Style and MethodStyle and Method

PlutarchPlutarch

Your task:Your task: Using a whole page draw a diagram with today’s Using a whole page draw a diagram with today’s

heading in the middle. heading in the middle.

Place the following headings around your Place the following headings around your diagram:diagram:

• ContextContext• StructureStructure• StyleStyle• Difference from other historiansDifference from other historians• Moral lessonsMoral lessons• A second rate source?A second rate source?

The second century AD marks a high point in Greek The second century AD marks a high point in Greek prosperity and cultural production – it also represented prosperity and cultural production – it also represented a fascination with the Classical past, possible due to the a fascination with the Classical past, possible due to the underlying dissatisfaction with the peaceful yet underlying dissatisfaction with the peaceful yet ultimately circumscribed present Roman Rule.ultimately circumscribed present Roman Rule.

At the forefront of this historical movement in looking At the forefront of this historical movement in looking back on Greece’s former glories was Plutarch. His work back on Greece’s former glories was Plutarch. His work ranged from philosophy to history via an interest in ranged from philosophy to history via an interest in biographies. Between 100-120 AD Plutarch wrote his biographies. Between 100-120 AD Plutarch wrote his Parellel Lives, Parellel Lives, most of which survives in full. most of which survives in full.

What was the context of Plutarch’s writing?

What is the structure of the What is the structure of the LivesLives??

The twenty two surviving books contain a biography of a Greek The twenty two surviving books contain a biography of a Greek statesman or general paired with that of a Roman (usually but statesman or general paired with that of a Roman (usually but not always in that order) with the biographies welded together not always in that order) with the biographies welded together in a short closing comparison – synkrisis – which contrasts and in a short closing comparison – synkrisis – which contrasts and compares the two men.compares the two men.

The subject matter is the distant past and together the The subject matter is the distant past and together the Lives Lives cover a vast time span, the Greek figures are however mainly cover a vast time span, the Greek figures are however mainly concentrated in the Classical period. The biographical focus was concentrated in the Classical period. The biographical focus was probably influenced by Nepos (Roman Historian looking at Greek probably influenced by Nepos (Roman Historian looking at Greek and Roman periods in Latin writing at the end of the 2and Roman periods in Latin writing at the end of the 2ndnd century century BC) in dealing with Individuals but to a far greater scale and BC) in dealing with Individuals but to a far greater scale and depth. depth.

What does this quotation suggest about his style?What does this quotation suggest about his style?

I shall make no other preface than to beg my readers not to I shall make no other preface than to beg my readers not to quibble if I do not report all of their famous achievements and quibble if I do not report all of their famous achievements and do not give an exhaustive account of any of them, but do not give an exhaustive account of any of them, but summarise them for the most part. For it is not so much summarise them for the most part. For it is not so much histories that I am writing but Lives, and the most outstanding histories that I am writing but Lives, and the most outstanding deeds do not always reveal virtue or vice. But often a little deeds do not always reveal virtue or vice. But often a little matter like a saying or a joke hints at character more than battle matter like a saying or a joke hints at character more than battle where thousands die, huge troop deployments or the sieges of where thousands die, huge troop deployments or the sieges of cities….I will accordingly leave to other writers a narrative of cities….I will accordingly leave to other writers a narrative of their great deeds and battles. their great deeds and battles.

Life of Alexander 1Life of Alexander 1

Why is Plutarch different from Why is Plutarch different from our previous historians?our previous historians?

The reader is told not to expect large-scale political or military The reader is told not to expect large-scale political or military narrative; for Plutarch the central concern is the exploration of narrative; for Plutarch the central concern is the exploration of character. He would prefer to explain selected anecdotes and character. He would prefer to explain selected anecdotes and details of ‘off-duty’ moments to reveal character rather than the details of ‘off-duty’ moments to reveal character rather than the grand stage of politics and war – this is a similar trend to that of grand stage of politics and war – this is a similar trend to that of Suetonius and his biographies of the Caesars in the first century Suetonius and his biographies of the Caesars in the first century AD. This is meant to have a practical aim (not simply to pass AD. This is meant to have a practical aim (not simply to pass judgement) to encourage introspection by the reader with the judgement) to encourage introspection by the reader with the ultimate goal of his or her moral improvement. It was the ultimate goal of his or her moral improvement. It was the morally improving nature of his work that made Plutarch the morally improving nature of his work that made Plutarch the most widely read and loved of all works to survive from antiquty most widely read and loved of all works to survive from antiquty until the 19until the 19thth century. century.

Plutarch’s life of Pericles begins in musing the moral value of reading Plutarch’s life of Pericles begins in musing the moral value of reading about virtuous men; when we read about great men of the past he says, about virtuous men; when we read about great men of the past he says, we are inspired to copy or imitate them and therefore to become better we are inspired to copy or imitate them and therefore to become better people ourselves:people ourselves:

They were men alike in their virtues in general, and especially in their They were men alike in their virtues in general, and especially in their calmness and justice and in their ability to bear the senseless attacks of calmness and justice and in their ability to bear the senseless attacks of their peoples and of their colleagues in office. They thus become most their peoples and of their colleagues in office. They thus become most useful to their countries. But whether we aim correctly at what we useful to their countries. But whether we aim correctly at what we should, can be decided from what we have written.should, can be decided from what we have written.

Plutarch here picks out explicitly the qualities or virtues which Pericles Plutarch here picks out explicitly the qualities or virtues which Pericles and Fabius had in common, in particular their calmness or steadfastness and Fabius had in common, in particular their calmness or steadfastness – that is, the ability to stick to their plans despite attacks and accusations – that is, the ability to stick to their plans despite attacks and accusations from those around them. The reader is thus alerted two to one of the from those around them. The reader is thus alerted two to one of the main moral themes of the lives, and one of the key virtues which he or main moral themes of the lives, and one of the key virtues which he or she might imitate. The calmness and rationality of Pericles and Fabius in she might imitate. The calmness and rationality of Pericles and Fabius in contrast to the passions of the mob and of their jealous rivals are contrast to the passions of the mob and of their jealous rivals are repeatedly highlighted and provide not only a moral focus but also a repeatedly highlighted and provide not only a moral focus but also a unifying literary force – something which brings the Lives together into a unifying literary force – something which brings the Lives together into a single whole. single whole.

‘‘Secondary History’?Secondary History’?

Much of the information for the Life of Pericles comes from Thucydides, Plutarch himself is quite open to the debt he owes to the literary tradition - he often expects his readers to recognise passages and contexts on which he is drawing or subtly altering. His work is not therefore to be read as primary research, but elegant compositions which aim to represent well-known period and persons in new ways which would be both interesting and morally edifying to Plutarch’s readers.

The life of Alexander/Caesar for example is a good example of the tragic consequences of the benefits and dangers of ambition leading to superstition , megalomania and an early and tragic death.

Literary ReferencesLiterary References

The reader is often challenged by the commentary to note key The reader is often challenged by the commentary to note key passages and allusions to earlier literature inlcuding Plato, passages and allusions to earlier literature inlcuding Plato, tragedy and the historians. As pieces of literature the Lives are tragedy and the historians. As pieces of literature the Lives are sophisticated and allusive. |Their avlue to us as historical sophisticated and allusive. |Their avlue to us as historical sources depends in part on the quality of the sources which sources depends in part on the quality of the sources which Plutarch had at his disposal for any given Life. And also on the Plutarch had at his disposal for any given Life. And also on the extent of survival of these and other sources to our own time. extent of survival of these and other sources to our own time. For the fifth century lives some of the most important sources For the fifth century lives some of the most important sources survive such as Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon – but their survive such as Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon – but their historical value is limited. historical value is limited.

A second rate source?A second rate source?

It has become fashionable to reject Plutarch as a second-rate source – but It has become fashionable to reject Plutarch as a second-rate source – but the injustice of this is that the first priority of the work is not primary the injustice of this is that the first priority of the work is not primary research but rather the presentation of the past in morally uplifting or research but rather the presentation of the past in morally uplifting or challenging ways. It is worth noting in addition that Plutarch was not alone in challenging ways. It is worth noting in addition that Plutarch was not alone in his moral concerns. Many ancient writers saw history as in some sense useful his moral concerns. Many ancient writers saw history as in some sense useful and should have some kind of moral content – and all made choices and and should have some kind of moral content – and all made choices and selections of what to include and what to leave out. Indeed it is these choices selections of what to include and what to leave out. Indeed it is these choices and assumptions which they reveal that can often be the most illuminating – and assumptions which they reveal that can often be the most illuminating – they shed light on the thoughts of the author and his society as much as on they shed light on the thoughts of the author and his society as much as on the periods about which he is writing. the periods about which he is writing.

The fact that Plutarch’s lives stop at Alexander suggests his feeling that Greek The fact that Plutarch’s lives stop at Alexander suggests his feeling that Greek history had stopped long ago and that the glories of Greece were long past. history had stopped long ago and that the glories of Greece were long past. Plutarch’s decision to construct his history around the pairing of Greek and Plutarch’s decision to construct his history around the pairing of Greek and Roman figures is itself interesting, Does it express an assumption of, or an Roman figures is itself interesting, Does it express an assumption of, or an attempt to demonstrate the equality of Greek culture with Roman?attempt to demonstrate the equality of Greek culture with Roman?

Differences between Plutarch and HerodotusDifferences between Plutarch and Herodotus

1. Why does Plutarch contain these ‘stories’ and Thucydides does not?

Historians Venn DiagramHistorians Venn Diagram Divide your page into thirds, placing the Divide your page into thirds, placing the

name of each historian above each page.name of each historian above each page. Write information that is individual to each Write information that is individual to each

historian in the separate paragraphs and historian in the separate paragraphs and information that is the same for all across information that is the same for all across the page.the page.

Here are some categories – use of Here are some categories – use of evidence, use of speeches, attitude to evidence, use of speeches, attitude to history, significance, use of myths/legendshistory, significance, use of myths/legends

Plutarch Thucydides

Herodotus