Study MaterialsStudy Materials

Good Luck! Rock on!Good Luck! Rock on!

Scientific Knowledge and Inquiry: Scientific Knowledge and Inquiry: Scientific InvestigationScientific Investigation

What you need to know.What you need to know.

A. Scientific MethodA. Scientific Method

1. Independent variable = manipulated 1. Independent variable = manipulated variablevariable

2. dependent variable = responding 2. dependent variable = responding variablevariable

3. controlled variable 3. controlled variable

4. Control group4. Control group

Check out this Scientific Check out this Scientific ExperimentExperiment

http://step.nn.k12.va.us/science/http://step.nn.k12.va.us/science/6th_science/ppt/Scientific_Method.ppt#286th_science/ppt/Scientific_Method.ppt#28

Observation and InferenceObservation and Inference

Observation = sensesObservation = sensesCan you see, touch, smell, feel, or hear it?Can you see, touch, smell, feel, or hear it?

Inference = come to a conclusion about Inference = come to a conclusion about the observation.the observation.

ObservationObservation

Observation: when studying something describe only facts that you can see, touch, smell and hear. You are not making any guesses. THIS IS NOT AN OPINION!!

Ohh… This liquid is green and it is leaking from a brown can. I also smell it.

InferenceInference

Inference: using your observations to make a guess about an object or an outcome

THIS CAN BE A SCIENTIFIC OPINION

Based on my observations, I think that this can is old and is leaking a toxic substance.

Earth StructureEarth Structure

CrustCrust Rocky outer layerRocky outer layer

MantleMantle Thick layer of hot but Thick layer of hot but

solid rocksolid rock

CoreCore Outer core of melted Outer core of melted

metalmetal Inner core = solid Inner core = solid

chunk of Ironchunk of Iron

Plate tectonicsPlate tectonics

Theory of Plate tectonics Theory of Plate tectonics Pieces of earth, called plates, move about the Pieces of earth, called plates, move about the

earth.earth.Check this site outCheck this site outhttp://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/animations/flash/http://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/animations/flash/

pangea.swfpangea.swf

Continental DriftContinental Drift

Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)Hypothesized that continents were once Hypothesized that continents were once

joined together in a supercontinentjoined together in a supercontinentPangeaPangea

Fossils of the same animals were found on Fossils of the same animals were found on the coasts of South America, Africa, and the coasts of South America, Africa, and the Northern tip of Antarcticathe Northern tip of Antarctica

Sea Floor SpreadingSea Floor Spreading

Process which new Process which new sea floor is created at sea floor is created at mid-oceanic ridges.mid-oceanic ridges.

Sea floor spreads Sea floor spreads apart and magma apart and magma rises .rises .

Water cools the Water cools the magma, creating a magma, creating a new sea floornew sea floor

Plate BoundariesPlate Boundaries

Outer earth sits on 12 plates.Outer earth sits on 12 plates.At each plate there is a boundaryAt each plate there is a boundary3 kinds of boundaries3 kinds of boundaries

DivergentDivergentConvergentConvergentTransformTransform

Divergent BoundaryDivergent Boundary

When plates move away from each other.When plates move away from each other.

Convergent BoundaryConvergent Boundary

Plates come together Plates come together or collide.or collide.

One plate goes under One plate goes under (subduction) another (subduction) another plateplate

Mountain BuildingMountain Building Rocky MountainsRocky Mountains

Transform BoundaryTransform Boundary

Plates slide past each Plates slide past each other in opposite other in opposite directionsdirections

EARTHQUAKESEARTHQUAKES California San California San

Andreas FaultAndreas Fault

This shows all the boundaries at This shows all the boundaries at the same time.the same time.

http://www.classzone.com/books/http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es0804/es0804page01.cfm?es0804/es0804page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualizationchapter_no=visualization

Relative dating Relative dating

Fossils are the age of Fossils are the age of the rock they are the rock they are found in.found in.

Older fossils on the Older fossils on the bottom.bottom.

Younger fossils on Younger fossils on top.top.

Stars Basic InfoStars Basic Info

Give off massive amounts of energyGive off massive amounts of energyHottest stars appear Hottest stars appear BLUEBLUENext hottest appear Next hottest appear REDREDCoolest stars appear Coolest stars appear YellowYellowYou can tell the surface temperature of a You can tell the surface temperature of a

star with the naked eye.star with the naked eye.

Basic Info cont.Basic Info cont.

Brightest Stars are closestBrightest Stars are closestDim stars are farther away.Dim stars are farther away.No direct way of finding exact mass of No direct way of finding exact mass of

stars.stars.

How Stars Produce EnergyHow Stars Produce Energy

Nuclear FusionNuclear Fusion Hydrogen nuclei fuse Hydrogen nuclei fuse

together to for Helium together to for Helium atomsatoms

Geocentric TheoryGeocentric Theory

A model of the solar A model of the solar system where stars system where stars and planets revolve and planets revolve around Earth.around Earth.

Developed by ancient Developed by ancient Greeks.Greeks.

A.D. 140A.D. 140 NOT HOW THINGS NOT HOW THINGS

ARE!!!ARE!!!

Heliocentric ModelHeliocentric Model

Earth and Planets Earth and Planets revolve around sun.revolve around sun.

J.J. Rolling frictionRolling friction – opposite force – opposite force that acts on a rolling object.that acts on a rolling object.1. 100 to 1000 times less than 1. 100 to 1000 times less than static or sliding friction.static or sliding friction.

K.K. Fluid frictionFluid friction – friction that acts – friction that acts on an object in water or air.on an object in water or air.

L. L. GravityGravity – acts downward to the – acts downward to the center of the earth.center of the earth.1. Gravity causes objects to 1. Gravity causes objects to accelerate downward.accelerate downward.

M. M. Push force – Push force – force makes you force makes you go forwardgo forward

An object in motion wants to stay in motion. An An object in motion wants to stay in motion. An object at rest wants to stay at rest.object at rest wants to stay at rest.

Describe Newton’s 1Describe Newton’s 1stst Law in Your Own Law in Your Own Words.Words.

When something changes speed or When something changes speed or direction it accelerates.direction it accelerates.

Describe Newtons 2Describe Newtons 2ndnd Law.Law.

For every action there’s an equal For every action there’s an equal and opposite reaction.and opposite reaction.

Describe Newton’s 3Describe Newton’s 3rdrd Law.Law.

Guy jumps forward, boat goes backward.

Physical PropertyPhysical Property

Any characteristic of a material that can be Any characteristic of a material that can be observed without changing the observed without changing the composition of the material.composition of the material.►1. Viscosity– The tendency of a liquid to quit flowing or its resistance to flowing.1. Viscosity– The tendency of a liquid to quit flowing or its resistance to flowing.

1. Viscosity– The tendency of a liquid to 1. Viscosity– The tendency of a liquid to quit flowing or its resistance to flowing.quit flowing or its resistance to flowing.

High viscosity = the slower it movesHigh viscosity = the slower it moves

Syrup has a higher viscosity than waterSyrup has a higher viscosity than water

http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/lab/visco/intro/intro.htm

2. Malleability– The 2. Malleability– The ability of a solid to be ability of a solid to be hammered without hammered without shatteringshattering

Metals are usually Metals are usually malleable. If not, we malleable. If not, we wouldn’t have gold wouldn’t have gold jewelry or knives!jewelry or knives!

Other materials Other materials break /shatter when break /shatter when hammeredhammered

3.Density– Ratio of an 3.Density– Ratio of an object’s mass to volume: object’s mass to volume: Mass/volume (memorize Mass/volume (memorize formula!)formula!)

Denser object’s sink and Denser object’s sink and less dense objects floatless dense objects float

The box that has more The box that has more balls has more mass per balls has more mass per unit of volume. This unit of volume. This property of matter is called property of matter is called

density.density.

4. Hardness– A material’s ability to resist 4. Hardness– A material’s ability to resist scratchingscratching

Glass is harder than a penny so glass can Glass is harder than a penny so glass can scratch a pennyscratch a penny

5. Ductility - The ability of a substance to 5. Ductility - The ability of a substance to be stretched; the ability for a metal to be be stretched; the ability for a metal to be drawn into wire. drawn into wire.

ConductivityConductivity

The ability to allow electricity/heat to flow.The ability to allow electricity/heat to flow.The more conductivity = the more room The more conductivity = the more room

electrons have to move.electrons have to move.Was a test question a couple of years Was a test question a couple of years

ago……ago……

Emission experimentEmission experiment

Four containers were filled with warm water. Which container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?

Shiny metal

Dull metal

Dull black

Shiny black

The __________ container would be the warmest after ten minutes because its shiny surface reflects heat _______ back into the container so less is lost. The ________ container would be the coolest because it is the best at _______ heat radiation.

shiny metalradiation

dull blackemitting

Protons = Positive part of Protons = Positive part of nucleusnucleus

1. found in nucleus1. found in nucleus 2. can tell you the 2. can tell you the

exact elementexact element Example: if you know Example: if you know

the element has 10 the element has 10 protons; you just find protons; you just find element 10 on the element 10 on the periodic tableperiodic table

Used to find atomic Used to find atomic weightweight

Neutrons = no chargeNeutrons = no charge

Used to find atomic massUsed to find atomic mass Sometimes the same Sometimes the same

element can have element can have different numbers of different numbers of neutrons = ISOTOPESneutrons = ISOTOPES Ex. Carbon 12 has 6 Ex. Carbon 12 has 6

neutrons; 6 protonsneutrons; 6 protons Carbon 14 has 8 Carbon 14 has 8

neutrons; 6 protonsneutrons; 6 protons

Proton number NEVER Proton number NEVER changeschanges

Electrons = negativeElectrons = negative

Atomic number = # of Atomic number = # of electronselectrons

Found outside the Found outside the nucleusnucleus

Weight almost Weight almost nothingnothing Number of electrons Number of electrons

plays no role in plays no role in calculating the weight calculating the weight of atoms.of atoms.

Valence ElectronsValence Electrons

Electrons found in the Electrons found in the outershelloutershell

Dot DiagramsDot Diagrams

Tell you number of Tell you number of valence electronsvalence electrons

Chlorine has 7 Chlorine has 7 valence electrons valence electrons because it has 7 dots because it has 7 dots around itaround it

FamiliesFamilies Each column is called a family.Each column is called a family. Every family has similar characteristicsEvery family has similar characteristics

The biggest characteristic is valence electronsThe biggest characteristic is valence electrons The number of valence electrons is represented by Roman The number of valence electrons is represented by Roman

numerals above the columnsnumerals above the columns Noble gas have 8 valence electrons even though it has an 0Noble gas have 8 valence electrons even though it has an 0

The Alkali MetalsThe Alkali Metals

Have 1 valence Have 1 valence electron…extremely electron…extremely reactive.reactive.

The reactivity The reactivity increases from the increases from the top of Group 1A to the top of Group 1A to the bottom.bottom.

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, FrLi, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

The HalogensThe Halogens

7 valence electrons7 valence electrons F, Cl, Br, I, AtF, Cl, Br, I, At Despite their physical Despite their physical

differences, the differences, the halogens have similar halogens have similar chemical properties.chemical properties.

The Noble GasesThe Noble Gases

Group 18Group 18 The noble gases are The noble gases are

colorless and colorless and odorless and odorless and extremely unreactive.extremely unreactive.

He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, RnHe, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

How Ions are formed!How Ions are formed!

When an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal bond with When an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal bond with a halogen.a halogen.

The alkali metals gives a halogen an electron.The alkali metals gives a halogen an electron. The alkali metal becomes a cation (positive)The alkali metal becomes a cation (positive) The halogen becomes an anion (negative).The halogen becomes an anion (negative).

Covalent BondsCovalent Bonds

When elements share When elements share valence electrons valence electrons equally!!equally!!

Law of Conservation of MassLaw of Conservation of Mass

Chemical EquationsChemical EquationsReactants on leftReactants on leftProducts on rightProducts on right

Number of molecules on left has to equal Number of molecules on left has to equal number of molecules on rightnumber of molecules on rightThese equations are said to be balanced.These equations are said to be balanced.

There are six molecules of Carbon on the left, and six on the right.

Kinetic EnergyKinetic Energy

Kinetic is moving Kinetic is moving energy.energy.

The faster it goes the The faster it goes the more energy hasmore energy has

More temperature = More temperature = more kinetic energy.more kinetic energy.

Potential Energy Potential Energy

Potential Energy is essentially height!Potential Energy is essentially height! If it is above the ground is has potential If it is above the ground is has potential

energy.energy.The higher it is the more potential energy it The higher it is the more potential energy it

hashasElastic potential energyElastic potential energy

If you stretch a substance it has potential If you stretch a substance it has potential energyenergy

More Energy TransformationsMore Energy Transformations

Check out how the speed changes Check out how the speed changes as it goes down the hillas it goes down the hill

This was a test question a couple of years ago….

It asked where would the cart be going the fastest…..it goes the fastest at the bottom!

Fission and FusionFission and Fusion

Fission is splitting nuclei.Fission is splitting nuclei.Nuclear reactionsNuclear reactionsNuclear bombsNuclear bombsNuclear powerplantsNuclear powerplants

Fusion is putting nuclei of atoms togetherFusion is putting nuclei of atoms togetherhelium reactions in starshelium reactions in stars

FissionFissionThis is where the most energy is released. Previous test question….

FusionFusion

III. Properties of WavesIII. Properties of Waves

A.A. Frequency, Period, and AmplitudeFrequency, Period, and Amplitude1. Frequency = # of cycles in a given time1. Frequency = # of cycles in a given time2. Wavelength = is the distance between a 2. Wavelength = is the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the point on one wave and the same point on the next cycle of the wave.next cycle of the wave.3. Amplitude = how high and low the wave 3. Amplitude = how high and low the wave goes from the middle.goes from the middle.4. The more energy a wave has, the greater 4. The more energy a wave has, the greater is its amplitudeis its amplitude5. 5. http://www.ngsir.netfirms.com/englishhtm/TwaveA.htmhttp://www.ngsir.netfirms.com/englishhtm/TwaveA.htm

Wave AbsorptionWave Absorption

Waves can be Waves can be absorbed into the absorbed into the medium.medium. Ex. You do not want Ex. You do not want

waves to bounce around waves to bounce around in a recording studio. in a recording studio. The recording studio The recording studio walls will have carpet on walls will have carpet on them to absorb materials.them to absorb materials.

Modern designs are not Modern designs are not good for recording good for recording studios or music halls.studios or music halls.

Heat and Particle movementHeat and Particle movement

ICE WATER

STEAM

When you add heat particles move faster!

Gravitational ForceGravitational Force

As an object gets closer there is a greater As an object gets closer there is a greater gravitational force.gravitational force.

Check out this link to see all the planets revolve around the sun!http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/flashlets/innerplanets.htm

Click on this link to see the earth going around the sun. Remember when the Earth is closer to the sun there is

more gravitational force!http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es0408/es0408page01.cfm?chapter_no=04

Structure of Ecosystems/Levels Structure of Ecosystems/Levels of Organizationof Organization

Organism – Organism – individual living (biotic) thingindividual living (biotic) thing Population – Population – group of organisms, all of one group of organisms, all of one

species, which live in the same place and species, which live in the same place and the same timethe same time

Community – Community – all the populations of all the populations of different species, same place, same timedifferent species, same place, same time

Ecosystem – Ecosystem – Populations of plant and Populations of plant and animals that interact with each other in a animals that interact with each other in a given area and with the abiotic parts (non-given area and with the abiotic parts (non-living)living)

Biosphere – Biosphere – The portion of Earth that The portion of Earth that supports lifesupports life

Levels of Organization Levels of Organization (cont.)(cont.)

I. EcosystemsI. Ecosystems

BiomesBiomes

A. TundraA. Tundra Extremely cold climate (-34 degrees C to 12 Extremely cold climate (-34 degrees C to 12

degrees C)degrees C) Low biotic diversity Low biotic diversity Simple vegetation structure Simple vegetation structure Limitation of drainage Limitation of drainage

Short season of growth and reproductionShort season of growth and reproduction

This fact has been on 3 OGT tests!

B. Marine B. Marine Cover ¾ the planetCover ¾ the planet 1. Oceans1. Oceans

Largest of all Largest of all ecosystemsecosystems

2. Coral Reefs2. Coral Reefs Very diverseVery diverse Coral is dominant Coral is dominant

organismorganism Ex. Great Barrier ReefEx. Great Barrier Reef

EstuariesEstuaries Where freshwater Where freshwater

rivers meet the rivers meet the ocean.ocean.

Fertile soil produces Fertile soil produces diversitydiversity

C. Freshwater BiomesC. Freshwater Biomes1. Ponds, Lakes, Streams1. Ponds, Lakes, Streams

D. Taiga D. Taiga Stretches across Canada, Northern Stretches across Canada, Northern

Europe and AsiaEurope and AsiaSoil is acidic and has few nutrientsSoil is acidic and has few nutrientsThe abundance of evergreen trees The abundance of evergreen trees

provide shelter for many large animalsprovide shelter for many large animalsLynx, elk, caribou, wolvesLynx, elk, caribou, wolves

E. DesertE. Desert Hot daysHot days Cold nightsCold nights Little precipitationLittle precipitation Low biodiversityLow biodiversity

F. RainforestF. Rainforest Hot temps Hot temps High precipitationHigh precipitation High diversityHigh diversity Contain species not Contain species not

yet discoveredyet discovered Being destroyed by Being destroyed by

deforestationdeforestation Kills animalsKills animals Reduces amount of Reduces amount of

oxygenoxygen

G. Deciduous Forest/Temperate G. Deciduous Forest/Temperate 70-150 cm of rainfall70-150 cm of rainfallDeciduous treesDeciduous trees

Leaves turn color in fallLeaves turn color in fallLeaves fall off in winterLeaves fall off in winter

Squirrels, mice, bearsSquirrels, mice, bears

Biome LocationsBiome Locations

Animal RelationshipsAnimal Relationships Mutualism = Both animals benefitMutualism = Both animals benefit Commensalisms = One animal benefits, Commensalisms = One animal benefits,

the other is not harmed.the other is not harmed. Parasitism = One animal benefits, the Parasitism = One animal benefits, the

other is harmed!other is harmed! Carnivore = eats meatCarnivore = eats meat Herbivore = eats plantsHerbivore = eats plants Omnivore = eats bothOmnivore = eats both Producers = make their own food (green)Producers = make their own food (green) Consumer = eat producersConsumer = eat producers

Mutualism = both organisms Mutualism = both organisms benefitbenefit

Yellow-billed oxpeckers feed on ecto-Yellow-billed oxpeckers feed on ecto-parasites on the hide of a grazing parasites on the hide of a grazing bull hippopotamus. bull hippopotamus.

ParasitismParasitism

A parasite feeds on a A parasite feeds on a host. Usually the host. Usually the parasite does not kill parasite does not kill the host (not the host (not immediately)immediately)

Ex) ticsEx) tics (endoparasites-inside (endoparasites-inside

the host)the host)

DarwinismDarwinism

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

Wrote in 1859Wrote in 1859:: “On the Origin of Species by “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”Means of Natural Selection”

Two main points:Two main points:

1.1. Species were not created in their present Species were not created in their present form, but evolved from ancestral species.form, but evolved from ancestral species.

2.2. Proposed a mechanism for evolution:Proposed a mechanism for evolution: NATURAL SELECTIONNATURAL SELECTION

Summary of Summary of Origin of Origin of SpeciesSpecies

Proposed Evolution Resulting from Natural Proposed Evolution Resulting from Natural Selection:Selection:Organisms Produce Many OffspringOrganisms Produce Many OffspringCompetition for Food, Territory, Mates, etc.Competition for Food, Territory, Mates, etc.Those With Best Traits Survive Those With Best Traits Survive Organisms Change Over Many GenerationsOrganisms Change Over Many Generations

Time Frame: Millions of YearsTime Frame: Millions of Years

Example of Natural SelectionExample of Natural Selection

SummarySummary

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin ““Survival of the fittest”Survival of the fittest”Species with the best traits will live to Species with the best traits will live to

reproduce. reproduce. The trait will adapt to the environment.The trait will adapt to the environment.Takes place over millions of years.Takes place over millions of years.

Has Nucleus No Nuclear

Membrane

Ribosomes

and DNA

Cellular Respiration and Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis RelationshipPhotosynthesis Relationship

They are opposites in the energy world They are opposites in the energy world even even

CR occurs in animals in the mitochondriaCR occurs in animals in the mitochondria

PS occurs in plants in the chloroplastPS occurs in plants in the chloroplast

Anaerobic Anaerobic RespirationRespiration

Anaerobic respirationAnaerobic respiration (alcoholic (alcoholic

fermentation) = fermentation) = respiration without respiration without

oxygenoxygen..Example: How wine Example: How wine and beer is madeand beer is made

DDDD

dddd

DdDd

Punnet SquaresPunnet Squares

Cross a homozygous dominant with a Cross a homozygous dominant with a homozygous recessive.homozygous recessive.

HH x hh

H

H

h h

H

H

hh

Hh

Hh Hh

Hh

hh

H

H

SEX allelesSEX alleles Males – XYMales – XY Females – XXFemales – XX Recessive diseasesRecessive diseases

Diseases that are recessive on the X chromosomeDiseases that are recessive on the X chromosome

INFO:INFO: Sex inherited diseasesSex inherited diseases

Females can not get diseases that appear on Y chromosomeFemales can not get diseases that appear on Y chromosome Males are more likely to get a recessive diseaseMales are more likely to get a recessive disease

If the recessive allele appears on the X males get diseaseIf the recessive allele appears on the X males get disease Females are less likely to get a recessive diseaseFemales are less likely to get a recessive disease

If recessive allele appears on one X chromosome the other X If recessive allele appears on one X chromosome the other X chromosome can cover it with a dominant allelechromosome can cover it with a dominant allele

How to Read PedigreesHow to Read PedigreesAffected male

Unaffected female

Unaffected male

Female carrier, She does not have Disease but can pass it on to her kids.

Pedigrees = a chart that shows you the Pedigrees = a chart that shows you the family history of passing traitsfamily history of passing traits

TechnologyTechnology

Any tool usedAny tool used

ScienceScience

Knowledge used to make tools!Knowledge used to make tools!

Ways to Save EnergyWays to Save Energy

Solar PanelsSolar PanelsGood – less fossil fuel usageGood – less fossil fuel usageBad – has to be sunnyBad – has to be sunny

Wind PowerWind PowerGood – less fossil fuel usageGood – less fossil fuel usageBad – has to be windyBad – has to be windy

Hydroelectric (water)Hydroelectric (water)Good – less fossil fuel usageGood – less fossil fuel usageBad – need to be near waterBad – need to be near water