Studying the Middle East through International relations perspective -Week 2-

Studying the Middle East Studying the Middle East through International relations through International relations

perspectiveperspective

--Week 2- Week 2-

Author/s: Book title, edition number – edit on master slide

What is in a name ?



• Until about 1855 the words “near east” and “far east” did not

refer to any particular region.

• The Crimean war (1853-56) brought a change in vocabulary

with the introduction of terms more familiar to the late 19th

century.

• The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase,

becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and

China.

• Thereafter, the British Empire began to give specific regional

meanings to "the Near East," the Ottoman Empire.

From Near East to Middle East –1



• In the early 20th cent. the use of the term Middle East as a region of international affairs apparently began in diplomatic circles of the two prominent sea-powers led by British (T.E.Gordon) and American (A.T.Mahan) quite independently of each other.

• The term "Near and Middle East," held the stage for a few years before World War I. It proved to be less acceptable to a colonial point of view that saw the entire region as one.

• With the disgrace of "Near East" in diplomatic and military circles, "Middle East" prevailed. They are not generally considered distinct regions as they were at their original definition.

From Near East to Middle East –2



NESA’s engagement map


c. 4000-2000 BC - Kingdoms in Egypt, Sumer, and Babylonia

New Kingdom in Eqypt, Kingdoms in Phoenicia and Assyria. The first thoughts on monotheism (the belief in one god) emerge. The United Kingdom of Israel and Judah.

- c. 1000 BC

500-400 BC - The Persian empire (present day Iran ) conquers all of the Middle East.

Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeats the Persians and claims the Middle East.

- 334 BC

c. 200-300 BC - The Romans gain control over all of the Middle East except for Persia.

Brief History of the Middle East

http://library.thinkquest.org/3526/facts/egypt.html



Life of Mohammed. Mohammed founds the religion of Islam, and leads the beginning of an Arab-Islamic empire that will soon hold

sway over the entire Middle East. - 570-632 AD

661-750 -

The Umayyad Dynasty gains control over the Arab-Islamic empire and greatly expands its territories. The empire spreads westward throughout North Africa, north into Spain, and eastward to the borders of India and China.

The Abassid Dynasty, the second major one of the Arab-Islamic empire, gains control and moves the capital to Baghdad. The Middle East enjoys

a prosperous period of advances in science and technology. - 759-1258

10th Century -

The decline in the control of the Abassids over their far-reaching empire allows the Seljuks, to gain control over much of Asia Minor and the Persian Empire to break free.

Tales of the riches of the Middle East and a desire to reclaim the Holy Land for Christianity inspire European kingdoms to proclaim a series of

crusades against the Muslim empires of the Middle East. Though the crusades were to have some success in holding territory in the Holy

Land, their longest lasting effects were in Europe, where people were exposed to many new ideas.

- 11-13th century



The Ottoman empire gains control over Constantinople and renames Istanbul. Earlier Turkish success grew into the Ottoman Empire which will continue to expand until it controls nearly all of the Middle East except for Iran.

-1453

19th century -The Muslim empires of the Middle East decline in power. The Ottoman Empire loses territory and influence to Russia and Austria

Muhammed Ali westernizes Egypt, asserting some independence from the Ottoman Empire.

- 1805-1848

1914-1918 -

The Ottoman Empire sides with Germany during World War I. The resulting loss causes the empire to be broken up. Much of its territory is divided between France and Britain, but modern day Turkey successfully defends itself against Greek invasion.

http://library.thinkquest.org/3526/facts/iran.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/3526/facts/egypt.html












• The field of international relations offers a variety of theoretical approaches.These include:

- Structural realists: The international arena is anarchic, so states seek to promote their own interests.

- Neoliberal institutionalists: Institutional arrangements can reduce tension and facilitate cooperation.

- English School: There are norms of behaviour and shared conventions which regulate international relations.

- Constructivists: Anarchies are multifaceted, and the formation

and socialization of states explains their interests and actions.

How to study the Middle East ?

Structural RealismStructural Realism

- In an anarchic environment, states give priority to - In an anarchic environment, states give priority to maximizing their individual well-being (i.e. regime maximizing their individual well-being (i.e. regime security ) security )

- States are assumed to act rationally.- States are assumed to act rationally.

- Security dilemmas arise because one state’s attempt to - Security dilemmas arise because one state’s attempt to maximise its security can provoke other states maximise its security can provoke other states cycle cycle of action and response, including arms races and of action and response, including arms races and mistrust.mistrust.

- Balancing & Bandwagoning ( i.e. Arab Cold War in the - Balancing & Bandwagoning ( i.e. Arab Cold War in the 1950s-60s) 1950s-60s)

International Relations of the Middle East, International Relations of the Middle East, 33rdrd Edition Edition

Neoliberal InstitutionalistsNeoliberal Institutionalists

- Focus on co-operation in anarchy, rather than conflict. - Focus on co-operation in anarchy, rather than conflict.

- Prisoner’s Dilemma- Prisoner’s Dilemma- Assurance Games- Assurance Games

- Role of institutional arrangements that can foster co-- Role of institutional arrangements that can foster co-operation.operation.

- Regional organisations. - Regional organisations. (i.e.regionalism) (i.e.regionalism)


International Society & HierarchyInternational Society & Hierarchy

- English School: Societies of states indicate certain - English School: Societies of states indicate certain rules and practices.rules and practices.

- e.g. Sovereignty: no direct interference in - e.g. Sovereignty: no direct interference in internal internal

affairs of other states. But, in the affairs of other states. But, in the Middle East, where do Middle East, where do

ideologies like ideologies like pan- pan-Arabism and Islam fit in?Arabism and Islam fit in?

- Historical sociology, drawing on Weber and Marx.- Historical sociology, drawing on Weber and Marx.

- International governance structures.- International governance structures.


ConstructivismConstructivism

- Neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists over-- Neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists over-emphasise role of international structures. Anarchy is emphasise role of international structures. Anarchy is but one possible outcome. but one possible outcome.

- States are conscious actors. Norms of interaction - States are conscious actors. Norms of interaction develop, and change.develop, and change.

- Power is more than concrete resources, it is also - Power is more than concrete resources, it is also discursive.discursive.

- Radical constructivists expose and critique attributed - Radical constructivists expose and critique attributed meanings.meanings.


Post-Structuralism and Post-Modernism Post-Structuralism and Post-Modernism

- Post-structuralists look to topics overlooked or set - Post-structuralists look to topics overlooked or set aside, to deconstruct discourses. aside, to deconstruct discourses.

- Knowledge and power are linked, and these linkages - Knowledge and power are linked, and these linkages must be explored in order to prevent domination. must be explored in order to prevent domination.

- Post-modernists focus on meta-theory ( or paradigm) - Post-modernists focus on meta-theory ( or paradigm) and ontology, not epistemology or methodology. and ontology, not epistemology or methodology.



- “The Occident” is his term for the West (England, France, and the United States), and “the Orient” is the term for the romantic and misunderstood Middle East and Far East.

-The West has created a dichotomy, between the reality of the East and the romantic notion of the "Orient”.

-The Middle East and Asia are viewed with prejudice and racism. They are backward and unaware of their own history and culture.

- To fill this void, the West has created a culture, history, and future promise for them. On this framework rests not only the study of the Orient, but also the political imperialism of Europe in the East. (http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/orientalism.htm )

Orient-Occident Dichotomy

http://www.wmich.edu/dialogues/texts/orientalism.htm



Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research

- Liberal democracies don’t fight each other: what - Liberal democracies don’t fight each other: what implications for the Middle East?implications for the Middle East?

- Militarized Interstate Disputes (MIDs): Threats and - Militarized Interstate Disputes (MIDs): Threats and tension, but no outbreak of armed combat.tension, but no outbreak of armed combat.

- Territorial disputes in the Middle East leading to war - Territorial disputes in the Middle East leading to war and MIDs.and MIDs.


Power Transition TheoryPower Transition Theory

- All countries have ups and downs in their relative - All countries have ups and downs in their relative capabilities.capabilities.

- Chance of conflict rises when gap between dominant - Chance of conflict rises when gap between dominant power and challengers is shrinking. power and challengers is shrinking.

- Conflict can happen where state policies do not reflect - Conflict can happen where state policies do not reflect power cycle position. power cycle position.

- - ExampleExample: Iran-Iraq relations post-1975.: Iran-Iraq relations post-1975.


ConclusionConclusion

- International relations theory is driven by many - International relations theory is driven by many theoretical debates. Structural realism has been theoretical debates. Structural realism has been traditionally dominant, but constructivist approaches traditionally dominant, but constructivist approaches are increasing. are increasing.

- Middle East specialists have only taken on some of - Middle East specialists have only taken on some of these discussions. these discussions.

- Greater integration of IR approaches and Middle East - Greater integration of IR approaches and Middle East specialisation has potential to enrich both fields. specialisation has potential to enrich both fields.


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Studying the Middle East through International relations perspective -Week 2-