Name: _____________________________________________________________ Date: ________________________ Per: _________

Study Guide for Animal Systems Test Due Monday March18 1. In a transfusion of blood or organ transplant what should the recipient cells have? Why?

2. Describe how a phagocytic cell of the nonspecific (innate) immune system would engulf and destroy a pathogenic bacterium. (sketch it!)

3. Compare & contrast humoral immunity to cell-mediated immunity:

humoral immunity cell-mediated immunity 4. Describe how the immune system responds when an

individual is exposed to the same antigen more than once?

5. What part of the immune system cells is most severely

depleted by HIV?

6. A human kidney filters about 200 liters of blood each day. Approximately two liters of liquid and nutrient waste are excreted

as urine. The remaining fluid and dissolved substances are reabsorbed and continue to circulate throughout the body. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is secreted in response to reduced plasma volume/increased blood osmolarity. ADH targets the collecting ducts in the kidney, stimulating the insertion of aquaporins into their plasma membranes and an increased reabsorption of water. If ADH secretion were inhibited what effect would that have on the excreted substances?

7. The mechanism of action of many common medications involves interfering with the normal pathways that cells use to

respond to hormone signals. What are some events of cell signaling pathways found in the G-Protein & Tyrosine Kinase transduction pathways that if interfered with, could prevent a cellular response?

8. The endocrine system incorporates feedback mechanisms that maintain homeostasis. Describe the negative feedback by the endocrine system that regulates blood glucose levels after a meal. (use concepts: beta and alpha cells, pancreas, insulin, glucagon, glycogen). What can go wrong with this feedback loop if diabetes mellitus were to occur?

9. What is acetylcholine (Ach)? As depicted in the pictures to the right, what effect

does Ach have on muscle cells? What is Acetylcholinesterase? Why is it important?

10. The illustration to the right depicts a neuromuscular

junction (where the nerve signal is transmitted to a muscle cell) of a patient with an autoimmune disorder. What does the presence of the antibody have on the nerve impulse?

11. During the fall, a chipmunk experiences a sustained period of cold weather. The chipmunk’s thyroid gland responds by

secreting a greater quantity of thyroxin. What glands, cells and hormones are involved in the regulation of thyroxine? 12. For the image of the nephron of the kidney to the right, identify the characteristics

of the fluid that passes through each portion/tubule of the nephron labeled A, B, C, D. What happens at each location?

A. B. C. D.

13. Fill in the table

below Fish Mammals/birds insects Amphibians

Means of Gas exchange (organs, surfaces, strategies)

Commonality in Gas Exchange (what do they all have in common?)

Single cells, Insects, Fish, Mammals, Amphibians, & Birds

Fish Mammals Reptiles/Birds

Method of Excreting of ammonia (N-waste); energy required for this method? Why is it beneficial?

COUNTER CURRENT EXCHANGE & What its used for, what is accomplishes

Thermoregulation & Gas exchange

Thermoregulation & Gas /Solutes Exchange

Thermoregulation

14. During fertilization human females where & how do sperm and egg meet to form a zygote? (acrosomes, Fusion, Haploid,

Diploid, Oogenesis, polar bodies). What would cause twins to form?

15. What is parthenogenesis?

16. Summarize the 4 stages of embryonic development. Include names of structures? When does differentiation begin? a. b. c. What happens to: Endoderm: Mesoderm: Ectoderm: d. (include Neurulation)

17. What is induction? What is Morphogenesis? What is the role of Morphogens? 18. The diagram to the right shows a developing worm embryo at the four-cell stage.

Experiments have shown that when cell 3 divides, the anterior daughter cell gives rise to muscle and gonads and the posterior daughter cell gives rise to the intestine. However, if the cells of the embryo are separated from one another early during the four-cell stage, no intestine will form. Other experiments have shown that if cell 3 and cell 4 are recombined after the initial separation, the posterior daughter cell of cell 3 will once again give rise to normal intestine. What might explain how the cells respond when together compared to how they respond when separated?

19. How is Oxygen transported in the blood? What are the 3 ways is carbon dioxide transported in human blood? (which

method holds majority of CO2? 20. Both myoglobin and hemoglobin are proteins that bind reversibly with molecular

oxygen. The graph to the right shows the oxygen-binding saturation of each protein at different concentrations of oxygen. What can be said about the differences in how hemoglobin and Myoglobin become saturated with Oxygen under equal partial pressures [concentrations]?

What events in the human body could enhance the reaction Hb(O2)4 → Hb + 402 where Hb = hemoglobin? (release of O2 from Hb/ affect the amount of oxygen carried by the blood)?

21. What causes the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal glands? 22. Summarize the role of each organ of the digestive system in mammalian Digestion:

a. Mouth (Amylase)

b. Esophagus

c. Stomach (pepsin, HCL)

d. Small intestine (Bile, Lipase, Trypsin, Secretin, absorption of nutrients, villi) Pancreas Liver Gall Bladder

e. Large Intestine (bacteria, Vitamins, Water) 23. The following information was gathered from a study to determine the relationship between structure and function in the

digestive tracts of several animals.

Mode of Nutrition

Body Length Intestinal Length

Intestinal Features

Components of Digestive

Tract Present

Percentage of Ingested Nutrients

Remaining in Feces

1 Carnivore 0.01 m 0.01 m Extensive branching

Mouth, pharynx, intestine

30% of ingested nutrients remaining

2 Carnivore 0.10 m 0.13m Villi and

folds in wall Mouth, esophagus, stomach,

intestine, accessory organs, anus 15% of ingested

nutrients remaining

3 Omnivore 1.83 m 5.62 m Villi and

folds in wall Mouth, esophagus, stomach,

intestine, accessory organs, anus 11% of ingested

nutrients remaining

4 Herbivore 2.59 m 7.92 m Villi and

folds in wall Mouth, esophagus, stomach,

intestine, accessory organs, anus 4% of ingested

nutrients remaining

5 Herbivore 1.98 m 21.33 m Villi and

folds in wall Mouth, esophagus, stomach,

intestine, accessory organs, anus 10% of ingested

nutrients remaining

a. What can be concluded about the relationship between intestinal length and body size for the organisms in the table?

b. Which of the animals is most likely to have, living in specialized areas of its digestive tract, abundant symbiotic bacteria that break down foods that the animal normally could not digest on its own?

c. Which animal has the least specialized digestive system? What might this be like?

d. Which animal is most efficient in absorbing the food it consumes?      

24. What is the role of Anterior pituitary? What are some feedback cycles it participates in? 25. Describe the cyclical nature of the estrous/menstrual cycle in mammals as maintained by a feedback system of glands,

organs and hormones?

26. Define each of the following: a. antigens b. interferons c. antibodies d. histamines 27. Describe how each of the following structures uses diffusion or active transport to transport substance across its

membranes: A. Small intestine (glucose/amino acids)

B. Nephron tubules (Na+/Cl+)

C. Capillaries (O2/CO2/White blood cells)

D. Alveoli (O2/CO2/Cl-/Water) 28. How does the Medulla control?

29. In the image above, a nerve impulse results in the moving of Ions in and out of the neuron, changing the membrane potential. Where in the images does the nerve impulse begin? How does membrane potential change at this point? What could prevent a nerve impulse from traveling along the neuron? 30. Identify the parts of the Neurons below. Name are

structures found there. Which direction does the impulse travel through?

Questions 31-32 refer to the following experiment, which is designed to test the effects of several chemicals on the contractility of skeletal muscle.

A frog femur with the gastrocnemius muscle attached is installed in a bone clamp as indicated in the accompanying figure. The sciatic nerve leading to the muscle is attached to a battery via electrical leads. A small weight is suspended from the free end of the Achilles tendon.

The entire preparation is rinsed in one of the five different solutions listed below. A brief stimulus is then applied to the sciatic nerve by closing the circuit to the battery. Three muscle responses are possible, depending on the solution with which the preparation has been rinsed: (1) the muscle will twitch once normally; (2) the muscle will go into sustained contraction until it is completely fatigued; and (3) the muscle will remain flaccid and not twitch at all.

Substance Added to Ringer's Rinsing

Solution

Mechanism of Action

None Provides an isotonic saline environment for the muscle

EDTA Binds free calcium ions

Botulin

Blocks the release of acetylcholine from presynaptic junctions

Malathion Inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase

Curare Binds to the acetylcholine receptor site in the synapse or myoneural junction

31. Which of the substances acts as a competitors of acetylcholine? 32. Which substance produces a sustained contraction (tetany) after a brief electrical stimulation of the sciatic nerve? 33. The first diagram to the right shows the levels of mRNA from two

different genes (bicoid and caudal) at different positions along the anterior- posterior axis of a Drosophila egg immediately before fertilization. The second diagram shows the levels of the two corresponding proteins along the anterior-posterior axis shortly after fertilization.

What is the reason the caudal protein begins to increase in the posterior end, but not the anterior end despite the presence of caudal mRNA in both ends?

34. The Hedgehog protein (Hh) plays a critical role during a certain period of embryo development, but it normally has no role

in adults except for the maintenance of adult stem cells. However, the Hedgehog protein has been detected in 70 percent of pancreatic cancer cell samples. As illustrated in the figures below, the Hedgehog protein binds to an integral membrane protein receptor known as Patched (Ptc), thus initiating a pathway of gene expression. When Hedgehog is absent, Ptc inhibits another protein known as Smoothened (Smo), which, in turn, blocks the activation of a group of proteins collectively known as the Hedgehog signaling complex (HSC). The inactivation is the result of proteolytic cleavage of one component of the HSC complex, a transcription factor known as Cubitus interruptus (Ci) (left side). When Hedgehog is present, it binds to Ptc, which prevents the inhibition of Smo by Ptc (right side). The result is that Ci remains intact and can enter the nucleus, where it binds to and activates certain genes.

One approach to treating patients with pancreatic cancer and other cancers in which the Hedgehog protein is detected is to modify the Hedgehog signaling pathway. Where in the cell can the cell signaling be stopped to prevent transcription of genes? (which components may be susceptible to inhibition?)