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Nature of CartographyNature of Cartography
Nature of Cartography 2
Geomatics?Geomatics? Geomatics : a multi-disciplinary field that includes
surveying and mapping, geodesy, global positioning systems (GPS), remote sensing, photogrammetry, geographic information systems (GIS) and cartography. Where geospatial questions are concerned, the contemporary forms of these disciplines are unified by their dependence on a common knowledge set that is comprised of geographic positioning and a reliance on digital geographic positioning and a reliance on digital geospatial data. geospatial data.
(Sawada, Wilson and Levrington 2003 – Introduction to Geomatics)
Nature of Cartography 3
CartographyCartography Cartography (in Greek chartis = map and graphein =
write) is the study and practice of making maps or globes. Definition : The art , science, technology of making maps
together with their study as scientific documents and works of art (International Cartographic Association, ICA 1973)
Cartography is the making and study of maps in all their aspects.
The organisation an communication of geographically related information in either graphic or digital form. It can include all stages from data acquisition to presentation and use.
Nature of Cartography 4
Cont..Cont.. With the advent of digital technology and
GIS, the scope of cartography includes production, usage of maps, organization, management, analysis and exploitation of cartographic digital files.
Cartography is an efficient way of manipulating, analysing and expressing ideas, forms and relationships that occur in two- and three-dimensional space.
Nature of Cartography 5
Forms of representation Need for maps Basic characteristics of maps Purposes maps serve Categories of maps Emphasis on cartographic representation The scope of cartography
Nature of CartographyNature of Cartography
Nature of Cartography 6
Forms of RepresentationForms of Representation
Literacy - the use of written language Articulacy - the use of spoken language Numeracy - mathematics: a way of
symbolisation Graphicacy - the use of graphics
"A picture is worth of thousands of words"
Nature of Cartography 7
Hang Seng Index 1999Hang Seng Index 1999Date JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
11 -- -- 9,599.55 9,599.55 10,020.46 10,020.46 11,072.98 11,072.98 -- -- 12,363.56 12,363.56 -- -- -- -- 13,544.19 13,544.19 -- -- 13,322.11 13,322.11 15,422.52 15,422.52
22 -- -- 9,502.72 9,502.72 9,913.58 9,913.58 -- -- -- -- 12,458.64 12,458.64 14,184.58 14,184.58 13,435.43 13,435.43 13,367.56 13,367.56 -- -- 13,335.84 13,335.84 15,603.04 15,603.04
33 -- -- 9,419.85 9,419.85 9,922.40 9,922.40 -- -- 13,337.07 13,337.07 12,471.61 12,471.61 -- -- 13,473.84 13,473.84 13,178.31 13,178.31 -- -- 13,257.33 13,257.33 15,840.41 15,840.41
44 9,809.17 9,809.17 9,438.65 9,438.65 9,912.76 9,912.76 -- -- 13,559.69 13,559.69 12,415.54 12,415.54 -- -- 13,591.02 13,591.02 -- -- 12,875.86 12,875.86 13,651.51 13,651.51 -- --
55 9,891.06 9,891.06 9,190.20 9,190.20 10,241.12 10,241.12 -- -- 13,586.21 13,586.21 -- -- 14,506.74 14,506.74 13,254.34 13,254.34 -- -- 12,998.89 12,998.89 13,610.27 13,610.27 -- --
66 10,233.80 10,233.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- 13,570.24 13,570.24 -- -- 14,372.61 14,372.61 13,167.06 13,167.06 13,385.16 13,385.16 13,017.98 13,017.98 -- -- 16,168.62 16,168.62
77 10,693.57 10,693.57 -- -- -- -- 11,614.87 11,614.87 12,997.43 12,997.43 12,837.39 12,837.39 14,257.44 14,257.44 -- -- 13,396.09 13,396.09 13,113.20 13,113.20 -- -- 16,073.09 16,073.09
88 10,722.70 10,722.70 9,139.60 9,139.60 10,263.99 10,263.99 11,727.84 11,727.84 -- -- 12,864.86 12,864.86 14,226.30 14,226.30 -- -- 13,356.63 13,356.63 13,112.42 13,112.42 13,521.11 13,521.11 15,989.38 15,989.38
99 -- -- 9,244.49 9,244.49 10,532.95 10,532.95 11,914.10 11,914.10 -- -- 12,874.42 12,874.42 14,222.57 14,222.57 12,945.47 12,945.47 13,854.88 13,854.88 -- -- 13,669.70 13,669.70 16,370.95 16,370.95
1010 -- -- 9,076.33 9,076.33 10,749.01 10,749.01 -- -- 13,163.20 13,163.20 12,839.21 12,839.21 -- -- 12,596.71 12,596.71 13,855.93 13,855.93 -- -- 13,975.54 13,975.54 16,380.21 16,380.21
1111 10,634.27 10,634.27 9,146.80 9,146.80 10,662.81 10,662.81 -- -- 12,874.37 12,874.37 12,992.76 12,992.76 -- -- 12,437.80 12,437.80 -- -- 12,992.72 12,992.72 14,105.71 14,105.71 -- --
1212 10,711.56 10,711.56 9,425.42 9,425.42 10,801.76 10,801.76 11,744.74 11,744.74 13,012.97 13,012.97 -- -- 14,061.84 14,061.84 12,779.75 12,779.75 -- -- 12,759.35 12,759.35 14,189.67 14,189.67 -- --
1313 10,273.77 10,273.77 -- -- -- -- 11,899.69 11,899.69 13,053.67 13,053.67 -- -- 13,980.93 13,980.93 12,608.18 12,608.18 13,860.85 13,860.85 12,475.87 12,475.87 -- -- 16,442.11 16,442.11
1414 10,183.13 10,183.13 -- -- -- -- 11,834.13 11,834.13 12,855.52 12,855.52 13,007.57 13,007.57 13,575.57 13,575.57 -- -- 13,804.03 13,804.03 12,486.82 12,486.82 -- -- 16,282.70 16,282.70
1515 10,147.40 10,147.40 9,402.39 9,402.39 10,836.86 10,836.86 11,962.23 11,962.23 -- -- 12,935.41 12,935.41 13,758.89 13,758.89 -- -- 13,430.60 13,430.60 12,299.08 12,299.08 14,562.22 14,562.22 15,825.31 15,825.31
1616 -- -- -- -- 10,911.25 10,911.25 12,490.30 12,490.30 -- -- 13,155.12 13,155.12 13,545.24 13,545.24 12,894.78 12,894.78 -- -- -- -- 14,689.46 14,689.46 15,571.36 15,571.36
1717 -- -- -- -- 10,940.07 10,940.07 -- -- 12,588.60 12,588.60 13,408.27 13,408.27 -- -- 12,783.16 12,783.16 13,484.84 13,484.84 -- -- 14,704.48 14,704.48 15,986.35 15,986.35
1818 10,402.54 10,402.54 -- -- 10,659.32 10,659.32 -- -- 12,627.10 12,627.10 -- -- -- -- 12,993.10 12,993.10 -- -- -- -- 14,721.74 14,721.74 -- --
1919 10,290.11 10,290.11 9,254.12 9,254.12 11,082.92 11,082.92 12,766.44 12,766.44 12,403.14 12,403.14 -- -- 13,447.13 13,447.13 13,403.59 13,403.59 -- -- 12,134.13 12,134.13 15,073.10 15,073.10 -- --
2020 10,314.91 10,314.91 -- -- -- -- 12,409.78 12,409.78 12,375.42 12,375.42 -- -- 13,600.40 13,600.40 13,566.74 13,566.74 13,472.37 13,472.37 12,498.56 12,498.56 -- -- 16,212.39 16,212.39
2121 10,048.57 10,048.57 -- -- -- -- 12,543.76 12,543.76 12,272.14 12,272.14 13,994.23 13,994.23 13,419.66 13,419.66 -- -- 13,420.46 13,420.46 12,523.00 12,523.00 -- -- 16,248.74 16,248.74
2222 9,738.52 9,738.52 9,229.34 9,229.34 11,107.24 11,107.24 12,933.54 12,933.54 -- -- 14,004.88 14,004.88 13,369.06 13,369.06 -- -- 13,187.62 13,187.62 12,863.08 12,863.08 15,285.03 15,285.03 16,192.40 16,192.40
2323 -- -- 9,433.99 9,433.99 11,041.01 11,041.01 12,905.30 12,905.30 -- -- 13,976.04 13,976.04 13,093.70 13,093.70 13,573.66 13,573.66 13,214.44 13,214.44 -- -- 15,393.20 15,393.20 16,296.08 16,296.08
2424 -- -- 9,677.57 9,677.57 10,711.34 10,711.34 -- -- 12,436.86 12,436.86 13,780.12 13,780.12 -- -- 13,633.87 13,633.87 13,032.07 13,032.07 -- -- 15,307.28 15,307.28 16,833.28 16,833.28
2525 9,499.50 9,499.50 9,658.07 9,658.07 10,826.13 10,826.13 -- -- 12,346.91 12,346.91 13,784.51 13,784.51 -- -- 13,479.13 13,479.13 -- -- 13,034.18 13,034.18 14,998.77 14,998.77 -- --
2626 9,509.83 9,509.83 9,858.49 9,858.49 10,803.31 10,803.31 13,127.02 13,127.02 12,409.16 12,409.16 -- -- 12,866.52 12,866.52 13,608.38 13,608.38 -- -- 12,797.38 12,797.38 15,274.53 15,274.53 -- --
2727 9,719.66 9,719.66 -- -- -- -- 13,364.79 13,364.79 12,308.53 12,308.53 -- -- 13,075.09 13,075.09 13,383.13 13,383.13 12,760.46 12,760.46 12,709.07 12,709.07 -- -- -- --
2828 9,360.96 9,360.96 -- -- -- -- 13,133.39 13,133.39 12,059.25 12,059.25 13,840.29 13,840.29 13,140.42 13,140.42 -- -- 12,844.93 12,844.93 12,758.88 12,758.88 -- -- 16,928.29 16,928.29
2929 9,506.90 9,506.90 -- -- 10,688.47 10,688.47 13,179.70 13,179.70 -- -- 13,765.49 13,765.49 13,117.84 13,117.84 -- -- 12,834.89 12,834.89 13,256.95 13,256.95 15,461.11 15,461.11 16,660.82 16,660.82
3030 -- -- -- -- 10,940.21 10,940.21 13,333.20 13,333.20 -- -- 13,532.14 13,532.14 13,186.86 13,186.86 13,688.66 13,688.66 12,733.24 12,733.24 -- -- 15,377.19 15,377.19 16,962.10 16,962.10
3131 -- -- -- -- 10,942.20 10,942.20 -- -- 12,147.12 12,147.12 -- -- -- -- 13,482.77 13,482.77 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
HighHigh 10,722.7010,722.70 9,858.499,858.49 11,107.2411,107.24 13,364.7913,364.79 13,586.2113,586.21 14,004.8814,004.88 14,506.7414,506.74 13,688.6613,688.66 13,860.8513,860.85 13,256.9513,256.95 15,461.1115,461.11 16,962.1016,962.10
LowLow 9,360.969,360.96 9,076.339,076.33 9,912.769,912.76 11,072.9811,072.98 12,059.2512,059.25 12,363.5612,363.56 12,866.5212,866.52 12,437.8012,437.80 12,733.2412,733.24 12,134.1312,134.13 13,257.3313,257.33 15,422.5215,422.52
Nature of Cartography 8
HSI 1999: ChartHSI 1999: Chart
Nature of Cartography 9
HSI: Analytical Chart (1)HSI: Analytical Chart (1)
Nature of Cartography 10
Forms of RepresentationForms of Representation Map - the graphic representation of the geographical
setting. Map- A representation normally to scale and on a flat
medium of a selection of material or abstract features on, or in relation to the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies (ICA 1973).
Maps can portray things other than the earth surface, other planets.
Maps are a vital tool to man that have been in use for thousand of years and with evolving technology are becoming more useful. They are a way of generalizing the surrounding world and presenting the information in an understandable fashion.
Nature of Cartography 11
Need for MapsNeed for Maps Reducing the spatial characteristics of a large area and
putting it in map form to make it observable. A map is carefully designed instrument for recording,
calculating, displaying, analysing and understanding the interrelation of things.
Communicate spatial information - more efficient than linear communication
Its most fundamental function is to bring the things into view.
Nature of Cartography 12
Purposes Maps ServePurposes Maps Serve
Store geographical information. Serve mobility and navigation needs. Analytical purposes, e.g. Measuring and
computing. Summarise statistical data to assist forecasting
and spotting trends. Visualise invisible. Stimulate spatial thinking.
Nature of Cartography 13
to give directions to search for minerals to navigate to plan travel arrangements to plan communication routes to distribute products efficiently to gain an understanding of the world and one's place
in it to analyze complex collection of data - topography,
soil, landuse, direction A powerful tool for spatial analysis
Purposes Maps Serve ..contPurposes Maps Serve ..cont
Nature of Cartography 14
Maps – what for?Maps – what for?
For what tasks do we use maps? What is the role of maps in these tasks? What is necessary to answer a question?
Nature of Cartography 15
Maps as Information Maps as Information ProductsProducts Three fundamental economic questions:
1. What is produced?
2. How is it produced?
3. For whom is it produced?
Adapted to cartography: How do I say what to whom and is it effective?
Nature of Cartography 16
Cartographic communicationCartographic communication
Nature of Cartography 17
How do I say what to whom? How do I say what to whom? How Traditional cartographic methods
and techniques Cartographic methods and techniques using modern visualization technology
do I Cartographer Geoscientist
All users of the WWW
say Classical communication model Modern communication model
what Defined spatial data and their attributes
Any spatial and temporal question, semantics
to whom?
Target or user groupGoal of the map
Target or user groupMap maker herself (presentation - exploration)
Is it effective?
Established tradition Effectiveness of tools can be ensured through
Nature of Cartography 18
Different kind of productsDifferent kind of products
Agricultural products Industrial products Information products
Nature of Cartography 19
The Market for MapsThe Market for Maps
About 80% of all decisions are linked to space and time: How do I get from here to the train station? How much paint do I need to buy? Where should a new airport be built? Where does SARS originate? Which city has the lowest crime rate? ...
Nature of Cartography 20
Map use is communicationMap use is communication We communicate (and lie!) with maps
how do I say what to whom and is it effective? Maps provide information for some tasks or
questions of some users
Nature of Cartography 21
perception
primary model
mapping
map reading
secondary model
reality
Communication with MapsCommunication with Maps
Nature of Cartography 22
Map As a Representation of Map As a Representation of RealityReality
Spatial data - spatially referenced objects or phenomena Reality Model construction and selection Selection and construction to a cartographic
representation Map Results in the user’s mental map
Nature of Cartography 23
The Nature of Spatial DataThe Nature of Spatial DataThe nature of spatial data: from reality (a), via model construction and selection to digital landscape model (b), followed by selection and construction to a cartographic representation towards a digital cartographic model (c), presented as a map (d), which results in the user's mental map (e).
From Kraak and Ormeling, 1996.
Nature of Cartography 24
(Geo)-Spatial data(Geo)-Spatial data
Terrain dataTerrain dataTerrain dataTerrain data
Aerial photosAerial photosAerial photosAerial photosSatellite imagesSatellite imagesSatellite imagesSatellite images
MapsMapsMapsMaps
Nature of Cartography 25
spatial data -spatial data - data that has a spatial component data that has a spatial component Both Both spatial spatial and and non-spatialnon-spatial (i.e., descriptive, or also (i.e., descriptive, or also
alphanumeric, attribute) alphanumeric, attribute) aspectsaspects are associated with are associated with this kind of datathis kind of data For example, a river For example, a river will have attribute information have attribute information
associated with it (such as its name and length) associated with it (such as its name and length) together with its geometric description (the spatial together with its geometric description (the spatial component)component)
(Geo)-Spatial data(Geo)-Spatial data
Nature of Cartography 26
DentDent
Nature of Cartography 27
Basic Characteristics of Basic Characteristics of MapsMaps Locations in two-dimensional space Attributes - qualities or magnitudesExamples:
Relationships among locations, e.g. Distance Relationships among various attributes at one location,
e.g. Temperature, rainfall and soil Relationships among the locations of the attributes of a
given distribution, e.g. Rainfall Relationships among the locations of derived or
combined attributes of given distributions, e.g. Relation of GDP and population
Nature of Cartography 28
Basic Characteristics of Basic Characteristics of Maps Maps (Cont.)(Cont.)
All geographical maps are reductions. Scale.
All maps involve geometrical transformations. Map projection.
All maps are abstractions of reality. Generalization.
All maps use signs to stand for elements of reality. Symbolism.
Nature of Cartography 29
Characteristics of Maps: Characteristics of Maps: ReductionsReductions Map Scale
Defined dimensional relation
between reality and the map.
Nature of Cartography 30
Characteristics of Maps: Characteristics of Maps: TransformationsTransformations
Projection Transform spherical surface
to a flat map Affects how map is used
Calculation of distances etc.Calculation of distances etc.
Miller Cylindrical Hammer-AitoffSinusoidal
Nature of Cartography 31
Characteristics of Maps: Characteristics of Maps: AbstractionsAbstractions
Simplification of reality Only information chosen to
fit the purpose of the map classification simplification generalizationgeneralization
Nature of Cartography 32
Characteristics of Maps: Characteristics of Maps: Signs and MarksSigns and Marks
Nature of Cartography 33
Categories of MapsCategories of Maps
Nature of Cartography 34
Categories of MapsCategories of Maps Classed by scale
Small-scale map Large-scale map
Classed by function General reference maps Topographic maps Thematic maps Charts
Classed by subject matter Classed by medium
Nature of Cartography 35
Classed by scaleClassed by scale
Small scale -“bird’s eye view”of a large area
Large scale – “close-up view” of a small area
1:1000 - 1:5000 very large 1:5000 - 1:25000 large 1:25000 - 1:100000 medium 1:100000 -1: 1 mil small 1: 1mil - < 1:1 mil very small
Nature of Cartography 36
Classed by functionClassed by function
General Purpose/reference maps archive of spatial information answers
'where', 'when', 'what‘ shows many different things, where
specific objects are relative to one another, user is generally looking location of specific feature relative to others
Nature of Cartography 37
Classed by functionClassed by functionTopographic maps maps whose principal purpose is to portray and identify the
man-made and natural features of the earth’s surface as faithfully as possible within the limitations imposed by scale
usually made by public agencies using photogrametric methods
issued in series of individual sheets eg. L7030 map series varying from large to small scale 1:25000,1:50000,1:100000,1:200000,1:250000, 1:500000,
1:1000000 multi-purpose maps : maps that can be used for different
purposes by different types of users used as base map for preparing thematic maps
Nature of Cartography 38
Classed by functionClassed by function
Thematic maps analysis of spatial pattern ,answers 'why' special purpose maps maps designed to demonstrate particular features or
concepts concentrate on spatial distribution of a single attribute or
relationships among several attributes. distinction based on themes represented appear both at large and small scales data represented either qualitatively or quantitatively eg. Major soil groups, Annual rainfall, Ave. annual
income , Population density, Land use changes, Soil suitability, Distribution of industries.
Nature of Cartography 39
Thematic MapsThematic Maps
Nature of Cartography 40
Classed by functionClassed by function
Charts designed to serve the needs of navigators whether on
the sea, the land, or in the air charts are to be “worked on” Eg: nautical charts: sailing charts for navigation in
open waters, coastal charts for near-shore navigation Aeronatical charts: for visual flying chart scales depend on detail necessary chart series are not made at uniform scales
Nature of Cartography 41
ChartsCharts
Nature of Cartography 42
Classed by functionClassed by function
Topographic MapTopographic Map Thematic mapThematic map
Thematic mapThematic map Nautical ChartNautical Chart
Nature of Cartography 43
Classed by subject matterClassed by subject matter
Cadastral Maps- land parcels, property boundaries, large scale
Plan – shows buildings, roadways, boundary lines, very large scale
No limit of classes – Soil maps, Geological maps, Climatic maps, Population maps, Transportation maps, Economic maps, Statistical maps
Nature of Cartography 44
Cadastral maps, plansCadastral maps, plans
Nature of Cartography 45
Classed by subject matterClassed by subject matter
Nature of Cartography 46
Classed by mediumClassed by medium
Real maps Virtual maps Mental Maps
Perception , Experience,Imagination
Nature of Cartography 47
Real ,Real , Virtual, Virtual, Mental MapsMental Maps
Nature of Cartography 48
Emphasis on Cartographic Emphasis on Cartographic RepresentationRepresentation The principal task of cartography is to communicate
environmental information. The emphasis on cartographic representation is map
effectiveness in thought and communication. This is best achieved by treating the making and using
of maps equally.
Nature of Cartography 49
Basic Steps for Communication Map Basic Steps for Communication Map InformationInformation
Cartographic Steps – SlocumCartographic Steps – Slocum
Step 1Consider what the real world distribution of the
phenomenon might look like
Step 2Determine the purpose of the map and its intended
audience
Step 3 Collect data appropriate for the map's purpose
Step 4 Design and construct the map
Step 5Determine whether users find the map useful and
informative
Nature of Cartography 50
The Theme of Map The Theme of Map EffectivenessEffectiveness
MapEffectiveness
MapMaking
MapUse
SymbolisationSimplification
Selection
Classification Exaggeration
Analysis
Interpretation
Reading
Nature of Cartography 51
Information TransformationInformation Transformation
GeographicalEnvironment
RecognisedGeographicalInformation
MAP MapImage
CensusGround surveyRemote sensingCompilation
SelectionClassificationSimplificationExaggerationSymbolisation
ReadingAnalysisInterpretation
Transform 1 Transform 2 Transform 3
Nature of Cartography 52
The Scope of CartographyThe Scope of Cartography
Map Maker
Map User
Data Map
Nature of Cartography 53
Processes in CartographyProcesses in Cartography
Collecting and selecting the data for mapping Manipulating and generalising the data,
designing and constructing the map Reading or view the map Responding to or interpreting the information
Nature of Cartography 54
Processes in CartographyProcesses in Cartography
Nature of Cartography 55
A Cartographer Must...A Cartographer Must...
Be familiar with all mapping activities (geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing and GIS); and
Know a lot about human thought and communication (cognitive science) and the disciplines associated with the environmental features being mapped.
Nature of Cartography 56
Geographers Are the Primary Geographers Are the Primary Users of MapsUsers of Maps
EnvironmentalSciences
CognitiveSciences
MappingSciences
MAP
Nature of Cartography 57
CartographyCartography Cartography, the construction and use of maps, has been
employed by humans since antiquity. To understand what cartography is, we must understand the definition and function of a map. A map is the symbolization and generalization of reality. As cartogrphers, we are involved with space and the analysis of the distribution of phenomena in space. Maps are the tools employed to visually represent the distribution of data. The type of data that can be illustrated varies with the area to be mapped and the scale of the map. Moreover, the type of data influences the type of map that can be created. Cartography, however, involves more than just learning how to portray data on a map. In the broadest sense, cartography is defined as the science of map-making. Included within this definition is the construction and production of maps, map design, and ultimately, the use of the map. This course will emphasize the elements of cartography that are involved in all aspects of map-making.
Nature of Cartography 58
QuotesQuotes"The good cartographer is both a scientist and
an artist. He must have a thorough knowledge of his subject and model, the Earth.... He must have the ability to generalize intelligently and to make a right selection of the features to show. These are represented by means of lines or colors; and the effective use of lines or colors requires more than knowledge of the subject - it requires artistic judgement." Erwin Josephus Raisz (1893 - 1968)