominated in Ethiopia in the 1940’s and the Americans dominated in the 1950’s. In 1942 the Anglo-Ethiopian treaty was signed and that lead to the British domination of the 1940’s in the areas of foreign affairs, administration, finances and the military in Ethiopia. In 1942 the second Anglo-Ethiopian treaty was signed and with this the British made some concessions. Considering that the British occupy two areas: Eritrea and Ogaden, they had the plan to make Ogaden part of Greater Somalia merging it with the former Italian Somaliland and their own British Somaliland. They had a plan also to detach the western and northern lowlands and add them to the Sudan and unite the Tigrigna speaking highland with Tigray to form separate state.

The British returned the whole Ogaden to Ethiopia in 1954. In Eritrea the population was divided into two opposing groups:

Those who seek union with Ethiopia were led by the unionist party. Those who seek separation were led by first Liberal Progressive party and later

by Muslim League.

In 1952 under the UN General Assembly decision Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia.

The 1950’s in Ethiopia was dominated by the United States. In his effort to modernize the country and consolidate his power Haile Sellassie I begun to look towards the United States as a more powerful and more prosperous ally than Britain. American

interest in the region began to grow after they acquired the communication base in Asmara known as Qannaw.

In 1952 the point four agreement was signed between America and Ethiopia. It led to American assistance in the fields of education and public health. The second Ethio-U.S treaty was signed in 1953 and this led to U.S. military assistance to Ethiopia. In 1960’s under the Peace Corps program the U.S gave support in the field of education.

Socio-Economic developments

There was expansion of large scale commercial farming in this period. From the late 1950’s, the government began to formulate a strategy for the country’s economic development. There were series of five year plans. The first was 1958-1962 focused on the development of infrastructure. The second (1963-1967) was geared towards the expansion of agriculture and the manufacturing industry. The third (1969-1974) shifted government priority to the maximization of growth and the attainment of a higher standard of living.

As a result of these plans the Ethiopian economy showed some progress in the period of 1941-1974 particularly after 1950. Overall domestic output increased nearly three and half times. The physical infrastructure also showed considerable expansion, especially electricity. Public revenue and expenditure increase nine and ten folds respectively. There was expansion of banking services including the setting up of the Commercial and National Banks of Ethiopia. The number of industrial enterprises grew to over four hundred.

The Ethiopian society also witnessed a degree of unprecedented modernization. Road and Air communication linked various parts of the country. Urbanization expanded rapidly.

The evolution of opposition

There was opposition to Emperor Haile Sellassie I from some members of the nobility after his period of exile. The most serious challenge to the Emperor came in 1960. When the emperor was in Brazil, the two brothers Brigadier General Mengistu Neway (commander of the imperial bodyguard) and Germame Neway led an attempted coup. But the Air force and the army refused to side with them. The coup failed finally. Germame committed suicide and his brother Mengistu was hanged. Although the coup failed, it set a pattern for different oppositions to the regime which grow in the next years.

Peasant Rebellions

The first peasant rebellion to the regime was the 1943 Woyane rebellion of Tigray led by Blatta HaileMariam Reda. It was caused by administrative inefficiency and corruption.

Another peasant rebellion broke out in Bale in 1963 caused by land alienation because of the introduction of land measurement in 1951. Other factors were cultural and political domination by Christian settlers from the north. This rebellion was led later by an Oromo Commander Waqo Gutu. This rebellion was crushed by an army led by Generals Jagama Kello and WeldeSellassie Baraka.

Another peasant rebellion broke out in Gojam in 1968. Dissatisfaction with a succession of governors appointed by central government particularly Dejach Tsehay InquSellassie formed the background to this uprising. But the immediate cause of the rebellion was the government’s attempt to implement the agricultural income tax of 1967.

The Eritrean problem

After the 1952 Federation of Eritrea, the Ethiopian government made many efforts to unite Eritrea with Ethiopia. On December 14, 1962 the Assembly dissolved and Ethiopia was merged with Ethiopia.

An armed struggle for independence was started in 1961. It was first led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In 1972 a new coalition of forces known as the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front emerged. There was civil war between the two fronts and finally the EPLF established its hegemony over the independent movement.

The Ethiopian students’ movement

This was started by university students, but later it spread to schools in 1968. The awareness of university students increased because of students from other African countries through scholarship. The university service which was launched in 1964 also contributed for the student’s movements as it gave them to realize the various situations in the country. Some radical students embraced Marxist-Leninist ideas and this also contributed to greater militancy in the students’ movements. Moreover, Ethiopian students in Europe and America formed unions and they supported the students’ movement locally.

The popular uprising of 1974 and deposition of Haile Selassie

Mass uprising was started in February 1974. Teachers throughout the country opposed the implementation of education reform program. Taxi drivers went on strike because of 50% increase in petrol price introduced following the global energy crisis that had come in the wake of the 1973 Arab-Israeli war.

On February 1974, unable to cope with the tide of popular uprisings, the Aklilu Habtewold cabinet resigned and was replaced as prime minister by Indalkachew Mekonnen.

Throughout March and April workers of various government and private organizations went on strike protesting against bad working conditions, inefficient and corrupt

management. There were protests from soldiers too. The Derg officially came into existence on June 28, 1974.

Finally Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed and Derg came to power on September 12, 1974.