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CHAPTER ONE

Sufism: A General Introduction

1.1. SUFISM: A GENERAL SURVEY

Sufism (Islamic spirituality) is as old as Islam itself. It is generally known to

be the spiritual or inner (batin) dimension of Islam. The outer (dhair) or exoteric

dimension may be regarded as religious world-view. However, both inner and outer

or esoteric and exoteric aspects of religion are important aspects of Islam. They are,

in reality, the two sides of the same coin. As a matter of historical fact, the spiritual

dimension of Islam has been overemphasized for it is deemed to be representing the

true spirit of religion.

Islam consists of a Divine Law (al-Shar‘iah), a spiritual path (al-Tariqah)

and the Truth (al-Haqiqah). The Truth or al-Haq or al-Tawhid (Unity of God) is the

origin of the Divine Law and the spiritual way. The Holy Qur’an, and the prophetic

Hadith (tradition) and Sunnah are the prime sources of every aspect of human life –

social, political, judicial, theological, artistic, literary, philosophical, spiritual etc.

However, there is also a third important source, besides the Qur’an and the

Tradition of the Prophet, and that is the Nahj-al Balaghah, the collection of

sermons, letters and sayings of Imam ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. This great treatise provides

a comprehensive account of the approach of Imam ‘Ali to different aspects of

human life in the light of the Qur’an and practice of the Prophet Muhammad (s).

The outstanding feature of the work is that it also gives an intensive account of the

Islamic spirituality long before the institutional emergence of Sufism.1

There has always been a class of men believing in spiritualism or mysticism

and practicing self-denial as a means to the purification of soul and absolute

devotion to the Almighty ‘Allah’ and it is known as Sufism.2 Thus, the Sufism or

Islamic mysticism originates from the Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet

Muhammad(S).

2

Sufism or Islamic mysticism may be regarded as one of the important

schools of Islamic philosophy. The Sufis appeal to the intuitive side of human

nature and aspire to have the knowledge of God with this means. Sufism is a vast

and varied subject. The Sufis mostly differ from one another regarding their

approach to Reality and conception of goal of life. They also differ regarding the

ways and means of attaining it. Moreover, Sufism is more practical then

theoretical. It concerns itself more with a way of life than with doctrines. Further,

Sufi teachings are esoteric, passing from heart to heart. All this make it difficult to

say anything definitely about Sufism. It gives particular stress on ‘Kashf’

(Intuition or direct apprehension of Reality) as the source of knowledge. The basis

of Sufism lies in man’s aspiration for a direct personal experience of God. Man

craves for a more one to one, authentic and intense experience of God with a view

to entering into fellowship with Him. Therefore, the Sufis underlined the spiritual

significance of love of God in comparison to doctrinal exactitude, ritualistic

propriety or anything else.3

Sufism is a philosophy of love or say a philosophy of God-intoxication.

The main aim of life, according to the Sufis, is to attain nearness (qurb) to God.

According to some of them, the aim is rather to merge the individual soul into the

universal Soul. They believe that the disappearance of consciousness of separate

selves and continuous existence into the being of Divine Self is the goal of Sufism.

Sufism is as old as Islam itself. Rather it is an integral part of it. At first,

Sufism was ascetic and devotional and gradually it becomes speculative and

doctrinal. Sufi tradition includes in itself the doctrine of love of God and service to

humankind and therefore, such peculiar character has become its hallmark through

the centuries. In reality, Sufism is a practical dimension of Islām that promotes the

intimate relationship between God and man.

Sufism is a way of spiritual realization and attainment of sanctity and

gnosis of God. It is the esoteric and intrinsic aspect of Islam and is the heart and

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the core of revelation and Prophetic teaching it is the inner dimension of Islam. It

is purely an Islamic discipline, which builds up the character and inner life of the

Muslims by imposing certain ordinances, and duties, obligations and

commitments, which may not be abandoned or given up in any way by any man.

Its doctrines and methods are deeply and firmly rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah.

While describing the nature and method of Sufism, Junaid of Baghdad has apply

remarked, “Our system of doctrine is firmly, bound up with the dogmas of faith,

the Qur’an and the tradition”. He holds all those methods, doctrines and systems

purely heretical, which are not rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah of the

Prophets(S).

Islamic mysticism or Sufism had its rise in a revolt of the soul, in those who

were really spiritually-minded and against formalities of religion or were

indifferent to inanities of religion. The rise of Sufism was also inspired by the

feeling that a direct relationship of man to God, Who is not to be regarded as a

Distant and All-Powerful Ruler of the destinies of humankind but as a friend and

beloved of their souls as well, is possible. The mystics have desired to know God,

so that they may love Him and they have held that the soul can receive a revelation

from God, by direct religious experience not through the senses or intellect.

Sufism is not, however, theoretical but practical and a way of life to be

followed by the true lovers of God. There must first be the conversion of the

mystic and then he must abide by a discipline to get rid of the desires of the self,

which will bring the external life into the form fit for the seeker after God. After

that, comes the discipline of the inner life, bringing the thoughts and feelings and

will into harmony with the Eternal Will of God and making the mystic able to

receive the Divine illumination (kashf).

Sufism has been described differently be scholars of various sections,

especially those writing in English. However, all consider it as a being the inner,

esoteric or mystical or purely spiritual dimension of Islam. Sufism is nothing

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external to Islam rather it is a part of it. It is really the evolution of spiritual and

mystical element inherent in all the great religions of the world. In Islamic

framework, it has its specific connotation and practical appropriation based on

purity of heart, thought and devotion.

Islam has two sides esoteric (batin) and exoteric (zahir) or internal and

external and the two sides are interdependent.4 In Islam, the two domains outward

(exoterism) and inward (esoterism) remain more or less distinct though they bear a

very definite relationship to one another. This relationship can, perhaps best, be

described in its three men aspects known as Shari’ah, Tariqah and Haqiqah:

The outward religion or (exoterism) known in Islam as

the ‘Shari‘ah’ may be linked to the circumference of a

circle. The inner truth inward or esoterism that lies at

the heart of religion and is known in Islam a ‘hiqiqa’

may be linked to the circle centre. The radius

proceeding from circumference to centre represents the

mystical or ‘initiatic’ path (Tariqa) that lead from

outward observance to inner conviction, from belief to

vision from potency to act. From the foregoing it will

be seen that Sufism (tasawwuf) comparises both

esoterism and exoterism and initiation hiqiqa and

tariqa.6

Sufism is a mystical tradition of Islam based on the pursuit of spiritual truth

as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi. It is mainly focused on

the direct perception of Truth or God and the mystic practices are based on divine

love. Sufism embodies a number of cultures, philosophies, teachings and bodies of

esoteric knowledge.

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Sufism as in Arabic (Tasawwuf ) in Persian ( / Darwash/

Sufi-gari) is generally understood by scholars to be the inner or mystical

dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as Sufi

(Arabic ) though some senior members of tradition reserve this term for those

practitioners who have attained the goal of the Sufi tradition. Another common

denomination is the word Darvish (derived from Persian ) has the same

function like that of a Sufi.

As a spiritual and esoteric dimension of Islam, the mystic theory and

Practice is entirely based on the holy Qur’an, the hadith and sunnah of the holy

Prophet(S). In true sense, it is the combination of ‘Shariat’ Tariqat and Hiqiqat

which finally leads the blessed souls to gain the gnosis of God (m‘arifah). In fact,

Sufism (Tasawwuf) is the life and soul of Islam and entails high spiritual

aspirations of Truth. It is a process of purification of the heart, purgation of self

and illumination of the soul and finally attaining unitive life with God.7

Sufism, in fact, implies how best one should perform one’s obligatory

duties and supererogatory acts and was under stood as “Ihsan” during the time of

Prophet (S) and his companions. Tasawwuf has its root in the holy Qur’an and

Hadith. It is, therefore, in no way, discordant with the Shari‘ah.8

The beginning of Sufism or Tasawwuf is Iman (faith) which consists of six

main principles:

1. The Existence of God.

2. The Unity of God

3. The Angels.

4. The Prophets.

5. The Day of Resurrection.

6. Good and Evil through God’s predestination.9

Again, Sufism is based on the four pillars of Islam:

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1. Shari’ah (Theology)

2. Tari’qah (Methodology: Acting upon Theology)

3. Hiqi’qah (Truth)

4. Mari’fah (Gnosis of God)

A Brief description of each of these pillars is given as under:

1. Shari’ah:

Shari‘ah is the first stage or the first stage of law in which the traveller has

to acquired the outward or exoteric knowledge (‘ilm) of the canon of Islam and

wherein a devotee has to follow strictly the rules of religion. In Shari‘ah, the

practicing Muslim or a murid (disciple) observes the Sha’ar and the rites of Islam;

ever breathes his Sheikh in mind; in him effaceth himself through meditation;

maketh him his shield against evil thoughts and regardeth his spirit as his guardian

spirit.

2. Tari’qah:

Tari’qah is the second stage in which the first exoteric secrets and practices

of the order are imparted to the traveller and wherein a devotee has to follow

blindly the command of his mentor (pir or Murshad). In Tari’qah, the murid

attaineth power; centereth on Sufism and abandoneth the observance of religious

froms, exchanging outward for inward worship. Without great piety, virtue and

fortitude (based on knowledge of the dignity of the soul of man) he cannot attain

this stage. However, it becomes the duty of the murid to abide by the orders and

commands of his Pir, but with happy moods.

3. Hiqi’qah (Truth)

The third stage is Hiqi’qah in which the traveller is rewarded for his efforts

by the vision of the beatitude of God. It is the name given to the inner truth or

inner reality. The murid or the practicing true believer has become joined to Truth

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(God), in whom he sees all the things and does relize His secrets. This is

effacement in God.

4. Mari’fat (Gnosis)

The fourth stage is the mari’fah or the stage of esoteric knowledge in which

the traveller realizes the Divine Individuality within himself and wherein a

devotee follows strictly the teachings of the holy Prophet (S). The murid has

attained to supernatural knowledge and is, therefore, equal to the angel. The

Shaikh leads him to Muhammad (S) whom, in all things, he seethe. This is

effacement in Prophet of Islam.10

The Prophet (S) said that Shar‘iah is my word (Aqwali), Tari’qah is my

deeds (Afaali), Hiqi’qah is my spiritual state (Ahwali) and mari’fah is my secret

(Asrari). By attaining perfection in the observance of Islamic law (Shar‘iah)

through a pious conduct one may move to the path leading to divinity (Tari’qat)

and then onward he passes on to enlightenment (mari’fat) and lastly to the

attainment of the high point of human existence, (Haqi’qah.)11

The Shari‘ah is

concerned with the observance of the outward practices of religion, while

Haqi’qah is concerned with an inward vision of Divine Power.

According to Sufis, M‘arifah is the attitude of the man who acknowledges

God in his name and attributes; who is sincere in his action, who tries himself to

be away from the blameworthy traits of character and from weaknesses and lets

his heart dwell with God. When a Sufi becomes alien to other creature, free from

the frailties of self; in his innermost being he is in continuous communion with

God and at each movement truly comes back to God. When he has knowledge of

God by receiving His secrets concerning the operating of His decrees, then he will

be called Arif and his condition will be called M‘arifah.

The Development of Sufism:

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It is generally said that Sufism came into being toward the close of the

second or beginning of the third century of Islamic era. It is a mistaken idea that

leads some modern scholars to connect Sufism with Greek Philosophy, which had

begun to creep into the mind of some of learned Muslims. The earliest of three

greatest Islamic mystics were Prophet Muhammad, his life-partner, Bibi Khadijah

and Imam Ali. There were others also from prophets’ family and his companions

who were actively engaged in sufi-practices. However, an overview of their

spiritual struggle will entail a long discussion.

The development of Sufism from the very beginning of its existence can be

traced to the Holy Qur’an and it would be erroneous to trace it to so-called foreign

sources. The fact is that Sufism is inherent in Islam itself. It was brought into

being as soon as the verses of the mystical import were revealed to the Prophet.

The holy Qur’an is often allegorical with mystical touch. The following verse

brings out very powerfully the mystical orientation of the Qur’an:

He (God) is the First and Last, Visible and Invisible and none is like unto Him.12

Such verses emphatically prove that the universe with all its contents is

merely a reflection of the Divine Being. Sufism is generally known to be the

spiritual or inner (batin) dimension of Islam. The outer (zahir/dhair) or exoteric

dimension may be regarded as religious word-view. However, both inner and

outer or esoteric and exoteric aspects of religion are important aspects of Islam

and they are in reality the two sides of the same coin. As a matter of historical fact,

the spiritual dimension of Islam has been overemphasized for it is deemed to be

representing the true spirit of religion i.e. Islam.

All the Islamic scholars broadly agree that the elements of Sufism or

Islamic spirituality are inherent in the very original Islamic discourse and the

Orientalits wrongly attribute its origin to neo-Platonism or Aryan Mind or to the

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Greek word “Sophism”. In fact, spirituality is at the heart of Islamic revelation, the

Holy Qur’an, which in its turn is the heart of Islamic religion. Moreover, it is also

a fact that the Qur’anic spiritual dimension was recognized right at the very outset

rather than centuries later when it was crystallized into “Sufism”. The Qur’anic

words such as ‘wali’ (friend), aswaf (Plural of Suf, Meaning ‘wool’ denotes simple

dress), mari’fa (gnosis of God) and so on indicate that spirituality is inherent in

Islamic discourse itself.

As mentioned before, Islam consists of a Divine law (al-shari’ah) a

spiritual path (al-Tari’qah) and the Truth (al-Haqi’qah) or al-Haq. Al-Tawhid

(unity of God) is the origin of the Divine law and the spiritual way. The Holy

Qur’an and the Prophetic Hadith (tradition) and Sunnah are the prime sources of

every aspect of human life; social, political, judicial, theological, artistic, literary,

philosophical, spiritual etc. Sufism is an approach aiming at the direct knowledge

of God and it treats man both as an esoteric (batiniyyah) as well as an exoteric

(Zahiriyyah) personality, offering a balanced perspective of human situation or

condition. The seed of Sufism was sown in the very beginning of Islam. The

Prophet(S) himself displayed mystical inclination and not infrequently resorted to

some hidden place e.g. (cave-Hira) for meditation and devotion.13

In the first three or four centuries of the Islamic era, there was no apparent

distinction between a secular scholar and a mystic. Both groups of the faithful

were equally prompt to observe all the injunctions of Islam in theory and practice.

Junayad Baghdadi (297. A.H.-909 A.D.) was a famous Sufi who emphasized that

the external path (Shari‘ah) and the internal path (Hiqi’qah) of Islam are

essentially the two sides of the same thing and they are interrelated. He

systematized the mystical doctrines and put them in black and white.14

However, it was Dhul-Nun-Misri (788-859. A.D), who for the first time put

the doctrines in words and Abu-Bakr Shibli was the first to preach them from the

pulpit (menber) of Mosque. Sufism teaches renunciation of the worldly pleasures,

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complete devotion to God and healing of suffering human hearts through

cultivation of spiritual forbearance and insight and service towards humanity. It is

a way to reach God through the rigorous practices of Salat (Prayer), Faqr

(Poverty), Zikr (remembrance of God), Fana (anhilation), and Safa (Purity of body

and soul). Some important components of these practices are tauba (repentance),

Zuhud (asceticism), tawakkul (Trust in God), rida or reza (Will of God), etc. In

this pursuit, a Sufi move through different station of mystical experience.15

The interpretation of the word “Sufi” can best be understood when placed

in the context of the historical evolution of Sufism and Sufi brotherhood. Sufism

or Islamic mysticism or Tasawwuf (as it is called in Arabic) is a discipline, which

aims at appropriating the spiritual mysteries or dimensions of Islam. Sufism lies at

the centre of religion. It aims at the personal experience of the central mystery of

Islam. i.e. Tawhid (unity of God). There is nothing to be worshipped, nothing to be

adored God. Sufism becomes a mediator between Shari‘ah and Haqiqat precisely

as it intends to push a man to the extreme of what he only accepts intellectually.

At the beginning Sufism and Islam is general rest on the same ground of

Shahadah:

(There is no God save Allah and Prophet Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.)

However, while a person embraces Islām and becomes a Muslim by simply

repeating the Shahadah and believing in it, a Sufi on the other hand, is one who

explores its ultimate meanings and tries to live up to them. Tawhid (Oneness of

God) which is doctrinally the essence of Islam is contained in the first part of the

Shahadah (La-Illah Illa-Allah). A Sufi starts contemplating on what he really

means to actualize it. It is only in the second part of the Shahadah.

Sufism can also be explained from the perspective of the three basic

religious attitudes mentioned in the holy Qur’an. These attitudes are as under:

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1. Islam 2. Iman (faith) 3. Ihsan

1. Islam: The attitude of Islam which has given the umbrella name to the

Islamic religion which means “submission to the will of Allah”. This is the

minimum qualification for being a Muslim. It implies an acceptance even if only

formal of the teachings contained in the holy Qur’an and traditions of the Prophet

of Islam.

2. Iman: Iman (faith) is a more advanced stage in the field of religious

experience. It designates a further penetration into the heart of religion and a firm

faith in its teachings.

3. Ihsan: The third stage is the highest stage of spiritual advancement. At

this stage, the devotee has such a realization of the religious truth which amounts

almost to their direct vision. Sufism may be defined as the spiritual progress of a

devotee from the initial stage of Islam to the final stage of Ihsan.16

Thus, Iman is essentially faith in divine unity (Tawhid) and Islam mean

submission to divine will. Ihsan operates upon these two fundamental elements of

the religious and transforms, them into what is called Tasawwuf.

Thus, Sufism can be said to be a movement, which aims at making

Muslims good or better Muslims. It is a call to them to actualize truly and

internally those teachings of Islam they have accepted only formally or

intellectually as a part of their inheritance. Throughout the history of Islām,

Sufism has been the standard-bearer of genuine religiosity and spiritual

advancement in the Muslims societies. Sufism has made Muslims a living reality

infused with the depth and strength of spirituality. Sufism is not an alien

movement transplanted into Islam from foreign sources, such as. Neo-Platonism,

Hinduism, Buddhism, Christian, mysticism, or any of the pre-Islamic Iranian

Ideologies. Sufism can fully fledgely be directly traced to Islam.17

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Fortunately, some important books on Sufism have taken care to trace the

roots of Sufism to the Qur’an and Sunnah the holy Prophet, a living example of

the teachings of holy Qur’an, who had a purely spiritual dimension to his

personality. Among the companions of the Prophet, there were a number of

persons prominent for their spiritual bent of mind. Foremost among the

companions extolled for their high spiritual attainment were the first four Caliphs

and some other companions of the Prophet of Islam.

Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddiq (632-34), the first Caliph was a paragon of

voluntary poverty advocated or practiced by Sufis and taught Muslims to renounce

all their material goods for Islam. Hazrat Umer Farooq (634-44), the second

Caliph was a symbol of self-denial His life exemplified the fact that spiritualists

outwardly were a part of humankind, however, inwardly their hearts clung to God

and their worldly activities failed to divert them from God. Hazrat Usman Ghani

(644-56), was the third Caliph and a fine example in resignation during the crisis.

However, the fourth Caliph, Hazrat Imam Ali (656-61), was regarded by all

the Sufi-orders as the Sayyid or the Shaikh or the Sarder-i-Wilyat, (Leader or

Teacher of Sufism) in both theory and practice of Tasawwuf. Hazrat Imam ‘Ali

was a role-model for Sufi tradition in respect of the truth of outward expression

and inward meaning of spirituality. He was the finest example of the stripping of

one’s self of all property either of this world or of the next and fully depending on

divine providence.18

All Caliphs enjoyed high spiritual ranks. However, Imam Ali

has a special significance for Sufi domain. According to the judgment of Sunni

Canon lawyers, ‘Ali was just not the fourth number in the Khilafat-i-Roshidah but

appropriated the highest place after Muhammad(s) amongst Muslim spiritualists.

Accordingly, Shaykh Aliu’l-Hujwiri writes concerning Imam ‘Ali:

His renown and rank in this path (of Sufism) were very

high. He explained the principle (Usul) of Divine truth

with exceeding subtlety, so that Junayd said, “Ali is

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our Shaikh as regards the endurance of affliction i.e. in

the theory and practice of Sufism: for Sufis call the

theory of this path “Principle” (Usul) and its practice

consists entirely in the endurance of affliction.19

Moreover, the Prophet(s) said about Imam ‘Ali:

“I am the city of knowledge and ‘Ali is the gate”.

Junayad Baghdadi praises mystical qualities of ‘Ali in these worlds, “ ‘Ali

is our Shaikh as regard the endurance of affliction.”20

Hazrat ‘Ali is an important

link in the spiritual chain leading Sufis back to the holy Prophet(s). Prophet

Muhammad(s) is the fountainhead of Sufism; prototype of the mystic spiritual

ascension into the intimate presence of God and esoteric knowledge was

transmitted from the Messenger of Allah to his cousin and son in law, Imam ‘Ali –

Ibn Abi Talib. Imam ‘Ali has special significance for the Sufis as almost all the

Sufi fraternities (Salasil sing Silsilah), except Naqshbandiyyah, are connected with

the Prophet through Imam ‘Ali.

Among the companions of the holy Prophet(s), another important

personality from the Sufi point of view was Salman Farsi (d. ad. 656). He was of

Persian origin and had no connection with Arab society and livel with complete

absorption in the religion. He had joined the Ahl-us-Suffah and lived in the

Mosque of Prophet Muhammad(s) and contributed a lot to the sufi-tradition.

Another mystical figure of the same period, who has cast a long shadow on Sufi

tradition, was Uways Qarni. He lived in Yamen at the time of Prophet(s) but is

said to have never met him. The Prophet(s) responded to his unbounded love in

saying, “The breath of the merciful (Nafs–ar–Rehman) came to me from Yemen.20

There are many stories about his passionate love for the Prophet(s). Similarly,

many sayings of the Prophet indicate his spiritual station. Uwyas Qarni achieved

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the spiritual aspect of the Prophet’s personality and the example of these

companions provided the guidance for a way of life, which later developed into

the tradition of Sufism.22

Salman Farsi, Uways Qarni and other saints led the Sufis to asceticism.

Around the middle of 8th

century A.D. the ascetic tradition was ushered into a new

era of development and growing popularity.23

Before Ghazali, Sufism passed through three main stages of development:

1. Ascetic stage,

2. Theosophical stage,

3. Pantheistic stage.

Let us briefly examine these stages one by one:

1. Ascetic stage:

At the first stage of the development, the sufis were ascetics and quietists.

They labored under a terrible consciousness of sin. The sufis of this stage devoted

their lives to prayer both incumbent and supererogatory. They retired from society

and daily life and avoided every from of luxury and ostentation. Their object was

the avoidance of every indulgence, which entangled the soul. At this stage, there

emerged a score of such personalities who become the shining stars of the whole

Sufi-tradition. Its leading figures were, Hasan-al-Basra (d. A.D. 728), Habib Ajmi

(d. A.D. 738), Imam Ja’far Sadiq (d. A.D. 765), Ibrahim Ibn Adham (d. A.D. 777-

90), Abu-Hashim (d. A.D. 777), Rabia Basri (d. 801), and others. They may be

counted as the first group of regular Sufis. These early mystics were the followers

of pure Sufi tradition. They had little interest in any other field besides their

mystical pursuits and spiritual perfection. At this stage, we can say that the ascetic

movement in Islam was turning into a distinct mystical tradition.23

The mystical

movement in Islam was fast becoming a distinct discipline in the growth of

Islamic civilization.

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2. Theosophical stage:

The second stage of development is known as theosophical stage. In this

stage, the doctrines of Sufism began to take their proper shape. This stage began in

late 9th

century. The Sufis belonging to this stage made further advance with

regard to the definition explication and explanation of Sufism. Sufis belonging to

this Stage were Dhuln Nun Misri (d. A.D. 859), Bayazid Bistami (d. A.D. 874),

Yahya-bin Mu’and (d. A.D. 871), Hazrat-al-Muhasibi (d. A.D. 857), Maruf Karkhi

(d. A.D. 821), Siri-as-Saqti (d. A.D. 864), Sahal-al-Tustari (d. A.D. 896) and Abu-

Said-al-Kharraz. (d. A.D. 899), etc. These Sufis form a link between theosophical

stage and pantheistic stage.

3. Pantheistic stage:

At the third stage, pantheism came to the forefront. Bayazid is well -known

for his radical mystical utterances. He elaborates the doctrines of self-effacement

and self-annihilation. The Sufi doctrine was systematized and unified by Junayd of

Baghdad (d. A.D. 900) and preached by Shibli (d. A.D. 945). It is the doctrine of

absorption and self-effacement, which lead to pantheism. Pantheism obliterates the

distinction between the Creator and the creatures and contends that there is only

One Existence, all else being an illusion. At this stage, Mansur-al-Hallaj (d. A.D.

921) was exclaiming “Ana’l-Haqq” (I am the truth). According to the Sufis, such

utterance was due to a state of exaltation in which Mansur-al-Hallaj was lost in

raptures at the beatific vision and had lost touch with the phenomenal reality. He

introduced un-Islamic doctrines such as Hülül (fusion), Ittihad (union) Tanasuhk

(transmigration), Raj‘at (return) etc. into Sufism.

The breach between Sufism and orthodox Islam took place gradually at its

first stage of development. Sufism was not very different from Islam. In their

doctrine, the Sufis emphasized some truth of Islam at the cost of others. In their

conduct, they cut themselves off from society. At the second stage novel method

of the purification of the heart were devised. At the third sage pantheistic

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tendencies, became evident. In Niffari, these appear a distinction between Sufism

and Islam. The external side of Islam was lost sight of, prayers, fasts, etc. were

given up and dhikr and other innovations were adopted for the purification of

heart. The breach between the orthodox Islam and Sufism became complete. The

theologians adhered to the letter of law and the Sufis sought the spirit.

It was al-Ghazali who leavened all gnostic, pantheistic and heretical

thoughts in the intellectual world or Islam. Before al-Ghazali, Sufism deviated

from early idealistic and quietist type and changed into theosophical and

pantheistic currents, which were denounced by devoted Muslims. With al-Ghazali,

Sufism began to be accepted as an ethical movement in the orthodox Islam. He

systematized eastern Sufism. Under the predominant influence of al-Ghazali,

Sufism was introduced in Sunni orthodox Theology in a modified 6th

century.

A.D.25

There are two stages in the history of Sufism viz. (i). Early stage (ii). Later

stage. In the earlier stage, which covered the first few centuries of the Muslim era,

there arose in the Muslim society a class of people who developed a negative

attitude of self-denial and preferred a pious, ascetic life mainly devoted to the

meditation and love of God, to a life of enjoyment, activity and struggle. They

were self-contented people, apathetic to all enjoyment of this world and had the

least feeling of wants. They were primarily concerned with the apprehension of

Divine reality and called themselves Ahl-alhaq (followers of the real). They

dedicated their lives to the love and worship of God. They preferred solitudes,

retirement, self-restraint and contemplation. They became assiduous in piety and

gave up everything for the sake of God. To turn away from worldly goods and

vanities, to renounce pleasure, wealth and power, which are the common objects

of human ambition, to abandon society and to live secluded life devoted to the

service of God, were the main features of early Sufism during the first three

centuries of Muslim era. This early phase of Sufism is a form of asceticism, which

17

had its origin in an exaggerated consciousness of sin and the extreme dread of

Divine punishment as well as a revolt against the luxury and worldliness prevalent

during the tyrannical rule of the Umayyad. The injustice, suffering and moral de-

generation that were rampant in the social political life of the time led a small but

important section of the people to develop an attitude of other-worldliness. They

held that this world is essentially bad and full of evils and therefore, men should

not be engrossed in it. They should rather shun it and prepare for the world to

come. They early Sufis were orthodox Muslims in respect of their beliefs and

practices. The distinctive features of their creed consisted in self-abnegation, self-

mortification fervent piety and quietism carried to the extreme. In this early phase,

we may include eminent Sufis like Abu-Hashem, Rabia-Basri, Maruf-Kharkhi,

Dhul-un-Misri, Bayzid-Bustmi, Junayid Baghdadi and others Sufis.

In the initial stage, Sufism was not much different from orthodox Islam; it

was rather in conformity with the orthodox beliefs and practices. Nevertheless the

Sufis over emphasized certain teachings of the Holy Qur‘an and developed them at

the expanse of others which Muslims in general deemed equally important. This

ascetic attitude of self-denial and inaction was against the real spirit of Islam. For

Islam looks upon this as real and urges man to lead a life of action. The Prophet

also strongly denounced these attitudes of inaction. With the spread of Islam, the

Muslims came in contact with many foreign ideas and doctrines in the light of

which they tried to understand and interpret their faith. Some emphasized the love

of God, others the fear of God. Further more during the rule of the Umayyad, there

was extreme moral degeneration in social-political life and the people were deeply

attached to the pomp and the pleasures of this world, utterly neglecting the

development of devotional and spiritual life. This tendency had its reaction in

Sufism, which emphasized the need and importance of an ascetic life devoted to

the love and contemplation of God.

18

At the later stage, under the influence of various internal and external force,

this ascetic tendency developed into sort of mystic philosophy mainly Pantheistic

in character. Hence, the Sufis mingled various foreign and un-Islamic elements in

their teachings. Among these, the most prominent are Mansur-Hallaj, Ibn-Arabi,

Al-Jilli, Al-Ishraqi, Rumi and Jami. It was through Al-Ghazzali that Sufism

secured a recognized position in the religious life of the Muslims.

In the later stage also, Sufism had been under many foreign influences and

become a speculative philosophical doctrine. At this stage, it deviated widely from

orthodox Islam, its asceticism was considered only as the first step to a long

journey varying mainly towards Pantheism. The keynote of the new Sufism was

the light, knowledge and love. It replaced the transcendent God by immanent, One

who is present everywhere and whose thorn is more in the human heart than in the

Heaven of Heavens. God according to them is not a transcendent being for above

human feelings and aspirations.

Moreover, the deeper instincts of man crave for direct revelation of God to

the soul. God was thus conceived to be both far and near, transcendent as well as

immanent. ‘He is the light of heaven and of the earth’ a being who works in the

world and in the soul of man. The consciousness of sin and fear that haunted the

mind of Muslims gradually disappeared and they began to seek for direct

knowledge and love of God as well personal communication with Him. Thus they

deviated from the teaching of Islam and lost sight of the transcendent aspect of

God as laid down in the Qur‘an. Even then they have been accepted by Islam.

Instead of being condemned, they have been much venerated by the general

Muslims. Hence MacDonald remarks that every thinking religious Muslim is a

mystic/Sufi and that all are Pantheists.

Thus, the attitude of individual Sufi towards Islam varies from entire

conformity to a mere nominal profession of belief in God and Prophet. The Qur‘an

and Hadith were generally accepted by them as the ultimate standard of religious

19

faith. However, they tried to distinguish what is religious and what is heretical by

the help of their personal experience and intuitive knowledge. Creeds and

catechism count for nothing in the Sufi’s estimation.

The attitude of the Sufis towards religion is rather variable. Some of them

had been quite orthodox, many were hardly Muslims from the orthodox point of

view and others were Muslims by fashion only. Orthodox Islam in its present form

owes much to Ghazali. His teachings and Interpretations were harmonized largely

with Sufism. Hence, Islam as found among the educated Muslims has assumed a

tinge of Mysticism.26

1.2: MAIN FEATURES OF THE EARLY SUFISM.

An analytical study of the first century Sufism proves that poverty,

abstinence, trust in Allah, fear of Allah, remembrance of Allah, the outmost

scrupulosity (wara), observing the rules of Shari‘ah and renunciation of the world

were the major features of Sufism. However, it is worth noting that these

characteristics of the early Sufism simply convey their ethical flavor, they were

not a metaphysical doctrine.27

Hasan al-Basari (d. 110/728 A.D.), the eminent early Sufi-theologian

known for his piety and asceticism is generally claimed by the historians to have

been the first Sufi. He maintained that fear of Allah and abstinence from worldly

pleasures are necessary for the purification of heart, which ultimately leads to the

ultimate end; the vision of Allah.

After the Prophet of Islām, Bibi Khedijah, Imam ‘Ali and other companions,

it was Rabia al-Basari, (d. 185. A.H. /801 A.D.), famous woman mystic who in the

second century Hijra, introduced the concept of Love in Sufi tradition, which later

become a dominant feature, a metaphysical doctrine and an indispensable element

of Sufism. She explains the concept of love in the following verses:

In two ways have I loved thee: selfishly,

20

And with a love that worthy is of thee.

In selfish love, my joy in thee I find,

While to all else, and other. I am blind.

But in that love which seek thee worthy,

The veil is raised that I may look on thee.

Yet is the praise in that or this not mine,

In this and that the praise is wholly thine. 28

Rabia-al-Basari does not deny the importance of the fear of Allah.

However, she gives utmost importance to love of Allah as well as the pure and

unalloyed Love, “One should remember Allah not because the fear of hell or

attainment of heaven.” For the Rabia, the pleasure of Allah and His vision must be

the end of love.

At the end of second and beginning of the third century Hijra, the Islamic

spiritual tradition emerged as an institution. Now the Zuhhad, Ubad, Nusak gained

the name of Sufi. Abu Hashim Kufi (d. 150/777. A.D.), according to some sources

is the first person called by the name of Sufi. It is by the name Sufism that esoteric

dimension of Islam has been known ever since.29

The third century marks the advent of many famous Sufi figures, whose

eloquent and penetrating utterances have survived and re-echoed with in the soul

of the Sufis of later generations. Here we shall discuss in brief the fundamental

doctrines of Dhun-Nun-Misri, Bayazid Bistami, Mansoor Hallaj and Junaid

Bagdadi — the well-known figures of the third century Sufism whose impact on

the development of subsequent Islamic mystical thought can hardly be

overemphasized.

Dhun-Nun-Misri (d 246 A.H. / 859. A.D.), was the first to found a Sufi sect

in Egypt. He formulated the doctrines of “Hal” (state) and Maqum (stage) and

21

ecstasy. He wrote treaties wherein he expounded mystical doctrines. He is

reported to have discussed “gnosis” (ma‘rifa) before anybody else and to have

distinguished it from mere intellectual knowledge. His sayings reported in

dramatic setting contributed to shaping the later Sufi tradition. He is generally

credited with having introduced the idea of ‘gnosis’ (ma‘rifa) into Sufism.

According to him, the gnosis has three types:

1. Gnosis of Scholars: They recognize Allah in the light of Reason;

2. The Gnosis of common Muslims: They believe in Allah on the basis of

faith;

3. The Gnosis of mystics: They know Allah through their inner and authentic

light.

Dhun-Nun-Misri holds the third category to be the best and superior to them

all, it provides that certitude which is identical with perfect faith ( ) and the

gnosis of Allah is neither related to nor provided by reason but is attained through

intuition.30

We find the panthestistic tendencies in his doctrine of love. He says

that when man loves Allah he looses his being ( ) in the being of Allah.

Bayzaid-Bustami (d. 874) is another mystical thinker of that period who

presented for the first time the doctrine of fana (passing away in Allah), which

exerted an abiding influence and attained the central position in subsequent Sufi

thought. His doctrine of annihilation of self or absorption in Allah is clear in his

narrations. He said, “Once he raised me up and stationed me before him, and said

to me, O-Abu-Yazid ! truly my creation desire to see I said Adorn me in thy unity

and clothe me in they oneness so that when thy creation see me they will say we

have seen thee and thou wit me that and I shell not be there at all”.31

He is the first

Sufi to have introduced the concepts of intoxication (Sukr) and Fana (annihilation)

in Sufism.

Thus, at this historical juncture of the initiation of the concept of

annihilation of the self and intoxication, a dynamic personality in Sufism was

22

Bayzaid Bistami. He initiated a new-epoch by introducing quite a different

doctrine of continuance of life in Allah (Baqa) and patience (Sabr). Bayzaid says

that the rapture of love for God involves the cessation of human attributes, like

consciousness, foresight and choice and annihilation of a man’s self-control in

God so that only those faculties survive in him that do not belong to the human

genus. It is not acquired but is purely a divine gift. It is a stage where the

attribution of man’s act is to God and man of ‘Sukr’ stands through God.

Annihilation, for Bayzid, is complete absorption of one’s own self in the

personality of God. It is a self-surrender to God, and self-surrender demands

complete obedience to the commands of God.32

Junayad Baghdadi (d. 298 A.H./910 A.D.), disciple of al-Muhasibi

designated in later times the Sheikh of the Order (Shaikh-al-Tariqah) is by far the

most original and penetrating of intellects among the Sufis of his time. He

introduces a classical definition of ‘Tawhid’; by maintaining, that ‘Tauhid’ Means’

the separation of the eternal from that which was originated in time.33

He

maintained that sobriety is superior to intoxication. He explains it by saying that

man becomes forgetful of everything even of his own self and reason in

intoxication, where as in sobriety man is conscious of his actions and has control

over his senses. He knows, what he is doing, for what he is responsible, and for

what he is not. He explains his doctrine of ‘life’ in God, as it is the stage, which a

mystic attains after the stage of annihilation of self. At this stage, man is not

forgetful of his existence, but conscious of it.34

In short, Junayad was the first Sufi who systematized and unified the Sufi

doctrine. Mansur-al-Hallaj (d. A.D. 921), also betrays pantheistic tendencies. He

was executed for exclaiming “Ana’l-Haq” (I am the truth). He says that I saw my

lord with the eye of the heart. I said “who are you”, he answered “thou”. He was

executed for his mystical utterances, which according to so-called ‘ulema were

tantamount to blasphemy. He introduced the anti-Islamic doctrines like fusion

23

(Hulul), Union (Itihad), Transmigration (tanasuk) and Return (Rajat).35

etc. His

ideas can be broadly classified as 36

1. Fusion of Allah in man;

2. The eternity of the reality of Muhammad (S)

3. The unity of Religions.

Abu-al-Hasan Siri Saqti (d. 864), made original contribution to the mystical

thought of Islam. The doctrine of ‘Tauhid’ which became the central idea of later

Sufi philosophy was very forcefully explicated by him. He is reported to have

defined the various mystical states for the first time. Siri Saqti, belonged to those

Sufis who expounded the mystical theories at the early stage. He was a leading

personality of Baghdad School.37

In the fourth century, the Sufi tradition began to express itself in large

didactic works. The famous works which are held as manuals of Sufism are the

kitab-al-luma (the book of flashes) of Abu Nasr-al-Sarraj; kitab-al-ta’arruf,

(doctrine of Sufis) of Kalabadhi; kashf-al-Mahjub (the unveiling of hidden) of

Hujwiri; the first Indian major Sufi prose work in Persian Qut-ul-Qulub, (the

nourishment of heart) of Abu Talib-al-Makki and celebrated Risalat-al-

Qushairiyah (The treatise of Qushairi); and others. These works initiated the

systematic theorization in Sufism. To present a general account of the practices,

tradition, and sects of Sufism, for example, Hujwiri in his kashful-mahjub,

‘enumerates no fewer than twelve “Sects” of Sufism, of which ten are stated to be

the ‘orthodox’ and two the heretical.38

Before proceeding ahead, it seems appropriate to comment on the

controversies and opposition between Sufis and Jurists. The opposition was the

result of their attitude and understanding of Islam. The Sufis consider themselves

the people of secret ( ) and called the jurists as the people of tradition

( ). As against them, the jurists hold that the sayings of Sufis are against the

24

injunctions of Shari‘ah.39

It was against this background that al-Ghazali appears

upon the scene to ‘legitimize’ Sufism in official judicial circles of Muslims. He

brought about a concordance between the esoteric and exoteric aspects of Islam, in

both of which he participated actively. Al-Ghazali, essentially exteriorized certain

teachings of Sufism in order to give it freedom to carry on its inner life in Muslim

community. Thus, his defense of Sufism served an important function in

determining the status granted to the Orders and their doctrines’ and practices in

general religious community. Moreover, in some of his more esoteric treatises like

Mishkat-al-Anwar, (the Niche for Lights) and Al-Risalat-al-Daduniyah (Treatise

on Divine Knowledge) he began to discuss the doctrines of Sufism in a manner

which foreshadowed the work of Ibn-Arabi.40

Besides al-Ghazali there are some

other important Sufis like Ahmad al-Ghazali, Ain-al-Quzat, Ibn-al-Fariz and Abu-

Madyn, who cannot be over-looked. There are some more important figures like

Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, Abdul Qadir Gilani, Najm-al-din Kubra and Ahmad al-

Rifai, whom we shall deal in development of Sufis Orders.

Ibn-Arabi was one of the most important Sufis who played an important

role in the System-building of Sufi doctrines. He presented a well-knit

metaphysical, cosmological and psychological system. He can be regarded as the

expositor of gnosis in Islam. His writing indicates a break or turning point within

the tradition of Sufism. It is by him that the ‘doctrine of Sufism’, which up to his

time had been contained implicitly in sayings of various masters becomes

explicitly formulated.41

His vision of Sufism is generally known as Wahdat-al-

Wujud. Scholars are not in agreement with the mystic philosophical position of

Ibn-Arabi. He is generally held to be a pantheist or monist.

Nicholson and Affifi maintain that he was a pantheist, but not all such

terms imply a real meaning to his doctrine of Wahdat-al-Wujud. He holds Allah

both as transcendent and immanent being; absolutely transcending universe but

mysteriously permeating in it. In this way, he contradicts the thesis of both the

25

anthropomorphist and transcendentalist. According to Ibn-Arabi, God is the

Absolute Reality. He maintains the world as His manifestation and not the

creation. The universe and Being are identical. Universe and things in it are not

Allah, but their reality is not other than His. Otherwise, they would be completing

independent realities, which is the same as considering them deities along with

Allah.42

According to Ibn Arabi, the Divine Essence ( ) is above all distinction

and differentiation. God is devoid at the plane of first self-determination called as

‘Ahadiya’. He reveals himself in multiple manifestations and different forms. This

is of such a nature that in spite of expressing Himself in different manifestations

and multiple forms, the absolute Being maintains his immutable attributes and

Being and no change of any kind does necessarily take place. The stages of

descent are innumerable but the most marked of these are termed as six Descents

by the Sufis. The first three of them are called Maratib-i-Ilahi (Divine Ranks),

which are Ahadiyyat (Abstract Oneness), i.e. the State of Essence, the colourless,

the infinite, the indeterminate; the second is wahdat (unity), and the third

wahidiyyat (Unity in plurality). The remaining three are called Maratib-i-kawni

(worldly ranks) and they are: 1. Ruh (spirit). 2. Mithal (Similitude) and 3. Jism

(body). Man comes last of all there ranks and his rank is inclusive of all other

ranks.

Ibn Arabi’s doctrine of the universal man (al-insan al-kamil), is of basic

importance in Sufi thought. The universal man, who is also the logos, is the total

theophany of the Divine names; he is the whole of the universe in its ones as

“seen” by Divine Essence. He is the prototype of the universe as well as of man by

virtue of whom man, the microcosm, contains within himself all possibilities

found in the universe.43

The doctrine of the ‘union’ has a co-ordinal importance in

Sufi thought in general but Ibn -Arabi completely rejects such a concept. He holds

26

that there is no ‘union’ between Allah and man, but the realization of oneness,

which is already latent, but man has to realize it.

1.3. DEVELOPMENT OF SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA:

In order to understand Iqbal’s approach to Sufism it seems essential to

discuss the Islamic spiritual tradition in Indian-sub-continent.

The traditional Sufi orders all trace Sufism within the text of the Qur‘an

and practices of the Prophet of Islam. The ‘Shari‘ah” (traditional Islamic law) and

the Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial source of Sufism. The Sufi

Orders Started systematic spiritual training from about the 10th

century A.D. and

from the 12th

century A.D., these Orders were fully organized and each Order was

marked by distinguishing features in its teachings and practices.

As we have already mentioned that Sufism is not a later development of

Islam, but is as old as Islam itself. As a matter of fact, all the Orders traces their

chain of succession back to Prophet Muhammad(s) and thus it is that the Prophet

of Islam is regarded by the Sufis as the fountainhead of Sufism. Next to Prophet

Muhammad(s) in the Chain of succession, comes the name of Hazrat Imam ‘Ali.

The importance of Imam ‘Ali in Sufism, as mentioned earlier, is thus very

seminal. Prophet Muhammad(s) is reported to have said, “I am the city of

knowledge and ‘Ali is its gate.”44

However, the real or serious Sufi activities in India began from the last

decade of the twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth century. Outstanding Sufi

personalities began to visit India one after another in quick succession. These

Sufis did organize themselves into various Orders called Silsilas up to 16th

century

A.D. Gradually each Order was divided into a number of other sub-branches, each

having its own founder and tracing connection with other Order of the more

celebrated early Sufis and finally tracing up a connection to the Prophet

Muhammad(s), through Hazrat Imam Ali, the fourth Caliph. However, one Order

27

(Naqshbandiyyah) came into being tracing its origin to Abu-Bakr Saddiq, the first

Caliph.

Sufi Orders (silsilas) are numerous their number crossing one hundred

seventy five (175). However, the most important among them are as hereunder:

1. The Chishtiyyah Order.

2. The Qadriyyah Order.

3. The Naqshbandiyyah Order.

4. The Suhrawardiyyah Order.

We shall deal here briefly with the origin and development of these major

Sufi Orders as they played a leading role in the spiritual enlightenment of Muslims

in India:

1. The Chishtiyyah Order:

The Chishtiyyah Order was one of the first important Sufi Orders to be

established in India. It was founded by Khawja Abu-Ishaq Shami Chishti. The

Order traced its roots to the Qur’an and Sunnah through Hazrat Imam Ali. He

migrated from Asia Miner, settled at Chisht, in khurasan, and consequently was

called Chishti. He was a disciple of Mimshad Ali Dina-wari. The following four

saints spiritually descended from Abu-Ishaq Chishti and, are regarded as the

pillars of the Orders in particular and Islam in general: 45

1. Khawja Abu Ahmad (d. 966 A.D.), vicegerent to Abu-Ishaq, became an

Abdal.

2. Khawja Abu Muhammad (d. 1020 A.D.) who was the son and successor of

Abu Ahmad

3. Khawja Abu Yusuf (d. 1067 A.D.). He was a vicegerent of Abu

Muhammad.

4. Khawja Mawdud (d. 1133 A.D.), who was the son and successor of Abu

Yusuf.

28

The credit of introducing the Chishtiyyah Order into the Indian

subcontinent goes to Khawja Moin-uddin Chishti of Ajmer. He has been one of

the most renowned saints in the history of this Order. He was born around 1142-43

A.D. in Sijistan, came to Delhi in 1192 A.D. with the invading army of

Shihabuddin Ghauri. He came to Ajmer around (1195/97 A.D.) where he died in

(1234-36. A.D.). He lived at Ajmer for about half a century and his subsequent

entombment at Ajmer, earned the city renown as a pilgrimage centre. His Dargah

(Mausoleum), where he lies buried, is a sacred place of spiritual inspiration for

millions of Muslims, Hindus and other people belonging to various faiths. Khawja

Moin-uddin Chishti’s preachments provided guidance to all sections of humanity.

He was a thoroughgoing mystic and popularized Sufism in India. He assigned to

the mystics the highest place among humankind. He says, “Mystic are like the

Sun, they shine over the world and the entire world is illuminated by their light”.

He tried infusing the spirit of human service among his disciples; he declared that

the service of humanity is the service of Allah.

Many others Chishti saints like Qutubuddin Kaki (d. 1236) and Shaikh

Hamiduddin, Sufis of Nagaur, and Shaikh Fariduddin Shakarganj of Ajodhan

(Modern Punjab) (who was popularly known as Hazrat Baba Farid and whose bani

and slokes are a part of the holy Guru Granth Sahib). Sheikh Jamaluddin Hanowi

popularly known as Jamali (d. 1536) preached Sufi beliefs and practiced Sufi

values in India. The most eminent of Delhi Chishtis was Sheikh Nizamuddin

Auliya. He founded the Nizamiyya sub-silsilah that spread throughout the country

due to the dedicated efforts of his disciples like Shaikh Sirajuddin, Shaikh-Alaul-

Haqq, Shaikh Nur Qutb-i-Alam, Sayed Ashrf Jahangir, Khawja Gesu Deraz, Amir

Khusro and Burhanuddin Gharib. They spread mystical teachings in the Indian

Sub-Continent. The Chishtiyyah order followed the doctrine of the ontological

monism advanced by of Wahdat-al-Wujud, which explain the influence of Ibn-

29

Arabi on it. Thus, the Chishtiyyah saints followed the concept of pantheistic

monism called Wahdat-al-Wujud.46

2. The Qadriyyah Order:

The Qadriyyah Order developed from the school of Junayid, the ascetic

Order of Sufism was instituted by Shaikh Sayed Abdul Qadir Gilani (1076-1156

A.D.), popularly known as Pir-i-Dastagir or Ghaus-al-Azam. The founder of the

Order is one of the most venerated saints of Islam, who revived and recognized the

true context of the faith and worked throughout his life for a religious renaissance.

A follower of the Hambalite School of Sunni theology, Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani

strove hard to root out innovations and deviations, which had distorted the true

image of Islam. Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani, with his profound knowledge and

spiritual excellence, elaborated and systematized mystic practices, propagated

them widely and developed them ‘into unique harmony with the tenets of

shari‘ah. Countless people were guided by him to the path of self discipline,

devotion to God, and virtuous living.

The Qadriyyah Order was founded in the twelfth century and is considered

to be the oldest and the earliest. It had exercised great influence on the

contemporary society and culture by creating a new spiritual ferment in the life

and thought of the people. However, it gained a footing only at the end of 14th

and

beginning of 15th

centuries. Its’ followers are found all over the world. It played a

dynamic role in the religious and spiritual life of Indian masses between 16th

and

18th

centuries.

As a direct descendent of the Prophet Muhammad(s) through his daughter

Fatima), Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani was believed to have inherited every one of

his ancestor’s spiritual achievement. However, there are some controversies

regarding his teachings and as a descendent of the Prophet.

Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani’s writings are very much effective and

remarkable. His most renewed books are:

30

1. Futuh-al-Gheyb: A remarkable book on mysticism.

2. Ghuniya-tut-talibin: A comprehensive book dealing with the principle of

Shari’at and Tari’qat.

3. Futuh-al-Rabbani: A collection of his lectures and discourse.

A model of simplicity, selflessness and righteousness, this remarkable saint

of Islam expired on the 11th

Rabi-us-thani, at the age of 91 years. However, until

today his life and teachings illuminate the hearts of Muslims and others throughout

the world. The Qadriyyah khanqahs are mostly located in Punjab, parts of

Northern India and extensively in south India.

The Qadriyyah saints made the silsilah popular among the Indian masses.

They were against the rituals and ceremonies and all other alien elements

introduced in the name of Sufism contrary to the true spirit of Shari’a., The three

characteristics which distinguish them from the Sufis of Other Orders were:

1. Religious Orthodoxy.

2. Urbanism and

3. Distinct Arab Character.

The literature produced on Qadriyyah Order may be divided into three

categories:47

1. Biographical account of saints.

2. Work on mystic ideologies and practices.

3. Poetical work.

However, this Order was fully established in 16th

and 18th

centuries in India

and the main centres of its activity were Multan, Sind, Delhi, Agra, Biana, Bengal,

Ujjain, Kashi, Jaunpur, Gujrat, Ahmed Nagar, Daulatabad, Gulbarga, Kashmir,

Bihar and Hyderabad.

The famous Urdu poets Hasrat Mohani and (poet-philosopher) Allamah

Muhammad Iqbal belong to this Order.

31

3. The Naqshbandiyyah Order:

Naqshbandiyyah order is also known as Silsilah-i-khawajan. It was the

most outstanding Sufi Order in India during the 17th

century. It was founded by

Khawja Ahmad Ata Yasvi (d. 1161), but organized and developed by Khawja

Bahauddin Naqshbandi (d. 1389). Its descent is traced through Abu Yazid Bistami

to the first orthodox Caliph Abu Bakr Saddiq. However, the Naqshbandiyyah

Order was popularized in India through the efforts of Khawja Baqi Billah (1564-

1603), during the reign of Emperor Akbar. His Khalifah was Shaikh Ahmed

Sirhindi, commonly known as Mujaddid-i-alf thani. He was very devoted to the

Naqshbandis of Bukhara. Under him, the Naqshbandiyyah Order reached its

culmination, developed certain characteristics of its own, and got popularity

among the masses.

Shah Wali-Allah Dehlavi (1702-62 AD), the well-known political thinker

and Sufi of the 18th

century also belonged to the Naqshbandiyyah order. In his

Sufistic tract Shah Wali-Allah has elucidated the mystic practices of the four

prevalent Sufi Orders, including the eleven basic principles of his own Silsilas.

Mirza Mazhar Jan-i-Janan infused a new vigour by establishing Shamsiyah

Mazharay within the fold of Naqshbandiyyah Order.

Sayed Ahmed Shah and Ghulam Ali were some of the great Sufis of this

Order. Other famous Sufi- poets of this order are Mir Dard, and Mirza Mazhar

Jan-i-Janan. The principal doctrine of this order is Wahdat-al-Shuhud and this

doctrine is also traceable to Hallaj. However, in Naqshbandiyyah Order it was

evolved in Central Asia by Simnani (d. 1336), and fully developed by the great

Indian Naqshbandi mystic Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi, in the seventeenth century in

seceding from pantheistic ontological monism. Sirhindi worked out a close

integration between Sufism and theology. The Order has been revived in the

recent years in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.48

4. The Suhrawardiyyah Order:

32

This Order originated from Junaydia khanwada and flourished in India

simultaneously with the Chishtiyyah Movement. It’s founder, Shaikh Najibuddin

Abu Qalir (1097-1168), was a native of Suhraward. The history of

Suharwardiyyah Order began when some of the disciples of Shaikh Shahab-u’d-

din Suharwardi started their work in Bagdad. Among them Shaikh Jalal-ud-din

Tabrizi, Qazi Hamid-ud-din Nagauri, Sayyed Nur-ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznavi,

Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariyya Multani, Mulana Majd-ud-din Haji, Shaikh Zia-ud-

din, were the most renewed. Each of them had a distinguished career in his sphere

but the credit for organizing the Suhrawardi Order in India goes exclusively to

Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariyya Multani. The Order exercised considerable influence

at Uchch, Sind, and Multan. Shaikh Bahuddin’s Khanqah, at Multan become a

great centre of mystic discipline and teachings in medieval India. The Uchch

branch came into prominence under Sayyed Jalaluddin Surkh Bukhari (d. 1291)

Makhdum lal Shahbaz Qalandar was also a renowned Sufi of Sind. The leading

Sufis of Suhrawardi Order also received Khilafat from the Qadriyyah Saint.49

Jalal-uddin Tabrizi introduced the Suharwardiyyah Order in Bengal in

thirteenth century. Under his distinguished khulafa the Order spread in the whole

Subcontinent including Delhi, Gujarat and Bengal. It become a leading Order and

got popularity among masses. Later on, the Sufis of this Order divided themselves

into several sub-sects, and played a very significant role in the religion culture and

history of the country from 13th

to the 15th

centuries. With the arrival of the

Qadiris in Sind and Multan in the 15th

century, they ceased functioning in those

regions. This Order became popular in Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and some parts of

Bengal and Bangladesh.

1.4. SUFI DOCTRINES:

As already indicated, Sufism is a vast and varied discipline. It cannot be

looked upon as a regularly organized school as it manifested itself in different

33

shapes in different ages and countries. Moreover, divergent tendencies can be

found in the teachings of distinguished Sufis who founded different Sufi- Tariqas.

Generally, it is said that the number of the Tariqas of the Sufis would be

more than two hundred, and they differ from one another in many ways.

Therefore, it is not possible to make any accurate statement of the doctrines, which

would universally be accepted by all Sufis of various shades in spite of the

divergence in many respects. However, we shall try to enlist some important

common points of agreement and they are as under:

1. Conception of God (Al-Tawhid):

The Sufi conception of God is a bit different from that of orthodox Islam.

The Sufis interpret the first point of kalmiah, ‘la-illa-iillah’ (Nothing is a durable

but Allah), so according to them, God is the only Reality and all else is illusion.

However, with regard to the nature of the Supreme Reality Sufis are not

unanimous. Some regard it as Universal Will, some as True Knowledge; to some it

is Eternal Light and still to others, it is Supreme Beauty and Ultimate Good. The

Qur’an says, ‘No vision can grasp Him.’ God’s existence is not time-bound. As a

famous Urdu poet Ghalib says:50

When there was nothing, there was God.

Had there been nothing, there would have been God.

Briefly, God is the first and He is the last. However, He is indescribable

and may be expressed by symbols. A verse in the Rig-Veda says, “They call him

Indra, Mitra Varuna, Agani and even the fleet-winged celestial bird Garuda. The

One Reality, the learned speak of in many ways.”51

Such symbols are an outcome

34

of subjective thinking as every individual has his own concept of God and does

explain his views accordingly.

2. Conception of Human soul:

According to Sufis, the human soul is a part of God. The Qur’an says that

God breathed into him (man) of His (God’s) spirit. Further, the Prophet says that

God created man in his own image. Therefore, man’s inner nature or spirit

resembles the spirit of God. As such, many of the attributes of God have been

reflected in man. They consider man as small world-a microcosm in which God’s

spirit is present in the highest degree. Hence, the Sufi saying that is attributed to

Imam ‘Ali, ‘one, who knows his own self, knows his God’.52

3. Conception of world:

Sufis say that the external world is unreal and illusive and the only reality is

God. There is nothing except God. He is the only essence underlying all

phenomena. The world has no real existence and everything of the cosmos

depends upon God. However, they also accept world and all its things as gift of

God for His true believers. A man has to perform his duties and faithfully carry

out his responsibilities here in this world, as it is the only place where he sows the

seeds of his deeds whether good or evil. What the Sufis dislike and disfavour is the

over-involvement in the worldly matters where a man forgets his duties and

responsibilities as directed or assigned by God.

4. Love and Service to Humankind:

The relation between God and man is that of love. God has created the

universe out of love and man in his own image. Therefore, in human soul there is

the divine attribute of love. This impels man to pine for union with God. God and

man are lover and Beloved. Thus, the prime aim of Sufi-tradition is to work out

the means to attain this unique end.

5. Knowledge:

35

Real knowledge of God can only be attained by means of kashf or intuition.

According to some Sufis ‘Reason’ is not at all helpful and capable of attaining the

knowledge of God. It is through intuition or direct apprehension that knowledge of

God can be attained. Intuition brings ecstasy (hal) which comes after a long

process of spiritual training.

6. Ecstasy:

The Sufis prefer ecstasy (hal) or similar spiritual experience to ritual

practices. Ecstasy means a state of mind leading to higher states and stages. It

usually implies fana and baqa. Fana means, passing away or loss of the

consciousness of the individuality. In this stage, one becomes insensible to the

things of this world. Baqa means enduring continuance of individual self in God.

7. Dhikr/Zikr (Remembrance of God):

In order to advance towards the ecstatic state, the Sufis have recourse to

dhikr. It is said in the Qur’an “remembers God often”. The Sufis give stress on this

injunction and remember God by repeating a name of God (asma’u’l-husna) or

any verse of the Qur’an constantly. In some of the confraternities, dhikr is very

sober as mention above.

8. Fana and Baqa:

The Sufis try to lose the consciousness of the individual things around them

as also of their individual selves in order to be absorbed in the universal

consciousness of God. Through ecstasy, they can communicate with God and can

become one with Him. This State of losing self- consciousness in a state of ecstasy

is called Fana. In Baqa, the Sufis live in the consciousness of God. Through

Fana, the Sufi extricates himself from all the evil qualities of his mind and

imbibes Divine qualities. In Baqa, the Sufi passes from the phenomenal Self to the

real self. In his contemplation of the Essence of God, the Sufi finds that the

Essence of God is one with his own essence. Then he finds nothing but God and

36

becomes one with God. His words become the Word of God and his knowledge,

the Knowledge of God.53

1.5. SUFI CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES:

A. SUFI CONCEPTS

There are mainly six subtleties (Lataif-i-Sitta) drawn from the Qur’anic

verses. Virtually all Sufis distinguish (Latiaif-i-Sitta), the six subtleties as: Nafs,

Qulb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi, and Akhfa. These lataif (singular-latifa) designate various

psycho-spiritual ‘organs’ or faculties of sensory perception. In general, the Sufis

inner development involves the awaking of certain orders. These spiritual centres

of perception, are dormant in every person. Each centre is associated with a

particular color and general area of the body, often with a particular prophet and

various from order to order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help

activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the Sufi (Darvish) is said to

reach the certain type of ‘completion’ and becomes a complete man and gets

acquainted with the lataif one by one by Muraqaba (Sufi meditation) and Dhikr

(Remembrance of God) and purification of one’s psyche of negative thoughts,

emotions and actions.

The Six ‘organs’ or faculties, Qalb, Nafs, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi and Akhfa and

the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi

philosophy. The purification of elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-i-Nafs) is

followed by cleansing of spiritual heart. So that it may be acquire mirror-like

purity of reflection (Tazkiya-i-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God’s love

(‘Ishq) and illumination of the sprit (Tajjali-i-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic

drives (Taqliyya-i-sirr) and remembrance of God attributes (Dhikr) and

completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa.

B. SUFI PRACTICES:

37

1. Dhikr: Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur’an for

all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam.

Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of the divine names, supplication

and aphorisms from the Hadith literature and sections of the Qur’an. More

precisely any activity in which a Muslim maintains awareness of God is

considered dhikr.

2. Muraqaba: Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to

the practice of meditation. The Arabic word literally means ‘observe’, ‘guard’ or

‘control’. In this context, referring to, controlling and guarding one’s thoughts and

desires. In some Sufi orders, Muraqaba may involve concentrating one’s mind on

the names of God. Muraqba, in other order (Such as Naqshbandiyyah), may

involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his/her Murshid, while others imagine certain

colors to achieve different spiritual states.

3. Qawwali: Qawwali is a form of the devotional Sufi-poetry and music

common in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known

for its secular and liberal flavour. Some of its modern day masters include, Nusrat

Fatah Ali Khan, the Sabri Brothers and others. Amir Khusraw, a disciple of

Nazamuddin Auliya of the Chishtiyyah Order, is credited with inventing Qawwali

in the 14th

century.

4. Sama‘ (Sufi poetry and music): Sama‘ or mausiqi in Arabic means

‘listening’. It refers to Sufi worship practices, which involve music and dance.

Sama is one of the special aspects of Sufism, which is a kind of ecstasy, spiritual

exhilaration, striking the face and the joyous uplifting of the hand. As some Sufis

say that Spiritual Dance, Sama‘ is the food for the spirit and remembrance, (Dhikr)

is the Nourishment of the heart. Some other says that spiritual Dance so much

absorbs the Sufi that, he neglect all the intermediary causes and does not see

anything except God. The aim of Sama‘ rests in the awakening of the spirit and its

constant attention toward God.

38

In the spiritual Sama‘, man becomes free from the attachment of matter and

body and intends to the liberation of the soul and the attainment of union with

God. They start to dance in remembrance of God. Sufis considered Sama‘ to be

the comfort for the lover of God and a food for his soul and a remedy for his

aliments.

Al-Ghazali says in his Iyah-al-ulum-al-Din (Revivification of Islamic

Knowledge) Sama‘ is a true touchstone for the heart and a living criterion, the

breeze of Sama does not touch a heart except that it puts in motion whatever pre-

dominates it. Muwlana Rumi, a famous poet of the thirteenth century (A.D.), has

established a special method of Sama‘ in his Order.

The Indian subcontinent has enjoyed a vitality and continuity of the Sama‘

tradition, which has few parallels in the history of Islam. This vitality is directly

linked to the deep local roots of Indian Sufism. Among Indian Sufis, the tradition

of Sama‘ was established and it took on a special character, in the Indian

subcontinent. Sufism and practice of Sama‘ took roots in the 13th

century. Sama‘ is

comfort of the living spirit, only he who has the spirit of the spirit in him knows

this, only that person wants to get awakened, who is sleep in the beautiful garden.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Shuja Alhaq, (1997) A Forgotten Vision (vol. I), (Vikas Pub. House Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi), p. 110.

2. Nadvi, S.M., Muslim Thoughts and its Source, (Idharah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delhi,

1946 Reprint, 1983), p. 103.

3. Saiyed, Abdul Hai, Muslim Philosophy, (Islamic Foundation Bangladesh, I.F.

Pub. I.F. Library, 966), p. 136.

4. Nadvi. S.M., op. cit., p.103.

39

5. Nicholson R.A., Sufism, the Mystical Doctrine and the idea of Personality,

(Adam Pub. and Distributor, New Delhi, n.d.), p.4.

6. Ibid. p., 5.

7. Qadri, M.R., Great Mystic of Islam, (Adam pub. And Distributor, New Delhi,

2007), p.1.

8. Qutbi, M.M.A., Fragrance of Sufism, (pub. Saleem Nagar Hyderabad, 1952),

p.53.

9. Suhrawardi, S.U.M., The Awarif-ul-Ma’arif (Adam pub. and Distributor,

New Delhi, 2006), p. 8.

10. Ibid., p.4.

11. Qadri, M.R.., op. cit. p.259.

12. Nadvi, S.M., op.cit. p.79.

13. Ibid., p.81.

14. Ibid., p.86.

15. Hassain, H., Sufism and Bakti Movement, (Nice Printing Press, New Delhi,

2007 ), p. XVI.

16. Faruqi, I.H. Azad, Sufism and Bakti Movement, (Abhinav Publication, New

Delhi, 1984), p.5.

17. Ibid., pp. 6-7.

18. Rizvi, A. Abbas. A History of Sufism in India, (Vol I), (Munshiram

Manuharlal, New Delhi, 1983, Reprit, 1992), p.25.

19. Subhan. J.A., Sufism its Saint and Shrine, (Cosmo, pub. Ansari road

Deryaganj, New Delhi, 1999), pp. 162-63.

20. Qadri, M.R., op. cit., pp.16-17.

21. Faruqi, I.H, Azad. op. cit. p.09.

40

22. Ibid., p.10.

23. Ibid., p.12.

24. Ummaruddin, M., The Ethical Philosophy of Al-Ghazzali, (Adam Pub. and

Distributor, New Delhi, 2003), p.61.

25. Ibid., pp. 62-63.

26. Rehman, S., An Introduction to Islamic Culture and Philosophy, (Mullick,

Brothers, Dacca, 1970), pp. 112-13.

27. Nasr, S. H., Three Muslim Sages, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,

1964), p. 83.

28. Shahid, A. C., Sufism is not Islam, (Regency Pub., New Delhi, 1998), p. 4.

29. Mujeeb. M., The Indian Muslims, (London, 1967) p. 25.

30. Sayied, Abdul Hai, op. cit., p. 181.

31. Nasr, S. H., Tarikh Tasawwuf Islām , p. 55.

32. Nabi, M.N., Shades of Mysticism, (Taj printing work Nai Basti, Aligarh,

1977), pp. 17-18.

33. Nasr, S. H., op. cit., pp. 56-57.

34. Ibid.,pp.58-59.

35. Ummaruddin M., op. cit., p. 61.

36. Nasr, S. H., op. cit., pp.59-60.

37. Faruqi, I.H. Azad, op. cit., p.15.

38. Hujwjari, S.A., Kashf-al-Mahjub, (Urdu), (Lahore, 1923), p. 176.

39. Nasr, S.H., op. cit., pp. 232-33

40. Nasr, S. H., Three Muslim Sages, op. cit., p. 89.

41. Ibid., p. 90.

41

42. Ibid., pp. 106-107.

43. Ibid., p.110.

44. Subhan, J.A., op.cit., p. 162.

45. Masood, A.K., Chishti Order of Sufism and Miscellaneous Literature,

(Anmol Publication, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2003), p.17.

46. Shahid, A. C., op. cit., pp.184-85.

47. Bilgrami, F.Z., History of Qadiri Order in India, (Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli,

New Delhi, 2005), p.13.

48. Shahid, A. Chaudhary, op. cit., pp. 184-85.

49. Bilgrami, F.Z., op. cit., p.6.

50. Shahid, A. Chaudhary, op. cit., pp.20-21.

51. Ibid., p.21.

52. Saiyed Abdul Hai, op. cit., pp.144-45.

53. Ibid., p.144.