Success According to Professionals in the Fashion Industry

The Career Development Quarterly March 2010 • Volume 58 219

© 2010 by the National Career Development Association. All rights reserved.

SuccessAccordingtoProfessionalsintheFashionIndustry

Tara Gerber Diana Saiki

The purpose of this study was to examine career success perceived by professionals in the fashion industry. Two sets of open-ended interviews were conducted with 33 fashion industry professionals. The interviews were analyzed for success themes using a grounded approach methodology. External definitions of success mentioned were salary, promotions, sales, being seen as an expert, and having influence. Internal rewards included being innovative, maintaining integrity, and work satisfaction. Attributes identified as important for career success were motivation, flexibility, a positive attitude, networking ability, enjoying work, a mentor, self-promotion, multitasking, following instinct, dressing well, and doing research.

The fashion industry is a diverse field with many career possibilities. It is a competitive business with constant change (Dias, 2008). There has been an increase in interest among university students in the fashion pro-fession. A fashion program at a midwestern university has seen an over 120% increase in enrollment in the last 10 years (Koch, 2006). Breitman (2006) noted this trend is not isolated to one region, citing increases in enrollment to fashion schools in New York, Los Angeles, and Massachu-setts. There are many jobs available to these graduates as Americans spend almost $2 billion on apparel and $250 billion on shoes and accessories (Vogt, 2002). However, the apparel industry will annually lose more jobs in the United States than any other industry because of growing imports, new technologies, and cost-cutting measures (U.S. Department of Vet-erans Affairs, 2007). Training fashion students to become successful in the fashion industry becomes vital given the competition they will face upon graduation. The following study examines career success from the perspective of fashion industry professionals.

Career Success DefinedResearchers who examine career success differentiate between extrin-sic and intrinsic measures. Hughes (1937) first developed these ideas labeling each broadly as objective (extrinsic) and subjective (intrinsic). Extrinsic are external rewards, such as an employee’s salary or status. Intrinsic rewards are defined by the individual, such as career satisfac-tion. Most research focuses on the extrinsic dimensions of success, but there is a need to discuss both definitions of success as well as the relationship between these dimensions (Gunz & Heslin, 2005). The

Tara Gerber, Planning & Development, LifeStream Services, Inc.; Diana Saiki, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Ball State University. Correspon-dence concerning this article should be addressed to Diana Saiki, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Ball State University, 150 AT Building, Muncie, IN 47306 (e-mail: [email protected]).

220 The Career Development Quarterly March 2010 • Volume 58

relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic success has been described as a relationship of interdependence, with some researchers emphasizing one over the other (Arthur, Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005). Australian professionals were surveyed about career success early in their careers and 9 years later. Intrinsic factors were found to be more important in determining perceived success than extrinsic factors. However, an in-direct link between perceived success and extrinsic success was found. Therefore, both intrinsic and extrinsic variables are important when studying career success (Poole, Langan-Fox, & Omodei, 1993). Hall and Chandler (2005) developed a circular model to show the relation-ship between extrinsic and intrinsic parameters, where the process of extrinsic success is related to intrinsic success, which can then lead to more extrinsic success. The authors emphasized the importance as see-ing a career intrinsically as a calling.

After reviewing 68 articles about career success, Arthur et al. (2005) found limited articles involved listening to participants using a qualita-tive research approach. Sturges (1999) studied the meaning of success according to managers using a qualitative method with the extrinsic and intrinsic concepts as a framework for analysis. Extrinsic success was defined further as material or intangible. Extrinsic material referred to measurable criteria, such as salary. Extrinsic intangible was defined as external rewards not measured easily, such as influencing others. Four terms for orientations toward career success were developed. The climb-ers were defined as people focused on external material criteria. The experts were focused on the intrinsic reward of achieving a high level of competency and the intangible extrinsic reward of being recognized for doing well. To influencers, success meant having a positive effect on the organization (extrinsic intangible). Self-realizers described success purely intrinsically.

After reviewing the success literature, Heslin (2005) noted that the work environment influences perceptions of career success. People who worked in a winner-take-all culture focus on extrinsic success related to others, such as status. People working in a market culture focus on extrinsic goals related to themselves, such as financial awards. People who work in an environment with a nonlinear career path defined success as intrinsic and related to themselves, such as fulfillment. Those working in social environments, or “clan cultures,” focus on intrinsic success when compared with others, such as having more fun than others.

Individual characteristics also influence perceptions of career success (Heslin, 2005). Mottaz (1986) found professionals in upper level occupa-tions, in a variety of industries, had similar perceptions of work rewards. They regarded intrinsic rewards as more important than social and extrinsic rewards. However, in lower level occupations, men valued intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and women valued social rewards. Sturges (1999) found that none of the participants who were women in the industry focused on extrinsic material rewards and that a manager’s role influenced perceptions of career success. For example, managers over general areas did not define success as acquiring expertise. Horridge and Craig (2001) interviewed female entrepreneurs in the apparel manufacturing business. These women defined success in noneconomic terms, emphasizing personal fulfillment and professional achievement.


Achieving Career SuccessResearchers have also studied what attributes contribute to career success. Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, and Barrick (1999) studied professionals in the United States and found that extrinsic career success was negatively related to agreeableness and neuroticism (e.g., low confidence and a nega-tive attitude). Extrinsic success was related to extroversion (e.g., sociabil-ity and ambition) and conscientiousness. A British study of white-collar workers had similar findings, except that conscientiousness and extrover-sion were negatively associated with extrinsic career success. The authors said differences in cultural values explained the different results between their study and the study with a U.S. sample (Bozionelos, 2004). Orpen (1996) studied self-promoting versus ingratiation behaviors (e.g., flattery and agreeing with the boss) to improve political favor among a variety of managers. Ingratiation behaviors were likely to enhance career develop-ment, but self-promotion did not. Saiki and DeLong (2006) found that, after interviewing successful professionals in the fashion industry, enhanc-ing similarity to clients in values, fashion level, age, gender, economic level, and body size and enhancing differences from clients in expertise and innovation were important. Often, the professionals enhanced these variables visually, including managing their appearances.

Executives who expressed motivation were more likely to obtain extrinsic success, particularly in fast-track careers (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz, 1995; Willbur, 1987). A proactive personality has been found to relate to both extrinsic and intrinsic career success among a varied sample of professionals (Seibert, Crant, & Kraimer, 1999). Marshall (2001) studied three women who were each president of a Southern California apparel manufacturing company. The women had a hands-on approach to work, made personal sacrifice, multitasked, and were goal oriented. More recently, it was found that people who were proactive, were flexible, had expertise in an area, and understood their strengths were successful. Flexibility was not considered in previous studies because of recent changes in the work environment, which requires openness and flexibility (Eby, Butts, & Lockwood, 2003).

Luthans, Hodgetts, and Rosenkrantz (1988) found successful manag-ers spent 70% more time engaged in networking activities than did less successful managers. Seibert, Kraimer, and Liden (2001) found that an individual’s network structure related to social resources, which influenced career success. Harrell and Alpert (1989) found an extroverted person-ality leads to extrinsic success because extroversion allowed individuals to make contacts. Marshall (2001) found that women in the apparel industry were also committed to personal relationships with employees emphasizing teamwork and collaboration.

Burke and McKeen (1994) examined professional activities in career development and found the most useful activity was developing relation-ships with mentors. Orpen (1995) asked British employees in their first jobs about mentoring. Work-related mentoring was linked with promo-tions and salary increases. Similarly, Dreher and Ash (1990) found that business school graduates who were mentored had more promotions, had higher incomes, and were more satisfied with their pay than were those who were not mentored. These people tended to mentor others, which built a power base (Willbur, 1987).


Purposes of the Current Study and Research Questions

Previous research has examined career success related to the type of suc-cess, the work environment, and the individual. Limited studies focus on particular industries or products, such as the fashion industry, to further understand career success. Furthermore, listening directly to participants about their definitions of career success is not common within the re-search literature (Arthur et al., 2005). The first purpose of this study was to examine career success as defined by professionals in the U.S. fashion industry. The research questions related to this purpose were (a) What extrinsic (material and intangible) measures do fashion industry profes-sionals in the United States use to define career success? and (b) What intrinsic measures do fashion industry professionals in the United States use to define career success? The second purpose of this study was to identify attributes that are considered important for career success according to U.S. fashion industry professionals. What attributes do professionals in the U.S. fashion industry identify as important for career success?

MethodTwo sets of open-ended interviews were conducted. The first set of inter-views was completed as part of a broader research project about fashion industry professionals (Saiki & DeLong, 2006). This study was framed broadly using Rogers’s (1995) theory of innovation related to change agents, or people within a social system influencing others to change. A framework of topics related to Rogers’s theory of innovation (e.g., social system, timing, individual characteristics, and the product) was generated. Questions related to success were “How did you know you were success-ful?” and “What, in your mind, determined success?” The questions were reviewed by two professors who taught in the fashion field (e.g., classes such as the fashion industry, aesthetics, and trend analysis in apparel; merchandising and buying; and apparel construction and design). As a way to probe further, more questions were asked during the interviews (Berry, 1999). Questions were added and refined after a pilot study with 2 participants was completed. For example, a question was added about mentoring because both participants discussed mentoring.

Participants for the current study were contacted by telephone and asked to participate in an interview. Face-to-face interviews were completed in a location of the participant’s choice. Of the 27 who were asked to participate, 23 agreed to be interviewed. The duration of the interviews was 60 to 90 minutes, and the interviews were taped and transcribed. During a preliminary analysis of the interview tran-scripts, the success theme was noted by the researchers (the authors). The interviews were analyzed for themes by the two researchers in-dependently. The themes that resulted from the independent analysis were compared, and the two researchers discussed the themes until agreement was reached. This framework related to both intrinsic and extrinsic measures of success, such as sales, to measure success, men-toring, and teamwork.

The sample for the first set of interviews included 23 members of Fashion Group International (FGI), an organization for fashion professionals. The


participants were all women who had worked in the fashion industry for at least 10 years and worked in a variety of fashion positions in two U.S. metropolitan areas. The average age of 16 of these participants, at the time of the interview, was approximately 62 years old. (However, not all of the ages of the participants were available.) Specifically, 2 design directors, 1 district sales representative, 1 corporate buyer, 2 retail executives, 2 fashion journalists, 1 fashion school administrator, 2 fashion coordinators within a retail store, and 1 trade organization coordinator were interviewed. Eleven other participants ran their own businesses, including 2 owners of a manufacturing business, 1 administrator who started a fashion school, 2 designers with their own retail outlet, 2 owners of a retail store, 2 freelance fashion show producers, and 2 freelance consultants.

A second set of interviews was conducted for method triangulation, which allows the researcher to check and establish validity by using a different method (Guion, 2002). These interviews also provided further “saturation” of the success theme (Riley, 1996). These second set of interviews lasted 30 to 90 minutes, and the participants were asked to participate in the interviews by telephone. The interviews were conducted by telephone to access participants from more locations in the United States than the first set of interviews.

A set of questions were developed from the analysis of the first set of interviews that specifically addressed career success. Participants were asked questions to define career success (e.g., “How do you measure success?”) and what characteristics make a person successful in the industry (e.g., “What are the most important qualities people in the fashion industry should have?”). For example, participants in the first set of interviews discussed the need to be both creative and practical to succeed. Therefore, a question was developed to address this duality: “Is success in the fashion industry related more to business or art? Why?” More questions were asked during the interviews for probing purposes (Berry, 1999). The first author conducted a pilot interview with 1 par-ticipant, a fashion industry professional. Minimal changes were made to the research process and previously developed questions.

Ten professionals were asked to and participated in the second set of interviews. Participants were recruited from the FGI directory and the alumni services at a university. The second sample was more varied. All but 3 participants worked in the industry for at least 10 years, 2 participants were men, 8 were women, and the participants’ ages ranged greatly, with the average age of 8 participants at approximately 41 years old. (Not all of the participants’ ages were noted.) As with the first round of inter-views, participants worked in a variety of professional positions, such as a design director, 2 designers, 1 designer and owner of a couture business, 1 fashion consultant and former executive in a design firm, 1 brand man-ager, 1 departmental assistant, 1 retail store owner, an assistant market representative, and 1 public relations coordinator. These participants were from varied geographical locations in the United States, such as New York City; Atlanta, Georgia; Indianapolis, Indiana; O’Fallon, Missouri; Plano, Texas; Chicago, Illinois; and Minneapolis, Minnesota.

The total sample consisted of 31 women (with a mean age, of those ac-counted for, of 57 years old) and 2 men (with a mean age of approximately 30 years old). A final analysis of both sets of interview transcripts was completed. The focus of the analysis was to discover a theme or repeated


messages in the interviews (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Comparisons of simi-larities and differences in passages resulted in themes to explain the success phenomena (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Relevant passages or statements were assigned two codes. One code noted the success theme the passage related with, and the second code noted the participant who made the statement. After this coding was completed by the two independent researchers, all of the researchers compared the coding together to ensure agreement on the overall themes. The two researchers who collected and analyzed the data (the authors) were knowledgeable about the apparel industry. One researcher (the second author) has worked in the fashion industry, has earned a master’s and a doctoral degree in fashion, and has taught numerous classes about the fashion industry. The other researcher (the first author) has professional experience in the fashion industry in a top New York City design firm and has earned a master’s degree in fashion and a bachelor’s degree in marketing.

Results

Extrinsic(MaterialandIntangible)MeasuresofSuccessSix participants said they were successful when their salaries increased and when they received recognition from their bosses through promo-tions. A fashion coordinator explained,

You have to be worth the money they pay you and you have to bring in customers to make more profit. You have to perform and you have to be a top performer. They may not fire you, but you will feel you’re not doing what you are supposed to do, and not get promoted.

Sixteen participants said sales, an extrinsic material measure, defined suc-cess. A public relations coordinator commented, “I’m here to sell. What I need to see is the ‘ching-ching’ of the cash register. You can be as creative and as wacky and as wowed-out as you want to, but you must sell.”

Participants discussed sales as the most important indicator of success. One designer said, “The main goal we’re after is for the garment to sell and for the company to do well. It does boil down to the sales.”

Extrinsic intangible measures were also discussed. Nine professionals saw success as being an expert, often earning the respect of others. A designer commented, “You know you are successful when people have respect for what you think and what you design.” A retail executive commented when asked to define success, “People respected our knowledge of the retail world and our ability to change with the climate of retail.”

Another extrinsic intangible measure discussed by 9 participants was having influence. Influence was often related to the sales theme. A fashion coordinator explained that sales indicated she was influencing people to purchase clothing:

People would come after the show and buy it off the rack in the dressing room. If it wasn’t in their sizes, they would go and find it based on the programs. I know when I did the bridal shows we had enormous responses.

Influence was also explained as educating and entertaining others. A fashion show producer said success is “about developing relationships


with stores, building rapport with models, making connections with your audience as I attempt to educate and entertain them.”

IntrinsicMeasuresofSuccessFour participants said innovation or coming up with a new idea was a measure of success. A journalist commented, “You should have a fresh approach to it even if you are late.” The participants said that innova-tion related to external measures of being an expert. An assistant market representative said, “So, you didn’t make your sales, but you still added something to the team, whether it was another point of view or a fresh set of eyes. That’s success.”

Three participants, all designers, defined success completely intrinsi-cally. One designer said that success was being honest and maintaining integrity. Two designers said success was a feeling of satisfaction that was separate from external rewards. For example, 1 of the designers said it “was never the money or the prestige for me. It looked like it was, but it wasn’t. For me the carrot was always that feeling of when it all came together and it was just right.”

CareerSuccessAttributesParticipants identified attributes that help a person become successful in the fashion industry. First, the participants said successful people needed to multitask because of the quick pace of the fashion industry. A public relations coordinator commented, “The job has fires every day that you have to put out. You have to be resilient.” A fashion show producer said it was important to remain calm to deal with the many tasks of producing a fashion show.

Motivation was identified as important for career success. A consultant explained, “To me [successful people] are all cut of the same cloth. They are driven to be successful.” Participants were persistent about achiev-ing success. A consultant said, “Nothing worthwhile comes easy. And it shouldn’t. . . . You have to be methodical about it.” Motivation was demonstrated in the many hours the participants worked. A brand manager commented, “If you think you can come in at eight and leave at five, you won’t be good.” Motivation was also discussed as personal sacrifice. An executive designer said, “I was traveling all of the time. It was kind of a tough personal time.” Also, these professionals were motivated to do well despite the difficult, sometimes tedious work. A freelance fashion coordinator said, “This business is not all glamour—it can be a lot of back-straining work of physically transporting merchandise.”

Participants said it was important to enjoy what you do, describing their jobs as “fun,” “exciting,” and “play.” Participants enjoyed the apparel product. An assistant market representative said, “I just love playing around with clothes. It is very simple, but I think to be a suc-cessful buyer you have to love what you do. It has to start with a love of clothing.” Participants also described their interest in fashion. A public relations director commented, “Fashion—if I did not think it was excit-ing and glamorous and wonderful, I wouldn’t do it.” The participants also enjoyed what they were doing at work. A departmental assistant in a design firm described the following: “I absolutely love what I do. I love waking up and going to work. I wouldn’t have it any other way.”


These professionals sought information by researching. A designer said, “I sometimes go to Switzerland to study embroideries and spend a lot of time at history museums. Sometimes I go to London and study the street scenes because a lot of things happen on the streets of London, fashion-wise.” A manufacturing executive recommended that newcomers to the industry should “learn everything you can learn, pick it up.” She called herself a “sponge,” absorbing information. Participants also noted that while they did research, they relied on instinct rather than logic at times. A brand manager for a well-known department store described the following: “You shop the competition. You use trend services. At some point in time, you say, ‘This is what I believe in.’” The participant called it “legalized gambling.”

The participants indicated the need to be flexible or open to change throughout their careers. Flexibility was associated with the nature of the fashion industry. A brand manager said, “It is a dynamic business. People interested in the business must be able to reinvent themselves all the time.” A designer said that she had to “be flexible and adjust to what the industry was doing.” A public relations coordinator stated, “In this business you have to keep evolving and changing. I think that is absolutely No. 1 on the agenda. If you are not flexible, you should not be in this business.”

The participants said it was important to dress well. Dressing well helped sell to customers, because they often wore what they sold. Dressing well also earned customer respect. A fashion show producer commented, “Of course, appearance and professionalism are important in the fashion busi-ness. There is a certain level of responsibility to be well dressed.”

The professionals noted that having a positive attitude was important to career success. A consultant and former executive of a manufactur-ing company said, “If you have good energy, you’re going to go far.” This theme was often discussed as part of networking. An owner of a manufacturing business commented, “Things can be addressed in a nice way, and if you’re pleasant in your personality you can make things happen; that’s the way I structured my life.” Several designers said that a positive attitude to the point of arrogance was important for success, describing the fashion world as “full of ego.”

Networking was important to these professionals. A market representa-tive explained that maintaining positive relationships was important due to the size of the industry: “It is a huge world, but it is a small industry. I keep seeing the same faces pop up over and over. You cannot burn those bridges.” Networking was also mentioned when relating with customers. An owner of a retail store explained, “There is more to it than just watch-ing people try on pretty clothes. It is building rapport with the customer. It is about what the customer wants, not about what Vogue says is in.” The professionals mentioned working for charitable events as part of the networking theme. A participant commented that it helped build the reputation of the organization. She said that her store “had a wonderful reputation, and it was a wonderful friend to the community. . . . We had store representatives on charity and council boards.”

Finally, participants said having mentors helped them succeed. Partici-pants described modeling themselves after others they admired. Often, formal mentoring relationships were discussed. A designer said that she had several mentors. One was a teacher, and two worked with her in


the apparel industry. Participants also acknowledged mentors who had a personal connection to them. A public relations coordinator said, “If we want to mention mentors, it would be my parents, because they allowed me to be an individual. That is what I think this industry is about.”

Implications for Career CounselorsThe definitions of career success can be used by counselors as a framework to guide students, particularly those interested in fashion, in a career that best meets their career goals. Theoretically, the four categories defined by Sturges (1999) were found, that is, success defined as earning promotions and having a high salary, being regarded as experts, having influence over others, and having self-realization. Sturges found that women were not climbers or as likely to measure their success in promotions and salary. Horridge and Craig (2001) found that entrepreneurs who were women and who worked in the fashion industry defined success as personal fulfill-ment. In this study, all but 2 participants were women, and they tended to be climbers or influencers who defined success through income and sales. This may be due to the trendy fashion industry, where the bottom line is important. The fashion industry could be defined as a winner-take-all environment as identified by Heslin (2005), where success is defined by sales and other objective measures related to others. Also, professionals who work in structured corporate environments were interviewed in this study. Eleven out of the 16 professionals who said they measured success with sales worked in structured hierarchical environments. Sales and re-lating with the customer were important, but participants categorized as “experts” noted that being innovative or creativity was a trait that made them feel like an expert in the fashion industry. In this study, the designers and those who worked in the manufacturing part of the industry (who are similar to the sample in Horridge & Craig’s, 2001, study) tended to define success intrinsically as personal fulfillment.

The results also identified attributes for career success that can be used as a guide to how to be successful. It can also be used to assess whether or not someone is suited to a career in fashion. Eleven attributes were found that contributed to career success. These attributes were multitask-ing, being motivated, enjoying what you do, being observant through research, following instincts, being flexible, having self-confidence, dressing well, having a positive attitude, being able to network well, and having mentors. Many of these attributes are supported in the literature about other occupations. For example, nurturing relationships with peers, customers, and community members as well as mentor relationships were essential to these fashion professionals, which was supported in previous research (e.g., Burke & McKeen, 1994; Harrell & Alpert, 1989; Luthans et al., 1988; Seibert et al., 2001). The results of this research support Marshall’s (2001) study about fashion professionals in that the ability to multitask and engage in personal sacrifice were found to be important for success. The participants discussed personal sacrifice and working many hours, indicating they were motivated and proactive.

Unique themes found in this study that were related to career success in the fashion industry were dressing well, enjoying what you do, following your instinct, and having self-confidence. Given the product, it was natu-


ral that participants associated dressing well with career success. In many cases, it was helpful in selling the product and it showed the consumer the participants’ abilities (Saiki & DeLong, 2006). Enjoying what you do is not necessarily unique to the fashion industry, but enjoying clothing and fashion, specifically, is unique. Following instincts was important to these professionals. This could be due to the abstract nature of fashion in which professionals need to make predictions about the future. Eby et al. (2003) said in the contemporary work environment, flexibility was important. Participants, regardless of when they worked, because most of the partici-pants worked more than 10 and up to 50 years, mentioned flexibility. The professionals explained that flexibility was needed because of the changing nature of fashion. Orpen (1996) found that self-promotion behaviors did not relate to career advancement and ingratiation behaviors were likely to enhance career development. The results of this study, however, do show that ingratiation behaviors, such as being positive, were important to the professionals. The designers said self-promotion was also important.

Overall, the results demonstrate that in addition to the context and an individual’s characteristics, the product of focus for a business does influence perceptions of career success. Future research should study more in-depth definitions and attributes of success according to fashion professionals within one fashion occupation (e.g., apparel design, public relations). Self-confidence and maintaining honesty could be examined using a method other than face-to-face interviews. It may help participants to discuss these concepts, which are not always considered positive, such as self-promotion. Researchers could also study differences in definitions of career success between professionals who work in the fashion industry and professionals who work in other industries or with other products.

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Documents

Success According to Professionals in the Fashion Industry