Changing styles of dress affected jewellery design. This chapter

explores what type of jewellery was worn and its fashion context.

After a general survey of jewellery worn by fashionable men and

women and by ecclesiastics, the discussion focuses on jewellery

particular to different parts of the body.

STYLE ANDFASHION

Chapter 2

Detail of Plate 50Margaret of York (1446–1503)Oil on panelFlanders, anon., c.1468–70Paris, Musée du Louvre, Dept des

Peintures, inv. RF 1938-17

effigy of the fashionably dressed Joan Nevill, Countessof Arundel (d. c.1462) ((ppllaattee 111199)). Her Yorkist necklacehas been personalized to include her own family badge,sprigs of oak leaves. Badges instantly proclaimed identity and status, and

were worn by retainers, servants and even the horses of agreat lord. The motifs used on them often derived froma lord’s coat of arms. These livery badges identified thewearer as a person attached to the retinue of a magnateor the king, and thus entitled to their protection.Wealthy clergy also used coats of arms to proclaim theirstatus, just like other powerful statesmen, as exemplifiedby the badge of Bishop Angelo Acciaiuoli ((ppllaattee 111188)),who was successively Bishop of Aquila in 1328, ofFlorence in 1342–55 and of Monte Cassino in 1355–7.Bishop Angelo has added a bishop’s mitre to theAcciaiuoli family arms. The complex shape of this badgemakes its exact function uncertain – it might have beenattached to a retainer’s belt or to a horse harness.

Horses were central to medieval society, essential forfighting wars, for transport and for such leisure activitiesas hawking and hunting. Their saddles and harness wereoften richly decorated, with embroidery and metalwork,as shown on the Devonshire hunting tapestries. Heraldicpendants might be attached either to the leather breaststrap or the head harness of the horse. Two smallEnglish badges could have been used either by anattendant or to decorate a horse harness. Three lions ona red ground represent the royal arms ((ppllaattee 111177)), asused before 1340. The blue and originally gilt chequerpattern represents the Warenne family arms ((ppllaattee 111177)). On a smaller scale, but of great legal significance,

badges and coats of arms might be used to decorate sealmatrices. These were pressed onto softened beeswax andthe resultant seal impressions were attached to writtendocuments to authenticate them, just as a signaturefunctions today. Matrices were often inscribed, sometimeswith an owner’s name or a motto. A personal seal matrix

Cultural Contexts

103

Medieval Jewellery

102

116 Maximilian, Duke of AustriaStained glass from the Chapelof the Holy Blood, BrugesFlanders, c.1496V&A: C.438–1918

118 Badge with the arms of Bishop Angelo AcciaiuoliCopper alloy, gilt, withchamplevé enamelItaly, perhaps Florence, c.1328–57V&A: 8991–1863

117 Group of badges (from leftto right)Badge with the royal arms ofEngland before 1340Copper alloy with champlevéenamel, traces of gildingEngland, c.1300–40V&A: M.315–1921

Badge with the arms of theVisconti or Sforza families

Copper, gilt with champlevéenamelItaly, around 1350–1400V&A : M 73-1923

Badge with the arms of Warenne Copper alloy with champlevéenamelEngland, c.1300–50V&A: M.13–1989

119 Joan Nevill, Countess of ArundelLimestone effigy, detail of the head, with original coloursEngland, c.1462Arundel Castle, Fitzalan chapel

Style and Fashion

67

classes needed to be robust, and were made of leatherwith sturdy copper or iron buckles and chapes; althoughthese did not follow high fashion, clear stylisticvariations are discernible over time.At different periods, fashionable girdles varied in

their width, overall length and exactly where they wereworn. It is often difficult to tell from the few survivingluxury girdles whether they were made for a man or awoman. In general, from the eleventh to the fourteenthcentury, girdles were long and narrow and were wornaround the waist. Excessively long and elaboratelyornamented girdles seem to have become fashionable

during the fourteenth century, combining fine textileswith silver-gilt or enamel fittings. More rarely, girdleswere made entirely of precious metal, consisting ofplaques curved to fit the outline of the body and hinged together. Two early fourteenth-century plaques ((ppllaattee 6677)) from a girdle of this sort, engraved and onceenamelled, show typical scenes from a medievalromance, depicting knights, musicians, and ladies of thecourt. Girdles occasionally include loving inscriptions,which is a reflection of their role in the courtship ritualsof both Jewish and Christian communities (see page 97),where the exchange of girdles played a part.

Medieval Jewellery

66

66 Case for a girdle-book, withsliding top: front and back viewSilver gilt, with translucentenamel, showing an episodefrom the romance of Sir Enyasand the WodewoseEngland or France, c.1325V&A: 218–1874

coins are known from all over Europe. In France andGermany numerous treasures have been found datingfrom around 1340–50, which can therefore be linkedwith the terrible plague known as the Black Death,which afflicted all of Europe at that time. Fifteenth-century treasure hoards such as that found at Fishpool,Nottinghamshire ((ppllaattee 44)) in England, entirely made ofgold, or the one found at Chalcis ((ppllaattee 55)) in Cyprus,almost entirely made of silver, were hidden in time ofwar by their unknown owners, and may represent jewelsowned by more than one person. The Fishpool gold hoard includes gem-set jewels and

pieces decorated with engraving or enamel, in stylestypical of northern Europe, especially France andEngland. The hoard includes 1,237 gold coins, whichindicate that it was buried early in 1464, during the

Wars of the Roses. Its richness shows that its ownerswere exceptionally wealthy, perhaps merchants ormembers of the nobility caught up in the fighting. The Chalcis hoard has also been preserved because ofconflict. When threatened by invasion from the Turks in1470, the rich Venetian inhabitants of Chalcis on theGreek island of Euboea in the Mediterranean hid theirvaluables in the castle. Found in the nineteenth century,the Chalcis jewels are today divided between London’sBritish Museum and the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.These silver jewels, rich in brooches, buttons, belts andrings, reflect the riches garnered by trade with Veniceand Byzantium. Many are gem-set or engraved, ordecorated with niello (see page 00), filigree or enamel,much of it decoration that was typical of southernEurope and was probably made in Venice.

11

pieces, which were pawned and melted down to pay hissoldiers’ wages.The early medieval pre-Christian tradition of burying

the dead with their jewellery has, incidentally, preservedmuch for us to see today. Christianity graduallydiscontinued these practices and, as a result, the numberof medieval jewels actually to have survived, dating fromc.1000 onwards, is random and relatively small, incontrast to the jewelled magnificence described by manymedieval writers and depicted by artists. Numerousexisting medieval jewels were lost or hidden for safety bytheir medieval owners and have subsequently beenexcavated or discovered by chance.Jewellery made of the base metals (copper and

pewter) is surprisingly rare today, given that it was madein great quantities for the less well off. This is because

such pieces were less likely to be treasured either asbankable wealth or as heirlooms and, when they becameunfashionable, their metal would simply have beenmelted down and remade, and thus continually recycled.Hoards of eleventh- and twelfth-century pewterjewellery have been found in the course of urbanexcavations in recent decades in York, Dublin andLondon, and elsewhere in Europe. These show styles ofjewellery that imitated those found in precious metals, asseen in the eleventh- to twelfth-century collection ofbrooches ((ppllaattee 33)), pins and beads found in London’sCheapside. This district has for centuries been at thecentre of the metalworking crafts, and the hoardincludes some items that are only partly finished,showing it to be the stock of a working jeweller.Medieval hoards of silver and gold jewellery and

Medieval Jewellery

10

4 Fishpool hoard: general viewGold, enamel and preciousstonesEngland and France, c.1400–60London, British Museum,

PE 1967.12-8.1-9

5 (right) Chalcis treasure:general viewSilver, some gilt with niello andenamelItaly, possibly Venice, andGreece, c.1350–1460London, British Museum,

PE AF 2809 etc.

glass artist; a diamond to the wife of a favourite painter,Michelet Saumon; and many jewels to the greatmanuscript illuminator, Pol de Limbourg.The New Year was a traditional time for gift-giving.

Monarchs and grandees habitually gave out largenumbers of New Year gifts made of gold and silver –frequently jewellery – the value of each being carefullygraded to the rank of the recipient. Although none of

the jewels survive, great lists of them do, such as thosegiven out by King Richard II of England in the 1390s,when many of his dozens of courtiers and friendsreceived New Year presents in the form of small goldand enamel jewels, all of a different design, someperhaps similar to the camel brooch ((ppllaattee 1177)) now inFlorence. But the only surviving medieval jewels that cancertainly be identified as New Year gifts are gold rings,

Workmanship and Acquisitions

23

BUYING ANDCOMMISSIONING JEWELLERY

Both royalty and the nobility usually had a number offavourite goldsmiths, each making jewellery as well asvessels for dining, although some craftsmen specializedin one or the other. However, these goldsmiths wereindependent and did not live at court, or generally in anoble household, but rather had their workshops andhomes elsewhere and were free to supply othercustomers. In London the goldsmiths’ quarter centredupon Foster Lane, off Cheapside, near St Paul’sCathedral. Paris was the largest centre of goldsmiths andjewellers north of the Alps throughout the Middle Ages,and here the goldsmiths were located in the area aroundNotre-Dame and the nearby bridge across the Seine, lepont des orfèvres (‘the bridge of goldsmiths’). Bruges,Florence, Siena, Venice, Nuremberg and Prague werealso significant centres.Goldsmiths would work to special commissions, as

well as selling small items at retail, such as the rings orbrooches seen displayed in the Petrus Christus paintingof St Eloi ((ppllaattee 66)), which shows a young couple insidea shop full of jewellery and gems. This painting ofc.1449 gives a fascinating glimpse of the stock of a

goldsmith-cum-jeweller. Behind the saint, three gem-setjewels, a string of rosary beads, gem-set finger-rings in abox and a fancy belt buckle are visible. Apart from theseready-made jewels, we also see loose gems, a pile ofpearls and a branch of coral and crystal, all waiting to bemade up into a special commission. Drapers’ shops,which principally sold fine fabrics, often also soldaccessories such as belts embellished with metal andenamel, and ready-made small jewels, rings andbrooches. Such a shop seems to be depicted in themanuscript illustrated above ((ppllaattee 1166)). The ladies holdwands, perhaps to point out their preferred jewels to theshopkeeper, who could use his own wand deftly tounhook the selected items.Jewels played a significant role in medieval society,

where the giving of valuable gifts (often jewellery) wasessential as a way of reinforcing diplomatic alliances andstrategic friendships, as well as being a sign of affectionand love. It is interesting to find that the great Frenchprincely collector Jean, Duc de Berry gave valuablejewels not just to his allies, but also to several of hisartists: a diamond ring to Milet le Cavelier, a stained-

Medieval Jewellery

22

16 Miniature of a jewellery shop from a Book of HoursParchmentFlanders, c.1490Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, inv. W 439, f.64

17 Brooch showing a camelGold, enamel, sapphire and pearlsFrance, England or Germany,c.1400–20Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello

Workmanship and Acquisitions

29

GEMS: THEIR SOURCESAND MEANINGSJudging from the medieval jewellery that survives, themost popular precious stones were sapphires, garnets,rubies, amethysts, rock crystal and, to a lesser extent,diamonds. A range of other stones was also used,including turquoises and emeralds ((ppllaattee 2244)), as well asimitation gems. Large and small pearls were verypopular and are frequently mentioned in contemporarydescriptions, but generally have not survived, becausethey disintegrate when buried in the earth for long. Most of the precious stones used in medieval jewellerycame from countries far distant from Europe and wereextremely valuable. Size, lustrous colour and ‘virtue’principally determined the cost of a gem, for gems were not elaborately cut for most of this period.Comparatively few surviving medieval gems have beeninvestigated mineralogically, but it is clear that the termsused in medieval sources are often inconsistent or vague,so that certainty of identification is difficult. Forinstance, the term adamas or adamant, which oftenmeans a diamond, sometimes does not.

The Italian ports of Venice and Genoa dominated thetrade routes to Byzantium (modern Istanbul) and theEast, source of the most precious gems. Red, blue andgreen gems seem to have been especially sought-after.Rubies comprised two sorts – mineralogically verydifferent stones, but similar enough in appearance to be easily confused. The paler pinkish-red ‘balas’ orspinel ruby ((ppllaattee 2277)) came from Afghanistan and wasless valuable; the deep-red corundum ruby, almost ashard as a diamond, came from Burma, Sri Lanka andIndia and was more rarely used. Also from Sri Lankacame sapphires ((ppllaattee 2255)), from Persia and Tibet cameturquoises ((ppllaattee 2288)), and from India came emeraldsand diamonds. Garnets ((ppllaattee 2266)) and opals wereobtained from eastern Europe, amethysts fromGermany, coral and pearls from Italy and otherMediterranean countries, and amber, jet, crystal and tiny mussel pearls from northern Europe. Gems have always been considered natural talismans

because of their brilliance of colour or hardness. In theMiddle Ages and beyond, precious stones were believedto possess many potent qualities, both powerfullymedicinal and magical. Encyclopaedic texts called

Medieval Jewellery

25 Blue sapphire surrounded bypurple sapphires, polishedSet into a gold ringEngland, c.1250–1300V&A: M.7–1929

26 Garnet, polishedSet into a gold ringEngland or France, c.1300V&A: M.288–1962

24 Emerald, polishedSet into a gold ringEurope, c.1400–1500V&A: 652–1871

27 Spinel ruby, polished and setinto a gold thumb ringEngland, c.1450V&A: M 253-1921

28 Turquoise, polished Set into a gold ringEngland or France, c.1400–50V&A: M.77–1969

22 (far left) Half a naturaldiamond crystal, set into a gold ring Europe, c.1400V&A: M.188–1975

23 (left) A polished cabochonsapphire, held in a claw settingin a gold ringEngland or France, c. 1250-1300V&A: M 180-1975

the necklace incorporates her initials with those of herhusband, Charles, Duke of Burgundy. The white and red roses allude to her own family; she was an Englishprincess, sister of the Yorkist king Edward IV. She isalso likely to have owned the ‘White Rose jewel’ ((ppllaattee5522)), the badge of the Yorkists, whose appearance hasbeen preserved in a contemporary watercolour. Jewelsattached to necklaces might be gem-set, as worn byQueen Elizabeth Woodville ((ppllaattee 3344)) and Mary ofBurgundy ((ppllaattee 5533)). The diamond-shaped gold jewelthat Mary wears, edged with pearls, has a central cross,perhaps indicating the presence of a relic inside. Itgreatly resembles in shape a rare surviving pendant, theMiddleham jewel ((ppllaattee 5544)) of c.1450, which was found

Style and Fashion

55

52 (left) Charles the Bold’shat, with two of his jewels, the White Rose and the Three BrothersThe ducal hat was sheathedin gold, adorned with pearls,rubies and diamonds, seizedby the Swiss in 1477 Paint on paperSouth Germany, c.1545Basle, Historisches Museum,

inv. 2007.511

53 (opposite, left) Mary ofBurgundy (1457–82)Stained glass, from theChapel of the Holy Blood,BrugesFlanders, c.1496V&A: C.439–1918

54 (opposite, right)Middleham reliquary pendantGold, engraved, formerlyenamelled, sapphireEngland, London?, c.1450York, Yorkshire Museum