-
A Study of The Utilisation of Various Measures Provided By The
State To Promote Equality of Educational
Opportunity In The Case of Other Backward Classes In A District
of Karnataka
Submltted by U. p. Chandrashekhar
, ~ .~ . ~ :-" =". -\ : , .. ' ~~. - .
".
,:. ...... -; ............. ...
A Thesis Submitted To The University of Mysore For The Degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy In Education Through The Institute For
Social And Economic Change
Bangalore
1990
)
.. ~.
.
-
CERTIFICATE
I certify that I have guided and supervised the
preparation and writing of the present thesis entited:
A STUDY OF THE UTILISATION OF VARIOUS MEASURES
PROVIDED BY THE STATE TO PROMOTE EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITY IN THE CASE OF OTHER BACKWARD
CLASSES IN A DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA, by
Mr.U.P.Chandrashekhar, who worked on this topic in the
Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore,
from November 1981 to June 1990.
I also certify that the present thesis has not
previously formed the basis for the award of any
Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship of the
University of Mysore, the Institute for Social and
Economic Change or any other University.
Bangalore July 1990
Signature of the Supervisor
c - S. f\;'-Gv}v",
-
DECLARATION
I declare that the present thesis entitled:
A STUDY OF THE UTILISATION OF VARIOUS MEASURES
PROVIDED BY THE STATE TO PROMOTE EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITY IN THE CASE OF OTHER BACKWARD
CLASSES IN A DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA, is the outcome of
the original research work carried out by me, under
the guidance of Dr.C.S.Nagaraju, Associate Professor, Institute
for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore.
Due acknowledgements are made wherever anything has
been borrowed from other sources.
I also declare that the material of the thesis
has not previously formed, in any way, the basis for
the award of any Degree, Diploma or Associate
Fellowship, of the University of Mysore, the Institute
for Social and Economic Change, or any other
University.
Bangalore July 1990
U.P. CHANDRASHEKHAR
-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Thesis is an outcome of the work done at the Institute for
Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, under the able supervision
and guidance of Dr.C.S.Nagaraju, Associate Professor in Education,
in the Institute. I am indebted to Dr.C.S.Nagaraju for giving
invaluable suggestions, academic inspiration and constant
encouragement in completing this work. I am sincerely thankful to
Dr.A.S.Seetharamu, Professor and Head, Education Unit, ISEC, for
his constant encouragement.
I sincerely acknowledge the Institute for having given me the
opportunity to carry out my research work, and the Univesity of
Mysore for providing me the registration facilities. The
administrative and library staff of the Institute were very helpful
to me and I am thankful to all of them.
At the Institute, I was much benefitted from the discussions
with several scholars. Prof. P.M.Kulkarni, formerly with the
Institute, now with the Bharatiyar University, Coimbatore, helped
me with statistical analysis and I am grateful to him.
Since the inception of the study I have been benefitted from
several of my well wishers, friends and colleagues. I can only
venture to name a few of them: Dr.Sivanna, Dr. H.S.G. Bhatta, Ms.
Ushadevi, Ms. Usha Ramkumar, Messrs Ratna Redday, DR. Parameshwar,
Parthasarathy, Vijay, Dr.Jaya, Vishwanath, Dr. Deshpande, Ravi, Dr.
Gopi, the Bala duo, Shylendra, Jena, Selvaraj, Shekhar, Govindaru,
Sabu, Vidya, Madhu, Joseph, Rajendran and G.Nagaraju. I am thankful
to one and all for their kind encouragement and constant help.
I sincerely acknowldge Ms. Malini Nagaraju who has constantly
encouraged me and also spared her valuable time to go through the
drafts and do the needful editorial work.
My interactions and discussions with Dr.C.A.Somashekharappa,
Assistant Professor in Sociology, Karnatak University, and
Dr.P.Bore Gowda, K.A.S., formerly with the Mysore University, now
Registrar, Gulbarga University, have greatly helped me in gaining
the much needed insights and perspectives into the issues related
to the welfare of BCs. I am thankful to them and acknowledge their
help.
( i )
-
The Department of Backward Classes and Minorities and the Social
Welfare Secretariat, Government of Karnataka enabled me to pursue
my higher studies and gave access to the required information for
my study. I acknowledge their help and encouragement heartily. I
was fortunate in having the good wishes of various functionaries of
the Department of Backward Classes in Belgaum district during my
field study and I am thankful to all of them.
I place on recored my sincere gratitude to Ms. Shanthakumari
Devaraju,I.A.S., Sri Sudhir Kumar, I.A.S., Sri Keshavaraju, I.A.S.,
Sri A.A.Shetty, I.A.S., Sri C.H.Govinda Bhat, K.A.S., and Sri
L.Nagaraju, K.A.S. who are always a constant source of
inspi~ation and help.
My work would not have been smooth but for the whole hearted
cooperation of all the respondents in furnishing the required
information. My thanks to all of them.
I am sincerely thankful to Mr.T.Srinivasa Murthy for his
patient, untiring and excellent word processing of the Thesis. I am
also thankful to Mr.Krishna Chandran for his timely data processin~
and computer assistance.
I would be failing in my duty if I am not putting on record the
affection and care shown to me by my parents, brothers -
Dr.Pandurangaiah, Shivaramu, Nagaraju - and sisters who stood by me
throughout my academic career and I am grately obliged to them. I
am grateful to Dr.V.M.Krishnamurthy and his family for their good
wishes.
I am grately indebted to my wife and son who firmly stood by me
during my absence and provided me much needed moral and emotional
support at the time. of stress and strain while completing this
the.is.
U.P.CHANDRASHEKHAR
( i i )
-
CON TEN T S
Acknowledgements
Contents
Liat of Tabl and FiQur
CHAPTER I I
CHAPTER II :
CHAPTER III :
CHAPTER IV :
CHAPTER V :
Section I
Section II
Section III
CHAPTER VI
Section I
Section II
:
:
INTRODUCTION
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
THE BACKWARD CLASSES AND THE RESERVATION POLICY: HISTORY OF
RESERVATION IN KARNATAKA
METHODOLOGY
WELFARE MEASURES AND UTILISATION
A Review of the Growth of Services, Beneficiaries and
Expenditure: A State Level Analysis
Utilisation of Scholarships: A Comparison of Profiles of
Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarship Holders
Scholarship and Hostel Beneficiaries: A Comparative Analysis
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ASPIRATIONS OF HOSTELLERS
Educational Development of Hostellers
Factors Influencing Aspirations
(i i i)
Page
i to ii
iii to iv
v to )(
1 - 31
32 - 10~
106 - 159
160 - 192
193 - 247
193 - 212
213 - 233
234 - 247
248 - 299
248 - 273
274 - 299
-
CHAPTER VII :
CHAPTER VIII:
APPENDICES
APPENDIX - I
-
FOLLOW-UP OF PAST HOSTEL BENEFICIARIES
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
: GOVERNMENT ORDER: OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES OF CITIZENS UNDER
ARTICLE 15 (4)
APPENDIX - II : WELFARE MEASURES - GROWTH IN NUMBER OF
INSTITUTIONS, EXPENDITURE AND BENEFICIARIES (STATE LEVE~)
APPENDIX - III : CASTE COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION IN BELGAUM
DISTRICT AND KARNATAKA STATE
APPENDIX - IV : INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
APPENDIX - V : QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX - VI : INFORMATION
SCHEDULE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
********
( i v)
300 - 329
330 - 372
-
Table No.
1.1
3.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.2. 1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
LIST OF TABLES
Profile of Belgaum District and Karnataka State
Grouping of Indicators cum-Educational Survey
Socio-Economlc-
The size and level of education of the scholarship awardees
obtained in the sample drawn
Measurement of variables: Rank order of the observations on each
scale in descending order
Occupational categories with ranking and score assigned
Sc at terg ram distribution ranks of weight/value
showing the two way of the occupation category
the two generations and assigned to each of the cell
Percentage distribution of scholarship beneficiaries according
to sex
Percentage pre-matric recipients background
distribution of the sample of and post-matric scholarship
according to urban-rural
Percentage distribution of beneficiaries according to background
of the father
scholarship occupat ional
Percentage distribution of scholarship beneficiaries according
to family income range
Percentage distribution of the sample scholarship recipients
according to standards/courses studying
Percentage distribution of scholarship beneficiaries according
to performance ln annual examinations
(v)
Page
18-21
146-148
163
181-182
189
185
217
218
219
221
223
224
-
Table No.
5.2.7
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.3.7
5.3.8
Percentage distribution of sample according to aBC
categories
Ratio/percentage fixed by the Government and the
ratio/percentage of scholarship sanctioned under each category
(1986-87) Percentage distribution of scholarship samples and the
corresponding percentage of population across castel communities/
groups in the district
Percentage distribution of scholarship and hostel scheme
beneficiaries according to sex
Percentage distribution of scholarship and hostel scheme
beneficiaries according to rural-urban baCkground .
Percentage distribution of scholarship and hostel beneficiaries
according to occupational background of the father
Percentage distribution of scholarship and hostel scheme
beneficiaries according to annual income range of the family
Percentage distribution of scholarship and hostel beneficiaries
according to performance levels in annual examinations
Percentage scholarship sample across oaes
distribution and hostel
different
of the beneficiaries
categories of
Ratio/percentage fixed by the Government and the
ratio/percentage to the sample of scholarship and hostel
beneficiaries under each category
Percentage distribution of scholarship recipients and hostellers
according to castes/communities/occupational groups and categories
of OBCs and the corresponding percentage of population across
castes in the district
(vi)
Page
226
227
229-230
235
236
237
239
240
241
243
245
-
Table No.
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.1.9
6.1.10
Percentage distribution of sample according to the family size
(excluding grandparents) Distribution of the sample according to
birth order
Distance from the residence and nature of the location of hostel
at pre-matric stage
Distribution of sample according to the classes when admitted to
the hostel
Percentage distribution of according to the educational
parents
the sample status of
Alternatives as to where they (hostellers) would have resided if
they were not to get hostel accommodation"
Distribution of sample according number of close friends they
have in hostel community
Distribution of sample according participation levels in
sports
to the
to
Responses mode of vacation
to the question regarding the spending time during annual
Percentage distribution of sample according to scholastic
performance in subjects: Mathematics, General Science and Social
Studies and all subjects - A comparison
6.1.11 Self appraisal in comparison with co-residents in hostel
regarding study and school performance
6.1.12 Percentage distribution of sample according to
educational aspirations (aspirations of secondary and higher
PaQe
250
251
253
254
255
257
258
259
260
262
263
secondary studying separately) 266
(vii)
-
Table No.
6.1.13 Percentage distribution of aspirations in free and in
circumstantial situations
6.1.14 Percentage distribution according occupational
aspirations
to
6.1.15
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.2.9
Percentage according reslde
distribution of sample to their options/desire to
Frequency distribution acording to father's occupation by
educational aspirations of the respondents
Distribution aspirations of economic status
of the
the educational respondent. across
Frequency educational educa t ional respondents
distribution status of aspirations
according father
of
to by
the
Frequency and percentafe distribution of the respondents
according to classes/standard by educational asplrations
Frequency and percentage distribution of educational aspirations
of rural hostel resldents and urban hostel residents
Frequency distribution of educational aspirations of the
respondents across four categories of backward classes
Performance educational respondents
in annual examination aspirations of
by the
Frequency distribution of father's occupation by occupational
aspiration of the respondents
Frequency distribution acording to family economic status by
occupational aspirations of the respondents
(viii>
268
269
273
275
277
278
280
282
283
285
287
288
-
Table No.
6.2.10
6.2.11
Frequency father's occupational respondents
distribution according to by
the educational status
Frequency and according to occupational respondents
aspirations of
percentage distribution classes/standards by
aspirations of the
6.2.12 Frequency and percentage distribution of occupational
aspirations of rural hostel
Page
290
291
residents and urban hostel residents 293
6.2.13 Frequency distribution of occupational aspirations of the
respondents across four categories of backward classes 295
6.2.14 Frequency and performance occupational respondents
percentage distribution in examinations by aspirations of
the
6.2.15
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Freqsuency occupational asplration
distribution of aspiration by
respondent's educational
Percentage distribution of sample according to categories of
backward classes as compared to theratios fixed by the Government
for admission to Government hostels
Percentage distribution of according to place of birth and place
of residence
sample present
Percentage respondents occupations father
distribution of the according to traditional
of family, grandfather and
Percentage distribution of sample according to father's
occupation and respondent's present occupation
Percentage distribution of sample according to ~he education of
the parents
(ix)
296
298
302
303
304
306
307
-
Table No.
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7. 11
7.12
7.13
7.14
FIG.NO
1.1
1.2
1 < .w
1.4
4. 1
5. 1 . 1
5.1.2
Percentage distribution of sample according to the family
economic status
Educational aspirations of the hostellers
Percentage distribution of thesample according to occupational
aspirations
Zero Order Correlation Matrix
Percentage distribution of occupations of three generations
under respective ranking categories of occupations
Correlation Matrix of occupational structure of the three
generations
Occupational mobility from grandfather generation (6 ) to father
generation (6 )
1 2 Occupational mobility from grandfather generation (6 ) to
grandson/granddaughter
1 (respondent's) generation (6 )
3 Occupational mobility from father's generation to
son's/daughter's (respondent's) generation (G )
3
LIST OF FIGURES
Location of Karnataka in the Indian Union
Location of Belgaum district
General occupational attainment model
Occupational attainment model hostel intervention
through
Path model for occupational attainment
Growth of Pre-Matric Hostels (All)
Growth of Pre-Matric Hostels Girls separately)
(x)
-
FIG.NO
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
5.1.6
5.1. 7
5.1.8
5.1.9
Gro ... ,th of (Hostels)
Pre-Matric Beneficiaries
Growth of Pre-Matric Hostel Expenditure (Allocation and Actual
Expenditure) Growth of Grant-in-Aid Hostels
Growth of Grant-in-Aid (Hostel)
Beneficiaries
Growth of Post-Matric Hostels (All) Growth of Post-Matric
Beneficiaries (Hostels)
Growth: Post-Matric Hostel Expenditure (Allocation and Actual
Expendi.ture)
5.1.10 Growth of Post-Matric Hostels (Boys and Girls
separately)
5.1.11 Growth of Post-Matric Beneficiaries
Page
200
200
202
202
204
204
206
207
(Hostels: Boys and Girls separately) 207
5.1.12 Growth of Scholarship Beneficiaries (including fee
concessions) 209
5.1.13 Growth of Scholarship Expenditure (including fee
concessions) 209
7.1 Path Analysis of Occupational Attainment 315
*********
( xi)
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
-
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Equality of educational opportunity gained
currency owing to the liberal philosophy of the West.
In the beginning the philosophy of equality of
opportunity was confined to the state craft and
assumed that the disadvantaged sections in the society
is the result of lack of opportunities at the
individual level to make use of societal avenues to
carve oneself a suitable niche in the economic and
social structure. It was also assumed that the niche
carved will be according to one's abilities. Post-war
recons t rLlC t ion, Kennedian era and Civil rights
refocussed the movement in United States of America
attention of that society on the equality of
educational opportunity (Aaron, 1978). The State took upon
itself the role of inte~ventionist and chalked
cut many programmes and provided legal support to
'protective
process 1"as
discrimination' policy. The
also visible in countries
historical
like India,
where the freedom struggle stood on the platform of
democracy and social justice. In the meanwhile, the awareness of
the individual's rights among the leaders
gave rise to many social reform movements. This
awareness, among leaders in India, particularly in
South, also gave rise to many movements questioning
-
the hegemony of the upper strata in the economic and
bureaucratic fields.
In the beginning, before such movements in
South, a few individuals exposed to western thoughts
through education, attempted reforms in the religious
and ritualistic aspects of Hindu religion. Their
efforts resulted in founding religious institutions
like Bramho Samaj in Bengal, Arya Samaj in Bombay and other
parts including Lahore and Sathya Shodhak Sangh
in Maharashtra etc. Individuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy tried to
organise public opinion among elites and
rulers thereby bringing legal pressures colonial
against then existed atrocities against women in the
form of Sati and child marriage and also advocated for
widow remarriage. Such efforts had initiated radical
change in the social structur~ of Hindu society.
Similarly, there were' developments in the
~olitical field as a result of the freedom' movement.
The main platform of the freedom movement was self-
rule through democracy. This broad idea included the
dignity of the individual and equality in political
and legal spheres. Gandhiji's efforts in focussing the attention
of the people on the plight of the
untouchables and his efforts to change the attitude of
caste Hindus towards untouchable castes brought
awareness among both caste Hindus as well as the
2
-
untouchable castes about the injustice built into the social
structure in the form of caste system. Such
awareness gradually percolated into the political
thinking.
Simultaneously Ambedkar espoused the cause of
the depressed classes and organised them around the
demand for political and legal rights. His leadership
helped depressed classes to compel the political
leadership in recognising the injustices and providing
constitutional remedies for the ill-effects of the
caste system.
In South India especially in Madras province and
in the State of Mysore there were movements against
the hegemony of the Brahmins in administration and
bureaucracy under the colonial rule. These movements
were confined to obtain the legitimate share, in
proportion to their populatio~,in administrative power
by the rural castes and the untouchable castes. Such
movements were in the form of persuation of the
colonial power through petitions and agitations to
reserve a proportion of bureaucratic positions for
non-Brahmins. In the State of Karnataka rulers
yielded to their pursuation and Government orders were
passed to recruit non-Brahmins to 1ill up certain
proportions of administrative positions. Gradually
both the rulers and the leaders of the anti-Brahmin
movement realised the importance of education to
-
fulfil the demands of reservations. Hence efforts
were made to expand education and facilitate the
participation of rural castes and depressed castes in
education.
After the formation of the Indian Republic and
the adoption of the Indian Constitution which provided
the legal foundation for the action of the State in
taking up appropriate measures in equalising the
opportunities for the weaker sections in political,
economic and educational spheres, the Government took
more positive and direct role in fulfilling the
constitutional expectations.
In addition to the political dimensions of the
issues related to the equality of educational
opportunity, the urgency of improving the economy
through adoption of modern science and technology
compelled the State to give a greater importance to
the spread of education among the population. Indian
Constitution made special reference to the spread of
primary education through its directives to the State
to make education compulsory upto a certain age.
The Indian Constitution in the first instance
various concentrated on ex-untouchables under
constitutional provisions (a discussion of which will
fo 110,",' later).
realised that
However, within short
the Country's development
time it
needed
was
the
participation of the larger proportion of the poorer
4
-
section of the society. New economic development and
political awakening created a demand for a fair share
in the development by the masses. Hence the
constitution was suitably amended to include socially
and educationally weaker sections under the provisions
of protective discrimination and ~mpowered the State
to take necessary steps in identifying the needy.
Such sections are collectively called as Backward
Classes (BCs).
One of the early set-backs to evolve suitable
policy for backward classes other than SCs and STs was
the difficulty in defining 'Other Backward Classes'
(OBCs).
Union,
Karnataka, a south Indian State of the Indian
was one of the early State Governments which
initiated action in evolving criteria for identifying
OBCs. In the initial stages the opposition came for
the policy of reservation. The ensued legal battle
gave rise to the constitution of several commissions
to redefine the backward class categories. Apart from
the reservations in education and occupations, there
was no open opposition to the welfare policy and
implementation of various schemes (programmes) under the policy.
In the early decades most of the
programmes directed resources towards educational
development of backward classes. But in recent years
attention has been given to economic development in
addition to education.
5
-
Genesis of the Problem:
There has been a consensus regarding the
importance of education to bring about ch~n9.s in the
living conditions of weaker sections including
Scheduled Castes and Tribes and Backward Classes.
Successive
importance
educational
from the
five year plans have given greater
in evolving new strategies to
participation of the younger
weaker sections. Most of
expand the
generations
the policy
initiatives and the developmental programmes have come
from sources other than educational research or social
sciences. The vast expansion of education in general
during 60's or early 70's proved ineffective in
retaining and educating children belonging to poorer
sections. The focus during this time of the welfare
policies was on facilitating the entry of the children
of weaker sections into the education system. Even
though vast sums of money were spent during these
expansion stages for such schemes, the outcome from
those schemes were limited. Some such earlier schemes
were expansion of schooling in rural areas at the
primary
colleges
stage, increasing the number of schools and
and locating them in semi-urban and rural
localities,
compulsory,
legal measures to make primary education
providing scholarships and other
incentives to the families for sending their children
to school etc. These measures were based on a naive
6
-
assumption that poverty prevents people from attending
school. It was assumed that once the child enters the
school, the education system would take care of such
students.
However, such expectations did not become a
reality.
colonial
The education system developed under the
era with its built-in bias in favour of
middle class values and English language favoured the
children from urban middle class backgrounds. The
process of education aligned itself with the middle
class families and was built upon the inputs the child
brought from better family environment and educated
parental backgrounds. The equality of educational
opportunity through facilitating access to education
was found to be inadequate and a need was felt for the
intervention of the State in providing appropriate
living environment outside the school and additional
strategies for supporting students belonging to weaker
sections in their educational development. This
realisation resulted in extending the concept of
residential school and hostel facilities for the
weaker sections. The State of Karnataka created
separate departments to manage various schemes evolved
over a period of time separately for Scheduled Castes
(SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Classes
(OBCs) and Minorities. The Department of Backward Classes came into
existence in 1977 and it
7
-
has been responsible for implementing schemes for both
educational development and economic development of'
the Backward Classes and Minorities. During the past
decade considerable portion of the public fund under
both non-plan and plan budgets have been spent on the
above developmental activities.
Apart from the physical target achieved and
money spent on various schemes no information on the
short term and long term outcomes of such schemes were
available. The cost-benefit analysis and evaluation
of schemes in terms of their contribution to the
educational developoment in the short
long run,
run and
very occupational changes in the are
important to reallocate funds for future plan of
act ion.
Need for the Study:
The interest of social scientists and
educational researchers about the contribution of
various educational
manifest only recently.
development schemes became
Till the middle of 70s a few
studies have focussed their attention on certain
issues related to educational development of weaker
sections. The broad area of equality of educational
opportunity became an issue for educational researches
manifesting in the form of studies on the educational
problems of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
8
-
Several trend reports, in this area, show that, almost
all researches in this area were on SCs and STs and a'
few on
However,
the educational development of Muslims.
studies on the policy implementation and
outcome with respect to Other Backward Classes were
lacking. Chitnis (1974) while reviewing the studies related to
the educational development of weaker
sections states:
"utilisation and non-utilisation of
educational facilities is a related issue
with considerable research potential.
Educational institutions established in a
community may either flourish or wither away.
What are the factors that determine the
and acceptance and non-acceptance,
utilisation or non-utilisation of educational
facilities in a community? Are any of the
factors in their establishment, from among
with the
educational
listed, correlated
with which the
the factors
effectiveness
institutions
educational
function?
institutions
A variety
have
of
been
established and facilities instituted since
independence. They consist of
educational institutions like ,
special types of institutions like
general
. . . . . . ,
Ashram
Schools, Polytechnics, or institutions of
9
-
education of the handicapped and facilities
like hostels, scholarships, freeships, book-
banks, provision for apprentice training etc.
It is therefore necessary to ascertain the
social factors that affect the utilisation
and non-utilisation of these institutions and
facilities.
utilisation
What
of
is
these
the pattern of
institutions or
facilities? Are they utilised in accordance
with the expectations held at the time of
their creation? In what way does the
utilisation of the facilities differ from the
kind of utilisation that is planned? Is non-
utilisation related to defective functioning
of the administration of these facilities?
Is it related to a situation in which they do
not cater to the felt needs? Do people
hesitate to make use of them due to any
prejudice or to a feeling that there is loss of dignity in using
facilities provided for
"poor" or "backward groups" (Chitnis, pp.203-4).
1974:
Another area identified and proposed for
research, by Chitnis, is the analysis of the kind of
impact that formal education has on segments of Indian
society. A city, town, village, neighbourhood, caste
group or any other definitely identifiable community
10
-
or
for
group are proposed as units that can be taken
the study. Among other areas, researches
up
to
analyse the role of education as an agent of change in
occupational structure and in social and occupational
mobility are also suggested by Chitnis.
Even after such remarks were mad~ and specific
areas were identified, the status of researches in
this area remained the same. More studies in this
area have appeared on the educational development of
SCs and STs and most of them have taken descriptive
survey approach. They have tried to document the
sociographic profiles of those who utilise education
and have tried to document the problems they face in
education. There has been no effort to link the
interventions with their 'educational process and
outcomes'. The status of affairs with respect to
other weaker sections have been neglected. The
questions like,- who uses what kind of schemes with
what results among the Oaes? how to assess the
educational impact of various schemes? and what is the
efficacy of the alternative schemes to achieve the
same stated objectives? - have not been posed and answered by
the educational researchers. Attempts to
analyse and evaluate the role of such schemes and
strategies on the long term objective of bringing about the
changes in the living conditions of the
weaker sections still remain unaccompllshed. Before
1 1
-
attempting such studies it is necessary to
conceptualise the problems in educational terms.
Basically, issues related to the access, impinge upon
the educational system from outside and hence
perspectives of sociology and economics are required.
Once the student from weaker section enters the
educational process the issue needs the perspectives
of indlvidual and social psychology to understand the
educational development. Keeping in view the above
needs and perspectives the following problem has been
proposed.
Statement of the Problem:
"A Study of the Utilisation of Various Measur"es
Provided by the State to Promote Equality of
Educational Opportunity in the case of Other Backward
Classes in a District of Karnataka".
Exp~anation of the Key Terms:
Other Backward Classes: Unlike the caste or race
based classifications, the classification of
population on the basis of socio-economic criteria is
fraught with controversy. A historical account of
such efforts in the State of Karnataka in Indian union
1111 1 1 be discussed later. At the time of taking up
this study the Government had accepted and notified a
list (Appendix-I) of backward classes on the basis of
socio-economic and caste considerations. Results of
12
-
any such efforts are likely to undergo changes
depending on the changes in socio-economic and
political systems. For the purposes of this study,
the other backward classes represent the population
segment having the characteristics of socio-economic
and caste attributes as prescribed by the Government
orders between 18th May 1977 to 12th October 1986
(1986-87).
Measures for Equalising Educational Opportunity:
Government armed with powers based upon the
Constitutional Articles 15(4) and 46 had taken several steps to
facilitate the participation of otner
backward classes in formal education.
Some of the important schemes addressed towards
the backward classes in the State of Karnataka are:
1 Maintenance of hostels for boys and girls
matric and post-matric.
pre-
2. Award of scholarships
matric scholarships.
pre-matric and post-
3. Maintenance of Ashram Schools.
4. Fee concessions
5. Maintenance of orphanage
6. Supply of books and equipments to post-matric
students etc.
Among the above schemes, highest priority in
terms of financial allocations went to hostel schemes
13
-
followed by scholarship schemes. Other schemes
covered small number of beneficiaries or confined to
one or two geographical pockets. Hence the present
study focussed upon the hostels and scholarships.
Utilisation:
levels:
Utilisation is conceptualised at three
1) Growth of supply of resources at the macro level (state
level) over a period of time. The time span chosen was from
1977
-
INDIA I LOCATION OF THE KARNATAKA!
Bel-GAUNt ~ STATe 80UNO..AJi!Y ___ ._
..oi.6TI\ICT &OUNOAay __
~ STATE IN THE INDIAN UNION \
r-,-----------------------------~
.ARABIAN SEA
Fi'16.ft
KARNATAKAI
;'/Y :>r B IDA 'R ' .~
GU'SA"f
ANDHRAPRALESH rv"')
'J ~ I V --'
'--J
TAMiL NADtT
~ L,.
KOLAR J \~
-
I I I ,
! I
40ft.
-.......
A-.. ......... c_
-..... ,.,
"--.---C ~
LOCATION OF THE BELGAUM
M"P OF
BELGAUM DISTRICT
t._. ..... "I .
I ......
.....
I"I.~
--1,1'1:1 .. ....
.""11"''''''' -k,a" ~ ie-I ......... t ....
4' '''*_' .""' ..... - I
..eo . ..,
..
Fie: J.2
16
DISTRICT
T
._T .... la.rn
n
~iE~ .. ~:faJ: ~.:.:w=.:---- ~
~I=:...-- ....... ....--...........
~ ..... ~ _ .... -
0-", ... ,
-
State until 1st November 1973. It is located in the
western part of Deccan peninsular region of India and
lies bet",,!?en 110 35 , to 18 30' N latitudes and 74 5'
to 7SO 35' E longitudes. It is the eighth largest
State both in terms of area and popUlation among the
States and Union Territories of the Indian Union. The
district is located in the north-western part of the
State. It lies between 15" 23' to 160 58' north
latitude and 74- 28' east longitude. The district is
surrounded by Maharashtra State in the north, Bijapur district
in the east, Dharwad and Uttara Kannada
districts in the south, and Goa State and Maharashtra
State in the west. The location of the Belgaum
district in the State of Karnataka can be seen from
Figs: 1.1 and 1.2.
Selected demographic and socio-economic profile
of Karnataka State along with the Belgaum district
which is chosen for the study are presented in Table
1.1. As per the 1981 census the population of the
district was 29,80,440 constituting 8.03 per cent of
the State population. Though the district is generally
considered as backward it is agriculturally developed.
Table 1.1 gives the demographic and socio-economic
profile of the Belgaum district in comparision
Karnataka State.
17
with
-
Table LJ..L Profile of Belgaum District and Karnataka State
Socio-Economic Profile
Total population
Percentage of rural population
Population Density (per sq.km)
No.of inhabited villages
Se}: (in ~cent):
Total Male
Female
Rural Male
Female
Urban Male
Female
Se:< Ratio (Number of Females per 1000 Males>
Workers population (in Per cent) i) Cultivators
i i) Agricul tural Labourers
iii) Household industry
iv) Others
Per capita income (in Rs. for 1985-86)
18
Belgaum District
29,80,440
77.47
222
1142
51.11
48.89
50.89
49.11
51.86
48.14
957
45.11
26.04
4.55
24.30
2037
Karnataka State
3,71,35,714
71.11
194
27024
50.95
49.04
50.57
49.43
51.91
48.09
963
38.25
26.78
4.10
30.87
2263
con td .
-
Table 1.1 (contd )
Socio-Economic Prof i 1 e
P.C. of irrigated area to gross cultivable area (1985-86)
Literacy
(in per cent)
Total
Male
Female
No.of schools anQ.. colleges (1986-87)
Lovler Primary
Higher Primary
High schools
Junior colleges
Rural Urban Total
Rural Urban Total
Rural Urban Total
Schools for professional and special education including teaher
training
Polytechnic and Engineering Schools
Colleges
19
Belgaum District
26.8
30.86 56.51 36.64
43.29 66.74 48.65
17.98 45.50 24.08
1170
1199
347
8
35
10
43
Karnataka State
18.10
31.05 56.71 38.46
42.06 64.98 48.81"
19.77 47.78 27.71
24,181
14,796
4,864
189
715
170
656
contd
-
Table 1.1 (contd )
Soclo-Economic Profile
Educational Attainment Levels of literate population (in Per
cent)
1) Without education level
2) Primary
3) Middle
4) Matriculation/ Secondary
5) Higher secondary/ Intermediate/ Pre-University
6) Dlploma
7) Graduate and above
No. 0 f Has tel s (BCM ) ( 1988-89 )
1) Pre-matric:
(i) Government
No.of hostellers
(i i> Aided No.of hostellers
2) Post-matric:
Government
No.of hostellers
20
Belgaum District
28.01
32.14
20.51
12.77
2.57
0.75
3.25
53
2361
25
1157
3
200
Karnataka State
26.75
31.87
20.68
12.62
3.57
0.94
3.58
655
30,000
242
9,500
67
4,585
contd .
-
Table 1.1 (contd )
------------------------------------------------------
Socio-Economic Profile
Number of scholarships sanctioned (1988-89) Pre-matric
Post-matric
Fee Concessions (No.of Beneficiaries)
Source:
Belgaum District
17,631
4,165
14,527
Karnataka State
2,84,674
59,148
2,56,765
1) Census of India 1981, District Census Handbook, Belgaum
District Series-9. Karnataka Parts XIII.A & B.
2)
3)
Census of India 1981, Series-9, IV.
Karnataka,Part-
Census of India 1981, 9,Karnataka,Part XII.
Census Atlas, Series-
4) Government of Karnataka: Karnataka at a glance 1986-87,
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore, 1987.
5) Government of Karnataka, Karnataka: Perspective Plan 2001,
Vol.l, Report of the Expert Group, October 1989.
6) Figures for 1988-89, obtained from the Department of Backward
Classes and Minorities, Government of Karnataka, Belgaum and
Bangalore.
7)
Note:
Gazetteer of district,1987.
India,Karnataka State, Belgaum
Wherever the reference year is not mentioned, the data refer to
1981 census.
21
,
-
Conceptual Framework:
Study of the educational implications of the
amelioration schemes has to take into consideration
the factors involved in the educational and
occupational attainment processes. Such studies on
general population, of which weaker sections form a
part, are available. A general conceptual model that
emrged from such studies is given in Fig.1.3. In the
western context, especially in USA, the model has been
used at the college level (Eckland, 1965; Duncan et
al.,1972; Sewell and Hauser, 1975). In the Indian context, the
compulsory education ends at IV or V
standard of primary education. Hence the continuation
of education beyond the lower primary stage is subject to
several socio-economic factors emanating from the
family and neighbourhood contexts. These factors can
be termed as access factors. Once an individual
enters the educational process, the performance in the
form of either achievement or number of years of
schooling completed is influenced by the
of school factors and the socio-cultural
interaction
environment
of home. This aspect of the model has to deal with
factors associated with educational outcomes. The
eventual occupational
educational outcomes,
parental status.
22
attainments are decided
the state of economy and
by
the
-
II.) w
PARENTRL ~ SCHOOL BRCKGROUND
'\ FRCTORS
FRrlILY ENUT , l' '- /
EON ENROLLr~ENT DEU -7
I i'-. / "
SOCIO - INDIVIDURL ECONOrlIC DIFFERENCES CONTEXT
EON
RTT ) OCC
RTT
/ ~
ECONOr'1Y
OCCN
--7l'lDBILITY
FIG 1.3:A GENERAL OCCUPAT'IO~AL ATTAINMENT MODj.
-
Thus, the general occupational attainment model
predicts low access, negative performance and low
occupational attainments in the case of weaker
sections in a laissez-faire situation. However, the
welfare objectives of the State after recognising the fact of
unfavourable conditions under which weaker
sections are placed, envisage intervention in the
attainment process. In such cases a special model of
attainment can be proposed. The model proposed in the
present study is given in Fig- 1.4 where the
interventions capable of altering access factors and
augmenting the socia-cultural environmentdl factors of
the individual results in positive gains in
educational
occupational
attainment and improve the chances of
attainment of higher order leading to
upwa~d social mobility are presented.
An analysis of the welfare objectives stated or in the policy
for educational development of
the weaker sections in general and other backward
classes (OBes) in particular indicate that the most of
the strategies aim
education. But the size
at facilitating access to
of the population qualified to
receive the special considerations meant for backward
classess being very large and the resources available
being very limited, most of the schemes turn out to be
",eak interventions. For example, scholarship scheme
for OBes cover large numbers as compared to other
24
-
N Ut
PRRENTRL 8R[~~GROUNO
rRMILY ENUIRONP1ENT
50[10 -ECDNOMIC [ONTEXT
H 0 5 TEL ....... --1 ENUIRCNMENT ENUIRONMENT ... ,,,,
\11 EON I EON OC[ OCCN
ENROLLl"lENT DE 1,1 --7 RTT --7 RTT -7 MOBILITY /r... 11\ ,
INDIUIOURL DIFFERENCE5 ECONOMY
FIG: 1.Lt OCCUPATIONAL' ATTAINMENT MODEL THROUGH HOSTEL
INTERVENTION
-
schemes. Under this scheme,any child belonging to
OBCs enrolled in upper ~rimary onwards is
to receive a scholarship. But the amount
qualified
of the
scholarship is meagre ranging from Rs.75 to Rs.300 per
year depending upon the level of education. This money
cannot compensate for the earnings foregone, living
e:
-
from remote rural areas to urban and semi-urban
centres and better environmental stimulations in the
hostel contribute as educational inputs.
In the present study the model i. applied to
measure the occupational outcomes of hostel residents.
The result can be generalised to the residential
school becau.e of the identical nature of intervention
in both the scheme.. The findinQ. of such a study can be
compared with the available knowledge -about
occupational attainments based on the studies drawing
sample from general population (Singh, S.N., 1972; Singh, J.,
1978; Singh, 5.6., 1978; Modi, 1981) Weaker sections in such
studies become one category
Invariably such studies have shown positive relation
of home/neighbourhood inputs with educational and
occupational attainment. The findings clearly
indicate the nexus between impoverished backgrounds
and low performance. Keeping this in the View, the
study of the occupational attainments of hostellers or
hostellites* may indicate whether the strong
interventions improve the performance and attainments.
Scope of the Study. The study proposed above covers
the following aspects:
* Hostellers/Hostellites are used interchangeably to denote
residents of the hostel.
27
-
1) Contemporary historical developments leading to aBC
policy.
2) Growth trends of expenditure towards main schemes
3)
implemented in the area of educational
development of OBC's during eighties.
Study of background characteristics of the
beneficiaries of scholarship scheme and hostel
scheme in Belgaum district of Karnataka.
4) Follow up study of the past hostel beneficiaries
to study the occupational attainment process and
consequent occupational/social mobility in
relation to the parental generations of the
beneficiaries.
Expected Outcomes:
implementation of
The study intends to examine the
the policy of educational
development of OBCs in Karnataka and identify the
factors amenable to change through State intervention.
The policy implications of such a study may contribute
towards the review and modification of aBC policy.
Limitations:
The study of the hostel scheme is limited to the
residents of Government run hostel in one lar~e
district of Karnataka. Even though survey covers the
two major schemes,viz., hostels and scholarships, an in-depth
analysis is attempted only for hostel scheme
28
-
to understand the educational development of the
beneficiaries (hostel residents). The rationale for
such a decision is that, the scholarship scheme has
marginal educational input values and enough evidence
is available from the the findings of the studies on
educational and occupational attaiments of students
from general population including weaker sections who
pursue education while staying with their parents
(i.e., non-hosteller or day-scholars).
Overview:
The present Chapter has dealt with the genesis
of the problem, need for the study and conceptual
framework. It also focussed on the scope, expected
outcomes and limitations of the present study. The
second Chapter presents a review of specific studies
related to the present study in order to elucidate
their major findings and also to identify the existing knowledge
and research gaps and arrive at the possible
contribution of the present study in filling-up some
of them.
The Third Chapter aims at providing a ~ynop~-.i
of the emergence of 'protective descrimination' policy
in general and backward class welfare policies and
measures in particular, in a historical perps~ctivp
covering pre and post-independence ppriods. Thp
Fourth Chapter describes in detail the methodology
29
-
follol&led in studying utilisation of ~elfare measures
as well as the occupational attainment process. The
same Chapter also spells out the objectives and describes the
sample scheme adopted to fulfil the
objectives stated already as well as tools and method of
analysis used in the present study. A revie~ of
the growth of services, beneficiaries and expenditure
from 1977-78 to 1988-89 is attempted
section in the Fifth Chapter. In
in a
that
separate
section
presentation and interpretation of data is attempted
through graphs.
A descriptive but comparative analysis of the
utilisation and background profiles of pre-matric and
post-matric scholarship beneficiaries as well as a
comparative analysis of the scholarship and hostel
scheme beneficiaries in terms of background
characteristics and utilisation is presented in Fifth
Chapter under t~o separate sections viz., II and III
respectively. In Sixth Chapter a descriptive analysis
of the educational development indicators in relation
to background characteristics, social interaction and
aspirations of the hostel beneficiaries is attempted.
Factors influencing the educational and occupational
aspirations of the hostel residents studying in
secondary level are identified by formulating
hypotheses and testing them, in a separate section
under the Sixth Chapter. Analysis and results of the
30
-
posta-facto
attainment
study of the present
in relation to educational
occupational
aspiration,
occupational aspiration and educational attainment of
past beneficiaries of the hostel scheme,
analysis are presented in Seventh Chapter.
using path
Results of the mobility analysis, measuring and
comparing the mobility achieved by the past hostel
beneficiaries as compared to their father and grand
father generations are also presented in Seventh
Chapter. The Eighth Chapter presents the findings of
different analyses and their policy implications along
with suggestions for future research.
31
-
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
-
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
In the previous chapter an effort was made to
discuss the contemporary position of amelioration of
the backward classes within the context of broad
theoretical framework of equality of opportunity and
social justice built into the Indian Constitution. The focus was
on other backward classes i.e., ",eaker
sections other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. This Chapter concentrates on the academic
issues and review of researches related to the topic.
The role of education in bringing
social and economic change at the macro
about
level
the
has
attracted the attention of social scientists in recent
years.
area.
1974,
There exists considerable literature
Extensive reviews of such studies
1985; Buch (ed.) 1974, 1979, 1986;
in this
[Chitnis,
Karlekar,
1984; Simmons and Alexander, 1983; Karabel and Halsey,
1977; Psacharopoulos (ed. ) , 1987] are already
available. It is quite natural that much of the
earlier studies in the Indian context have addressed
themselves to the surveys of educational participation
in terms of class, caste, urban-rural, male-female,
regional dimensions etc.
-
Much of the inspiration to study education as a
conscious intervention in bringing about social and
economic developmental change has come from the
studies conducted in USA during late 60's and early
70's. The impact of such studies on the Indian scene
has been felt in late 70's and early 80's. Education
as a tool to bring about changes in the society has
received wider acceptance and higher priority in the
planned socio-economic development in India. In this
context education is not only viewed as an instrument
of change in the entire society but as a fundament~l
ingredient
In addition
of reducing intra-societal disparities.
schemes and
implemented
to the expansion of education, various
programmes are being proposed and
to make education accessible to all
sections of population. Social scientists have
recognised these developments and have tried to
provide the research inputs to the formulation,
implementation and evaluation of schemes related to
the accessibility to schooling. Generally attention
has been directed towards the issues of education of
deprived sections of the society. This area has
attracted attention because of the policies pursued by
the state to facilitate the development of weaker
sections through education. The studies conducted in
this field can be classified as follows:
33
-
a) The inter-relationship of education and socio-
economic development;
b) Studies related to access to and utilisation of educational
facilities by different sections
especially focussing on the Backward Castes and
marginal groups;
c) Studies focussing on the interaction of socio-economic
background and educational outcomes;
d) Studies that have tried to identify the
intervening educational variables at the
individual level facilitating or hindering
attainments of education and occupation.
Even though the categorisation of the area are
not exhaustive and many a times they are mutually
overlapping, they serve as a meaningful framework to
review and identify the research gaps. An attempt is
made here to review the significant studies in this
area and sythesise their findings. This exercise will
help in formulating and defining the nature and scope
of the study undertaken by the researcher.
a) Inter-relationship of Education and Socia-Economic
Development:
A few philosophical analyses are available
regarding the issue of equality of educational
opportunity in the specific context as well as in
general human perspective. Seshadri (1980) has
34
-
analysed the equality issue in a philosophical
perspective and critically examined the concept of
equality of educational opportunity against the Indian
socio-philosophico-cultural perspective and the issues
relating to the policies and practices of equality of
educational opportunity.
The philosophical method, both critical and
analytical was employed to analyse the concepts of
equality, equality of opportunity and equality of
educational opportunity. The descriptive and
comparative method was employed to analyse the other
related concepts.
The major conclusions of the above study are: (i) the idea of
equality lays down the rule of impartial consideration that no
distinction should be
made in the distribution of the good. But partial
consideration or differentiation is justifiable, if there were
relevant grounds for discrimination. A
thorough understanding of the logical relationship
between the ground of diferentiation and the nature of
the good underdistribution should form the basis for
all such discrimination and protective discrimination
policies; (ii) some of the problems inherent in the logic of
Equality of Educational Opportunity (EEO)
were the growth of a meritocratic and an egalitarian
social order (iii) the EEO implied provision of
35 '\ ... ", ... 1 1/
-
free, compulsory and universal primary education as a
minimum condition and also implied making special
educational provisions for those with special merits
and special needs; (iv) the EEO in its weak sense implied
equalising the access to education by the
manipulation of the educational inputs so as to help
the disadvantaged to overcome their starting handicaps
and compete fairly with others; in its strong sense,
it implied equality, not merely of access but also of
results; (v) great caution needed to be exercised in
application of the merit criterion for the
distribution of opportunities for higher education in
view of the unsolved controversies relating to the
definition, identification, measurement and
development of merit and its relation
inheritance and environment.
The World Bank's working paper on
to genetic
education
(1974:34-36) points out that efforts to equalise
access to education is far from sufficient to ensure
equal opportunity. Equalising access is of course, a
necessary first step. The appropriate location of
educational facilities is a simple but effective
instrument particularly for lower levels of education.
At higher levels scholarship schemes and the provision
of living accommodation can be used to reduce the
barriers for the underprivileged. It suggests to
extend subsidies to increase the participation of
36
-
underprivileged groups, and not, as they are now, to
support children from middle and upper income
families.
fees can
An income-related system of subisidies and
thus be instrumental in equalising
educational opportunities.
The paper concludes that equalisation of
educational opportunities does not automatlcally
generate significant changes in income distribution
and social mobility. The impact of education on
mobility appears to be determined essentially by
pattern of stratification and the social and economic
system of rewards in each society. The sector policy
paper also cautions that in the absence of other
supportive social and economic action, isolated
efforts in education would have only a limited effect
on mobility.
Empirical studies conducted by Coleman et.al.,
(1966) and Jencks et.al., (1973) in the context of
U.S.A. throw light on the various issues relating to
the role of school and home in the education of the
individual. The team headed by James S.Coleman
undertook a survey of educational opportunity so as to
ascertain the lack of availability of equal
educational opportunities for individuals by reason of
race, colour, religion or national origin in public
educational institutions at all levels in U.S.A.
In one of the reviews (Patel, S.P. 1983: 58-62) of
37
-
this report (Coleman et al., 1966) on "Equality of Educational
Opportunity",it is noticed that the survey
addressed itself to the following ~pecific issues:
1. How well do the schools reduce the inequality of
by providing children an equitable
foundation of mental skills and knowledge?
2. To what extent do children from disadvantaged
groups benefit from schooling?
3. What resources go into schools attended by
children of poor people in comparison to those
that go into schools attended by other children?
4. What is it about schools that has most effect
upon the results that they produce? or, why and
how schools are effec~ive?
The study used a series of achievement tests and
questionnaires on a sample of more than 6,00,000
students of grades I, III, VI, IX, XII and XIII in
4,000 elementary and secondary schools.
Some of the findings
-
2. Socio-economic status of children bore a strong
relationship to their achievement. Within each
racial group, the strong relationship of family
and economic and social status to achievement
actually increased over the elementary stage.
3. Differences between schools accounted for only a
small fraction of differences in pupil
achievement.
4. That school facilities and curriculum were much
less related to achievement than the attributes
of a child's fellow students in the school.
5. Academic achievement, especi.lly in case of
minority students, was strongly related to the
educational backgrounds and aspirations of other
students in the school.
In the light of the above findings the study
concluded the following:
1. The School has little influence on children's
achievement and inequalities imposed on
children by home, neighbourhood and poor
environment are generally carried along to
become the inequalities in their adult life as
well.
2. Equality of educational opportunity through the
schools must imply a strong effect of schools
which is independent of the child's social
39
-
3.
environment. But such a strong
effect is not present in schools.
independent
Altogether,
educational
the sources of inequality of
opportunity appear to lie in the
home,
home,
and its cultural environment around the
which the schools fail to counteract but
only perpetuates the social influences of the
home and its environments.
The review finally concludes that the said
report is not only stimulating and thought provoklng
but also reveals need for research efforts to uncover
the largely unknown and complex relationships among
family, school, community inputs and educational
outcome.
Jencks et al.,(1973) examined the ineffective-ness or
eff~ctiveness of educational opportunity as a
means of equalising income. They have made use of
secondary data collected earlier for a number of
previous studies like the Coleman study of EEO, the
project talent, Veterans study of 1964, and Duncan's study of
occupational change and socio-economic
structure etc. They attempted to examine the
assumptions behind the basic strategy of eliminating
poverty in U.S.A. The strategy was to give comparable
cognitive skills through schools to everyone entering
the job market.
40
-
The basic assumptions behind the strategy were
that poverty can be eliminated by helping poor
children, who lack cognitive skills like reading,
writing, computation, articulation and communication;
acquire such skills through school reform comprising
common schools for all, compensatory programmes for
disadvantaged, and involvement of the parents and
community or by some combination of all three
approaches.
The following issues were critically studied:
1. Inequality in the schools i . e. , expenditure
differences between schools and individuals, the
resources and social comp~sition of schools, whites
versus blacks etc.
2. Inequality in cognitive skills, genetic and
environmental factors, school factors that influence
scores on standardized tests, the effects of family
background etc.
Non-cognitive outcomes of schooling, ac ademic
aptitude and academic credentials.
4. The effects of school quality on educational
attainment.
5. Determinants of occupational status and income
including inheritance, family background, educational
credentials, cognitive skills, and school quality.
41
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The policies for increasing mobility and equality are
also examined.
6. The issues of extent of income inequality and
inequality in job satisfaction are enquired in detail.
In Appendix-B, Jencks and his associates
analyse the determinants of educational attainments,
occupational status and income. They have used the
analytical model of Otis Dudley Duncan, but have made
a number of extensions and alterations of Duncan's
model.
Their critical analysis revealed the following
findings:
1. Diffeerent individuals and groups get quit~
unequal shares of the national educational resources.
2. Access to low cost educational services is mQr~
equal than high cost services.
3. Educational opportunities are far from equal.
That some people have more chances than others to
attend school with the kind of school-mates they
prefer and some people are denied access to the
curriculum of their choice.
4. Equalising the quality of high schools would
reduce cognitive inequality by 1 per cent or less.
Additional school expenditures are unlikely to
42
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increase achievement, and redistributing resources
will not reduce test score inequality.
5. Both genetic and environmental inequality played
a major role in producing cognitive inequality. Those who
started life with genetic advantages tended also
to get environmental advantages. No evidence was found
that difference between schools contribut~d
significantly to cognitive inequality, nor could
specific genetic or environmental determinants of test
performance be identified.
6.
I.Q. Family background had much more influence than
genotype on an individual's educational
attainment which depended partly on socio-economic
status and partly on social and cultural
characteristics. The effect of cognitive skills on
educational attainment was significant. Qualitative differences
between schools played a very minor role
in determining how much schooling people eventually
get.
7. Occupational status was to be quite closely
related to educational attainment although there was
much variation between the status of persons with
equal educational attainment. Both family background
and cognitive skills influenced occupational status.
43
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8. Neither family background, cognitive. skill,
educational attainment nor occupational status
explains much of the variations in men's income.
9. Job satisfation was found to be less explicable
than other things. It was only marginally related to
educational
earnings.
attainment, occupational status and
The above findings lead to some interesting
conclusions which have far reaching effects and
implications for both educators and social reformers.
Sharma K.D (1975) studied equalisation and utilisation of
educational opportunity with reference
to Muslim community in India and finds them far behind
in comparison with others.
The purpose of the study was to make an
objective assessment as to whether inequality of educational
opportunity as felt by the Muslim
community in India really existed. For the purpose of
this study, educational opportunity was defined as
provision of schools for all, provision of necessary
wherewithal to all the schools and equally attractive
curricular offerings in terms of cultural heritage
without any bias against any religious or cultural
groups. The study was conducted in the City of Delhi.
It covered only the Urdu-medium primary and higher
secondary schools where most Muslim children study.
44
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Some Hindi-medium schools were also taken for the
purpose of comparison.
A sample of 1989 children in Classes VI, VIII
and XI was taken, of whom 1344 were Muslims and 645
non-Muslims; 1126 boys and 863 girls. Also included in
the study were all the principals, headmasters and
teachers in these schools, 50 parents of Muslim
children and 45 prominent politicians, social workers
and educationists.
The data were collected on the following
variables: (i) neighbourhood - its general background,
-
2. The Urdu-medium schools had poorer buildings,
equipments and facilities. Most of them were located
in highly congested parts of the city in dilapidated
and over-crowded buildings. The study concludes that
equality of educational opportunity could not be
achieved by law alone; for this to happen, it was
necessary to change the structure, character,
practices and attitudes of society.
There are other stUdies related to inter-
relationships of education and socio-economic
development and equality of educational opportunity in
India [Shah, 1960; Desai, 1962; Ahamed, 1968; Hooda,
1968; Madan and Halbar, 1972; Gore et.al., 1970;
Premi, 1977; Chitnis, 1981; Chitra, 1982]. These
studies as reviewed in "A Survey of Research in
Eucation" (1972) have revealed that opportunity is mostly open
to the better strata of the society.
Educational atmosphere is more congenial in urban
families where either one of the parents or both are
educated. Chitra, 1969, 1982; Halbar and Madan, 1967
have found that caste plays a dominant role in the
provision and utilisation of educational opportunity.
Gore et.al., ( 1970) in their study have
attempted to examine whether education is governed by
the goals and values of equality, democracy and
secularism and also how far it inculcates those values
and attitudes.
46
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data The objective of the study was to provide the attitudes of
students and teachers on the on area
of education, the occupational aspirations of students
and the occupational satisfactions and adjustment of the
teachers. The study utilised the method of a
survey based on the use of precoded questionnaires
covering a sample of students,
institutions and parents.
teachers, heads of
The student sample of the study consisted of
11,631 students selected from eight states. Data
pertaining to students were analysed for the following
socio-economic factors like age, caste, religion,
language, father's education, father's occupation,
rural-urban background etc. Details regarding work
habits of students, their attendance at coaching
clases, help from family members, opinion as to goal
of education were also analysed critically. The study
also examined (i) the future plans of students
regarding further studies or a job, (ii) ability of parents to
support future education etc.
Data were also collected on educational and
occupational
students.
aspirations of high school and college
It was found that the students studied in the
sample belonged to 16-22 year age group. The average
age of the student was successively higher at each
47
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stage of education. The students in the higher classes
of secondary schools and colleges were children of
educated parents.
illiterate parents.
Only 25 per cent
Generally children
students had
in higher
classes had parents with a higher level of education.
Parents of a large percentage of students were in
urban occupations. The percentage of students whose
parents were manual workers is very small. Researchers
after analysing the factors that handicap students
from Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes emphasised
the need for further researches regarding education
among Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes. The
study also revealed that: (i) over-whelmingly, the students saw
themselves as future white-collar
workers; (ii) a large number of them at every level of education
expected to or wished to continue their
status as students for some time to come. The
scholastic aspirations was attributed as indicatlons
of indecision or a decision to drift until a choice
had been forced on them. Comparing the data on
occupational choice and occupational background the
researchers inferred that the major direction of desired
mobility waS from the rural agricultural and
urban clerical groups to urban-executive and
professional occupations. Education was very obviously
viewed as a channel for securing a place in the upper
half of the white collar occupations. This trend
48
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characterised both boys and girls, and students at all
levels of education.
A study by Chitra (1982) on the social background of some
under-grauate women students (1963-68)in Mysore city revealed the
important role of caste in utilising educational opportunities. It
was found
that among backward classes the upper strata have been
beneficiaries of scholarships and freeships and
students from higher income strata enjoyed the highest
representation.
Premi (1977) attempted to measure the extent of
equality for the Scheduled Castes vis-a-vis non-
Scheduled Castes in respect of equality within
educational system and to study the trend with regard
to equality.
Primary data were collected for assessing the
role of privileges from the Scheduled Caste students
who were studying in colleges, professional
institutions and university teaching departments in
the Union Terriotory of Chandigarh. Secondary data
were also made use of in the study.
A critical examination of assumptions underlying
the scheme of educational facilities as well as
structure of facilities revealed that (i) education
among the Scheduled Castes might not filter down as
advocated by Ambedkar, (ii) equal access to unequal
49
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groups is not true equality; (iii) free tuition did not mean
free education to the majority of the Scheduled Castes who were
extremely ill-fed; besides,
the opportunity cost was much higher for them. The
findings of the study pointed out that EEO for
Scheduled Castes as compared to non-Scheduled Castes
was still a distant goal.
The study conducted by Chitnis (1981) had a
di ffer-ent perspective al together.. The study was
conducted on Scheduled Caste students studying at high
school and college levels of fifteen states covering
all regions of the country. The study indicates that
Scheduled Caste students ~re not completely free from
caste discrimination and also they are not advanced to
a point at which they will feel confident to move
ahead without special protection. The study also
observes that girls are relatively more backward and
have much more restricted access to education than
boys. There are inter-caste disparities as the castes
that form a large percentage of Scheduled Caste
population
educational
in a state have better access to
facilities. The study also examines that
urban residence, changes in occupation, soc i al
position in village community are also positively
related to the access to education among the Scheduled
Castes.
50
-
P anchamukh i (1981) in the study entitled "Inequalities in
Educ:ation" has examined the e: parents' inc:ome, but not
sc:holarship, had a
51
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significant positive influence on the performance
students; (iii) even the performance of friends had positive
influence. Another important conclusion
the study was that "home study rather than study
of
a
of
in
the hostel
performance".
contributed positively to students'
The study further adds, when there were
extreme socio-economic inequalities, policies for only
equalization of education were destined to be least
successful, because the access to and participation in
education was a function of several socio-economic
factors, and many of them could not be controlled by
an educational policy. The study reinforced the
argument that extension of educational facilities did
not necessarily ensure distributive justice in respect of use of
the educational facilities.
It is evident from the above studies that the
status quo maintained within the social system affect
the access to educational opportunity.
The studies reviewed so far especially in the
Indian context addressed the issues of educational
opportunities in terms of access and outcomes at the
secondary and college levels. The equalisation of
educational oppportunity with respect to backward
classes has more relevance at the primary levels of
education. This area has been neglected both by
researchers and policy makers. However, the studies on
52
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wastage and stagnation at the primary level do reveal
the interaction of educational system with other
social system. The feedback from such studies have
greater relevance to policy as well as the theory and
practice of education.
Studies on Access to Primary Education and Utilisation
The problem of wastage, stagnation and drop-out
occupies the bulk of research studies under this area.
In a number of studies on wastage and stagnation
conducted in India, poverty or low socio~economic
status has been found to be a prominent cause of
school drop-outs and failures [Gadgil and Dandekar,
1955; SIE, 1969; Pratap, 1971; CARE, 1977; Pi llai
et.al. , 1980; Kasinath,1980; Srivastava and Gupta,
1980; and Vathsala, 1981]. Studies have also been
conducted to look into the problem of attendance, and
dropout among girls (Borsoda, 1955; Bhat C.L. 1955;
Saksena, 1960; Singh, 1961). The main causes of irregular
attendance and dropouts among girls were
poverty, illiteracy of parent,
unsympathetic attitude of
early
parents,
marriage,
domestic
duties,religious observances and festivals, etc.
In India, the incidence of wastage and
stagnation is so high that out of 100 children who
enter Class I , only 40 are able to pass Class V and
only 25 Class VIII. While the rate of wastage and
53
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stagnation at the primary stage for India as a whole
is 60 per cent, a number of States have much higher
rates than this (Ministry of Education and Youth Services,
1965). The above observations are applicable even today and the
rate of wastage remain
more or less the same, though the practice of
repeating standards that is detaining students in the
same class as failures have been abandoned in the
recent past. In Gadgil and Dandekar's study and in the
study conducted by the NCERT, more school dropouts
than stay-ins were found to be children of low
education and low income labourers and artisans from
lower castes and backward classes whose families
needed a helping hand in running the home,
after younger children or earning a living
S.P. 1983: 74).
looking
(Patel,
Valecha and Abraham (in Buch ed., 1986: 861-2) in their
highlights
trend analysiS report the following
quoting from several studies on wastage,
stagnation and drop-out.
(i) Poverty, caste, poor educational backround of parents, poor
quality of teaching, faculty, admission
policy, death of parents, under-nourishment,mental
retardation were some of the reasons for wastage and
stagnation. Grade I had the highest percentage of
wastage i.e., 31.8 per cent (SIE, 1969).
54
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(ii) The highest absenteeism was observed in January, February,
April and October. This is related to the
cycle of agricultural operations, festivals and
marriage seasons (Pratap, et al., 1971).
( iii) Moreover, it was found that the largest percentage of
drop-outs due to household duties was
noticp.d in Standard V while that due to financial
difficulties in Standard I. The drop-outs were
numerous in the lower income group (Bureau of Economics and
StatistiCS, 1970).
(iv) The drop-out incidence was higher in the primary stage and
more among boys. Students belonging to
Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe and other backward
communities constitute majority of the drop-outs. Large size of
the family was found to exert influence
on the drop-out rates (quoted from Pillai, Benjamin and Nair,
1980).
CARE - India, Karnataka (1977) has conducted an evaluation of
mid-day meal scheme. It was found that
the mean percentage of attendance increased.
Absenteeism not only decreased but the mid-day meal
programme produced stability in attendance and
increased the enrolment rate by 4 per cent.
I
-
stagnation indices were developed by the researcher.
The investigator compared the wastage and stagnation
indices for relevant sub-groups based on sex, school
type location and educational level. The tools used
in the study were a school information sheet, pupi 1
information sheet, interview schedule for parents and
teachers. The data were analysed employing analysis of
variance, chi-square and rank correlation techniques.
Among the major findings, the study revealed that there was a
relationship between availabi.lity of
instructional facilities in the school and rate of
wastage and stagnation. The rate of wastage and
stagnation was negatively associated with co-
curricular activities provided in the schools. The
rate of wastage and stagnation are positively related
to the pupil-teacher relation. There were more wastage
than stagnation cases among small sized families,
families of lower income and educational level,
families engaged in occupations like agriculture,
labour or artisanship,families which had suffered the
loss of one or both parents, or where child was first
born or the only child.
Study conducted by Nayanatara (1981) attempted
to investigate into the extent of non-enumeration,
non-enrolment, non-attendance and drop-outs at the
elementary stage of education. The study was confined
to Tumkur district in Karnataka State.
56
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The main findings were: (i) the percentage of
irregular attendance was 63.12 in households where
the family size was 5 to 8; (ii) the reasons for irregular
attendance were reluctance of the students,
work at home, peer group influence and I ack of
clothes;
-
to policy formulation for educational development of
weaker sections, which covers the issue of access to
education by providing increased facilities and
incentives to attract children to the schools. But the
persistence of the magnitude of wastage especially in
the form of school dropout indicates that the answer
can only be found partially through the above
mentioned policies.
In the light of the above, it becomes necessary
to look into the educational processes and m~p out the
factors contribut
