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Sugar is produced in 121 Countries and global production now
exceeds 120 Million tons a year.
Approximately 70% is produced from sugar cane, a very tall grass
with big stems which is
largely grown in the tropical countries. The remaining 30% is
produced from sugar beet, a rootcrop resembling a large parsnip
grown mostly in the temperate zones of the north.
What we call sugar, the chemist knows as 'sucrose', one of the
family of sugars otherwise knownas saccharides in the grouping
called carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, as the name implies,
contain
carbon and hydrogen plus oxygen in the same ratio as in water.
The saccharides is a large familywith the general formula CnH2nOn.
The simplest of the sugars is glucose, C6H12O6, although its
physical chemistry is not that simple because it occurs in two
distinct forms which affect some of
its properties. Sucrose, C12H22O11, is a disaccharide, a
condensation molecule made up of twoglucose molecules [less a water
molecule to make the chemistry work].
The process whereby plants make sugars is photosynthesis. The
plant takes in carbon dioxide
from the air though pores in its leaves and absorbs water
through its roots. These are combined to
make sugar using energy from the sun and with the help of a
substance called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is green which allows it to absorb the sun's energy
more readily and which, ofcourse, gives the plants' leaves their
green colour. The reaction of photosynthesis can be written
as the following chemical equation when sucrose is being
made:
12 CO2+ 11 H2O = C12H22O11+ 12 O2
carbon dioxide + water = sucrose + oxygen
This shows that oxygen is given off during the process of
photosynthesis.
Historically, sugar was only produced from sugar cane and then
only in relatively small
quantities. This resulted in it being considered a great luxury,
particularly in Europe where cane
could not be grown. The history of man and sugar is a subject in
its own right but suffice to saythat, even today, it isn't easy to
ship food quality sugar across the world so a high proportion
of
cane sugar is made in two stages. Raw sugar is made where the
sugar cane grows and whitesugar is made from the raw sugar in the
country where it is needed. Beet sugar is easier to purify
and most is grown where it is needed so white sugar is made in
only one stage.
Process Costing is a technique of costing and it may be adopted
using any of the techniques of costing.
The technique adopted would decide the procedure adopted in
relation to various accounting aspects. For example,
for the purpose of valuation of stocks
Fixed costs will be considered along with Variable costs, if
"Absorption Costing" is adopted as the
technique.
Only variable costs will be considered, if "marginal costing" is
adopted as the technique.
Example of an area where Process Costing is applied
A common example of an industry where process costing may be
applied is "Sugar Manufacturing Industry".
The processes in this industry are
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Cane Shredding
The cane is broken/cut into small pieces to enable easier
movement through the milling machine.
Milling
The shredded cane is passed through rollers which crush them to
extract cane juice. [Similar to the cane
juice extracted by the vendors who sell you sugar cane
juice.]
Heating and Adding lime
The extracted juice is then heated to make it a concentrate and
lime is added to the heated juice.
Clarification
Muddy substance is removed from the concentrate through this
process
Evaporation
Water is removed from the juice by evaporation.
Crystallisation and Separation
Sugar crystals are grown from the dry juice concentrate in this
process.
Spinning
Molasses are separated from sugar using Centrifugals in this
process.
Drying
Sugar is obtained by drying the wet raw sugar obtained in the
spinning process.
Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills
extract rawsugar from freshly harvested cane, and sometimes bleach
it to make "millwhite" sugar for local consumption. Refineries,
often located nearer toconsumers in North America, Europe, and
Japan, then produce refined whitesugar, which is 99 percent
sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging.Increasing affluence
in the sugar-producing tropics increased demand forrefined sugar
products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining
How to Make Sugar from Sugar Cane
The basic process
Sugar cane must be crushed to extract the juice. The crushing
process must break up the hardnodes of the cane and flatten the
stems. The juice is collected, filtered and sometimes treated
and
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Crushing efficiency is the most important factor in good sugar
yields. Everypossible amount of juice needs to be squeezed from the
cane.
Juice treatment
Juice should be filtered through a cloth before boiling in order
to remove any solids such as dirtor particles of cane.
Large-scale sugar processors add lime to the juice in order to
coagulate impurities which then
settle out. (This is rarely done at the artisanal level.) The
juice is then neutralised with sulphur
dioxide. Small-scale producers add a variety of clarificants to
the juice including wood ash. Allof these have the effect of
settling out impurities. Many producers also add 'Hydros'
(sodium
hydrogen sulphate) at the final stages of boiling. This releases
sulphur dioxide into the juice and
lightens the colour of the final product. (Note that a high
sulphur content often remains in the
final product.)
Cleanliness
Cleanliness is vital to the whole process. Once the juice has
been heated, impurities will speed
the 'inversion' of sugar and lead to reduced yields. All boiling
pans and tools need to be
thoroughly cleaned between uses.
Tools
The tools required are very simple Filtration before boiling is
done through a fine woven cloth.Scum is removed from the boiling
juice by a simple perforated scoop on a long handle. Sediment
is removed by scraping a stretched cloth along the bottom of the
pan. Once the pan has been
removed from the heat, a simple rake is used to stir the
thickened juice
