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The OdysseyStudy Guide by Course Hero
What's Inside
j Book Basics 1 .................................................................................................
d In Context 1 .....................................................................................................
a Author Biography 3 .....................................................................................
h Characters 3 ..................................................................................................
k Plot Summary 7 .............................................................................................
c Book Summaries 11 .....................................................................................
g Quotes 23 ........................................................................................................
l Symbols 25 ......................................................................................................
m Themes 25 .......................................................................................................
e Suggested Reading 27 ..............................................................................
j Book BasicsAUTHORHomer
YEARS WRITTENc. 725-675 BCE
GENREAdventure
PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATORThe Odyssey is told in the third-person omniscient perspective.
The narrator is Homer, although within his narration Odysseus
tells his own story in first person in Books 9-12.
TENSEThe Odyssey is told in the past tense and includes flashbacks.
ABOUT THE TITLEThe Odyssey refers to the story of its main character,
Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin). The word has come to mean any
long journey full of adventures, especially one with an
intellectual or spiritual goal.
d In Context
Greek Mythology
Homer set The Odyssey in Greece during the Bronze Age,
which is the period from about 1600 to 1100 BCE, before his
time. The Greeks believed that, in this ancient time, gods still
roamed the earth. But Homer inserted some elements from his
own time, such as the social structure of the early Iron Age
(1200–700 BCE) Greek culture in which he lived. Homer refers
to the Greeks in the epic as "Achaeans," the name of a tribe
that lived in Greece throughout the Bronze Age.
The ancient Greeks used their mythology to explain the world
and all its phenomena, from the cycle of day and night and the
passage of the seasons to the origins of particular landforms
and even flowers, as well as processes such as storms and
earthquakes. The Greeks, like most societies of the ancient
world, had multiple gods and goddesses. The gods lived chiefly
on Mt. Olympus, though some dwelt elsewhere. Zeus was the
ruler of the gods, and some of the major deities were his
siblings, such as Poseidon, or his children, such as Athena.
Gods could be associated with more than one power or
attribute. Athena, for example, was the goddess of war but was
also associated with cities, justice, skill in crafts, and wisdom.
The gods were immortal.
The Odyssey Study Guide In Context 2
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The gods had human form and characteristics. They could be
loving and jealous, generous and vengeful. They directed
human destiny and often interacted with humans. Along with
the 12 Olympian gods, the Greeks believed in many minor gods.
Among those who appear in The Odyssey are the Sirens,
Circe, and Calypso. The Greeks also believed in other kinds of
powerful beings, including giants—such as the one-eyed
Cyclopes—and monsters—such as Scylla and Charybdis. The
origins of these beings varied. The Cyclops Polyphemus was
the son of the sea god Poseidon and the sea nymph Thoosa;
nymphs were minor female deities who were not immortal. The
Greeks also believed in monsters such as the dangerous Scylla
and Charybdis, whom Odysseus and his men must evade.
The Iliad
The Odyssey is a continuation of The Iliad, which tells the story
of the 10-year-long war the Achaeans waged against the city
of Troy, in what is now Turkey, to recover Helen, the queen of
the Achaean king Menelaus of Sparta. Helen was taken to Troy
by Paris, a prince of that city. Archaeologists have found an
ancient site in northwestern Turkey where several different
layers of archaeological remains indicate human occupation
extending over more than two millennia. One of those layers
has evidence of houses closely clustered and facilities built for
food storage, as though the inhabitants had to live through an
extensive siege. This layer also shows the site destroyed by
fire and some evidence of widespread looting, which could be
linked to the Homeric sack of Troy.
The Odyssey picks up where The Iliad leaves off, after the fall
of Troy. It centers on one of the Greek warriors who fought in
the battle, Odysseus, and follows his 10-year journey back
home to his kingdom in Ithaca. The Greeks called this kind of
story nostos, meaning "the journey home." Odysseus also
figures prominently in The Iliad on several occasions. He is the
one who persuades the hero Achilles to join the Achaean
cause, and his persuasive powers are employed on several
other occasions. Athena gives him the stratagem of the
Achaeans building and then hiding a host in a giant wooden
horse before seeming to depart from the area in defeat. As
anticipated, the Trojans brought the horse into the city, and the
hidden warriors emerged from their hiding place at night and
opened the city gates to allow the remaining Achaean host to
enter and destroy the city.
Epic Poetry
An epic poem is a long narrative poem written in a grand or
lofty style that recounts the adventures of heroes; expresses
cultural values; and has cultural, national, or religious
significance. The word epic is actually derived from the Greek
epos, which means "lines" or "verses" and thus underscores
the poetic nature of the genre. In ancient Greece epics were
recited by bards, or singers, at special occasions. They were
transmitted orally for centuries before they were written down.
The Odyssey, which drew on this oral tradition, is one of the
oldest epics ever recorded in writing.
Epic poems have several characteristics. The Odyssey and
The Iliad helped establish several conventions of the epic.
These conventions include focus on a hero of cultural or
national importance who has many adventures, a wide
geographic scope with many settings, battles requiring heroic
deeds, possibly an extended journey, and the involvement of
supernatural beings such as gods. All of these elements are
present in The Odyssey.
Other conventions of literary epics involve how the story is
told—and these conventions are generally attributed to Homer.
Epic poems typically begin with an invocation of the Muse. The
Muses were the nine Greek goddesses of the various arts and
included Calliope, the goddess of epic poetry. The invocation is
the poet's request for divine inspiration. Epics begin in media
res, or in the middle of the action, rather than at the beginning.
Events leading to that point are related in flashbacks. Homeric
epics employ epithets, which are phrases associated with
particular characters or phenomena that are often presented
when that character or phenomena is referred to anew. Thus,
in The Odyssey Athena is often called "sparkling-eyed Athena"
or "the bright-eyed goddess," and the goddess Dawn is
referred to as "young Dawn with her rose-red fingers." Among
mortals Odysseus is often "godlike," "great-hearted," and
"much-enduring." Telemachus is frequently called "clear-
sighted," "clear-headed," and "pensive," and Menelaus is "the
red-haired king." These epithets are, in fact, units of meaning
fashioned to fit the meter of the poem that are variously used
depending on the metrical needs of a given line of poetry.
Finally, epics are traditionally divided into 24 sections, called
books.
Later epic poets consciously followed these conventions to
some extent. Both the Roman poet Virgil in the Aeneid and the
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English poet John Milton in Paradise Lost invoke the Muse and
begin in media res. Their epics have 12 rather than 24 books,
but that there are exactly half as many divisions as in Homer's
works clearly shows the influence of the Greek epics.
a Author BiographyLittle is known about the author called "Homer"—so little that
there is speculation he never existed. One theory posits that
he was a blind man who lived sometime during the 8th century
BCE and that the Greeks considered him to be their greatest
poet. Another theory holds that the name "Homer" merely
stands in for many authors who expanded on the story of The
Odyssey over generations. One thing that contemporary
historians can agree on is that, even if one person did indeed
write The Odyssey (and its companion, The Iliad), it had its
genesis in a long tradition of oral storytelling that wasn't
written down for centuries. These stories would be handed
down through generations, and each storyteller would add new
details or fine-tune the content. Who exactly Homer was
remains one of the great literary mysteries yet to be solved—a
mystery that scholars have named "the Homeric Question."
Despite the mystery around his origins and life, Homer has
influenced storytelling ever since his works came into being.
The Odyssey established the model of the epic quest and has
inspired countless retellings. This epic also provides a rare
poetic glimpse at life in ancient Greek society. Furthermore,
Homer employed a variety of literary devices, such as
metaphors, that have influenced authors for millennia.
h Characters
Odysseus
The protagonist of The Odyssey, Odysseus is a classic epic
hero. He is by turns cunning, deceitful, clever, prudent, wise,
courageous, and impulsive. A distinguishing characteristic
about him is that his mental skills are just as strong as his
physical strengths, and this ability helps him escape some
dangerous situations. Odysseus has weaknesses—a tendency
to give in to temptation, for example—as well as strengths.
Odysseus is on the long journey home from taking part in the
Achaeans' victory in the Trojan War, depicted in The Iliad. Glory
and honor have been the most important things in his life up to
this point, but now he yearns for his family and home.
Telemachus
Telemachus is Odysseus's son, and the two have not seen
each other in 20 years, since Telemachus was a baby. In many
ways Telemachus's journey as a character is as important as
his father's. Still growing up when the story begins, he must
learn to take charge and find the courage to dispel the hoards
of suitors who have besieged his home and his mother. Under
the guidance of Athena (who also guides his father), he
matures and gains confidence. His assertiveness upsets the
suitors, who have only seen him as a little boy up until the time
covered by the narrative. By the end of the epic, he is confident
and cunning, like his parents, practicing prudence and restraint
in order to defeat the suitors.
Penelope
Penelope is the wife of Odysseus and the mother of
Telemachus. When The Odyssey opens, she has been waiting
for Odysseus to return for 20 years. In that time her home has
become besieged by suitors who take advantage of her
hospitality and wait for her to choose one of them as a
husband. Yet a part of her still hopes that Odysseus will return,
and she uses ploys as deceptive as her husband's to fool the
suitors into waiting longer and longer. She does this by
claiming she will choose a husband as soon as she finishes
weaving a shroud for her father-in-law, Laertes. What the
suitors don't know is that by night she undoes the day's work,
which means that the shroud will never be finished. Penelope
proves herself to be just as shrewd and smart as her husband
throughout the epic.
Athena
Athena, a favorite of her father, Zeus, is the goddess who
appears most often in the epic. She has been watching over
Odysseus since his days fighting in Troy. She seems to have a
great fondness for Odysseus, in part because they are so
similar—prone to cunning and deception. She comes to
Odysseus's aid time and time again throughout The Odyssey,
The Odyssey Study Guide Characters 4
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though not always directly. She is often in disguise and will
usually direct Odysseus to people who can help him rather
than help him herself. She also helps Telemachus, because he
is Odysseus's son. Athena asks assistance from Zeus when
she needs it, and one reason she may not intervene more
obviously on Odysseus's behalf is because she is afraid to
incur the wrath of the god Poseidon, who is angry at Odysseus.
Zeus
Zeus is the ruler of the gods and is also the god of hospitality
and those who are lost. Athena is his daughter, and he will
usually come to her aid when she asks for help for Odysseus.
However, Poseidon is his brother—and Poseidon is determined
to punish Odysseus. This makes Zeus's decisions complicated
at times and unpredictable for Odysseus. However, Zeus
ultimately sends Odysseus omens that he is on the right track
and gives him support.
Poseidon
Poseidon is the god of the sea, which is unfortunately where
Odysseus spends much of his time on his journey home.
Poseidon bears a grudge against Odysseus for blinding his
son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. At every turn of Odysseus's
journey, Poseidon tries to thwart him, even gaining the blessing
of Zeus at one point to continue to do so. The final scene of
The Odyssey finds Odysseus making a sacrifice to Poseidon in
the hopes that the god will finally leave his family in peace.
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Character Map
Enchantress
Son
TelemachusSecondary hero;
journeys from boyhoodto manhood
Wife
Persecutor
Occasionalmeddler
PenelopeWife; hopes that Odysseus
will come home after20 years
CirceSorceress; turns
Odysseus's men intoswine and holds him
under a spell
PoseidonGod of the sea; holds a
grudge against Odysseusfor blinding his son
ZeusRuler of the gods andgod of wayfarers and
hospitality
AthenaGoddess of wisdom,
battle, and war;favors Odysseus
OdysseusEngaged on a long andarduous journey home
from war
ProtectorMother
Father
Brothers
Protector
Main character
Other Major Character
Minor Character
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Full Character List
Character Description
OdysseusThe protagonist and hero of the book, ona long and arduous journey home frombattle.
TelemachusOdysseus's son, who embarks on ajourney of his own—from boyhood tomanhood.
Penelope
Odysseus's wife and Telemachus'smother, she has waited for her husbandto come home for 20 years, fending offsuitors who have taken over her home.
Athena
The goddess of wisdom as well as battleand war, she watches over Odysseusand intervenes on his behalf to get himhome safely.
Zeus
The ruler of the gods, he is the father ofAthena and the brother of Poseidon, aswell as the god of wayfarers andhospitality.
PoseidonThe god of the sea, who holds a grudgeagainst Odysseus for blinding his son,the Cyclops Polyphemus.
AchillesA warrior friend of Odysseus who died inthe Trojan War, he is visited by Odysseusin the Land of the Dead.
AeolusA master of winds, he gives Odysseus amagical pouch full of seafaring winds tohelp him on his journey.
Alcinous
The king of the Phaeacians, he hostsOdysseus in his kingdom and hearsOdysseus's stories about his journey sofar.
Amphinomus One of Penelope's suitors, he stands outdue to his kindness and reason.
AnticleiaOdysseus's mother, she meets him in theLand of the Dead and informs him ofwhat has happened in his home.
Antinous
The leader of the suitors, he is themeanest and most antagonistic towardOdysseus when the latter appears inIthaca in disguise.
Arete The queen of the Phaeacians, she is wifeof Alcinous and mother of Nausicaa.
CalypsoA nymph, or minor goddess, she kidnapsOdysseus when he lands on her islandand keeps him there for seven years.
CirceA minor goddess and sorceress, she fallsfor Odysseus and keeps him under herspell for a year.
Charybdis This monster has the form of a whirlpoolthat Odysseus must face and survive.
DemodocusA bard in Alcinous's court, he movesOdysseus to tears when he sings songsabout the Trojan War.
ElpenorOne of Odysseus's men, he dies duringthe journey home and must be returnedby Odysseus to Ithaca for a proper burial.
EumaeusA swineherd in Ithaca, he is loyal toOdysseus and aids him in the battleagainst the suitors.
EurycleiaOdysseus's childhood nurse, sherecognizes him by a scar he received asa child.
EurymachusOne of Penelope's suitors, he tries toguide the behavior of other suitorsthrough the power of persuasion.
Halitherses A citizen of Ithaca loyal to Odysseus, heis skilled in reading omens.
Hermes Son of Zeus, he is a messenger god Zeussends to help Odysseus on occasion.
Laertes
Odysseus's father, he has been deeplyaffected by the disappearance of his sonand is reunited with him at the end of theepic.
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Menelaus
The king of Sparta, who fought withOdysseus in the Trojan War, he recountshis stories about Odysseus toTelemachus.
Mentor
A trusted member of Odysseus'shousehold, Mentor is entrusted byOdysseus with teaching and guidingTelemachus while he is away at theTrojan War.
NausicaaThe princess of the Phaeacians, she isthe daughter of Alcinous and the first todiscover Odysseus in their kingdom.
Nestor
The king of Pylos, who fought withOdysseus in the Trojan War, he recountshis stories about Odysseus toTelemachus.
PhiloetiusA cowherd and loyal servant ofOdysseus, he helps the hero exact hisrevenge on the suitors.
Polyphemus Son of Poseidon, he is a one-eyedCyclops who is blinded by Odysseus.
Pisistratus Nestor's son, he accompaniesTelemachus on his journey.
Scylla This monster with six heads is anotherdanger Odysseus must escape.
SirensCreatures that live at sea and aredisguised as women, they lure sailors totheir deaths by singing bewitching songs.
TiresiasA blind prophet, he meets Odysseus inthe Land of the Dead and warns him ofwhat's to come.
k Plot SummaryThe Odyssey picks up the story of Odysseus 10 years into his
journey home from the Trojan War, which itself had lasted 10
years. The story opens with Odysseus being held captive by
the goddess Calypso on a remote island. Back in his home city,
Ithaca, his wife, Penelope, is being besieged by suitors, who
have moved into her home, taking advantage of the ancient
Greek custom of hospitality. Telemachus, son of Odysseus and
Penelope, must watch the suitors take over their house, waiting
for Penelope to choose a new husband. All—except
Penelope—assume Odysseus is dead after his 20-year
absence.
Athena, the goddess of war, has been watching over Odysseus
since the Trojan War. She feels protective toward him and asks
Zeus to help her free Odysseus from Calypso's island. Zeus
sends his son Hermes to aid Odysseus in his escape. At the
same time, Athena goes to Ithaca to offer help to Penelope
and Telemachus. She advises the son to leave Ithaca to find
information on the whereabouts of his father. The suitors take
note of the newfound courage and authority that Telemachus
displays, and they conspire to murder him when he returns to
Ithaca. On his visit to King Menelaus on the island of Sparta,
Telemachus learns that Odysseus is alive.
Hermes helps free Odysseus, who sails to the land of the
Phaeacians. Exhausted, he collapses on the shore, where the
princess Nausicaa discovers him. She leads him to the king,
Alcinous, and his queen, Arete. There Odysseus tells them the
story of his travels thus far. He and his men had run into a
number of trials on their way home to Ithaca. They nearly lost
themselves and their memories in the land of the Lotus-eaters
and then incurred the wrath of Poseidon by blinding his son,
the Cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus and his crew were given a
pouch full of sailing winds by Aeolus, but curiosity got the best
of his men and they accidentally released the winds, which
blew them off course and far from home. They encountered
cannibals and witches, Odysseus visited the Land of the Dead,
they avoided the lure of the deadly songs of the Sirens, and
they escaped from numerous monsters. Odysseus lost his men
one by one, and the rest were wiped out when they ate the
cattle of Helios, which the blind prophet Tiresias had warned
Odysseus about. They were punished by a single lightning bolt
sent down by Zeus, which destroyed Odysseus's ship. He
washed ashore on the island of Ogygia, where Calypso held
him captive for seven long years.
Hearing the stories of Odysseus's journey, King Alcinous
comes to his aid by providing him with a ship. Athena also
helps Odysseus once again, forewarning him of the chaos at
home in Ithaca and informing him that the worst is yet to come.
She disguises Odysseus as a beggar and tells him to stop in at
the farm of his old friend, the swineherd Eumaeus, before he
goes to his house. She also orchestrates the reunion between
Odysseus and Telemachus, whom she has advised to come
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home. Telemachus relates to Odysseus the behavior of the
suitors, and they plot the mass murder of the suitors to restore
honor to their home.
A few characters begin to recognize Odysseus through his
disguise—among them his childhood dog Argos and his
childhood nurse Eurycleia. However, his wife, Penelope, does
not recognize him. When the suitors encounter Odysseus
disguised as a beggar, they are cruel to him, taunting him and
making him fight another beggar. But Odysseus is able to
practice restraint and bide his time until his plan can be
enacted. Penelope declares that she will hold a contest to
choose her next husband—whoever can master Odysseus's
bow to shoot down a row of axes will win. When the contest
begins, none of the suitors can so much as string the bow.
The still-disguised Odysseus volunteers to undertake the
challenge, to the chagrin of the suitors, but Penelope allows
him to try. He strings the bow and shoots through the axes
easily. The suitors are shocked, and Odysseus, taking
advantage of their confusion, begins to kill them and the
serving women who helped them. Athena once again offers
aid, and Telemachus and loyal servants join in as well. Finally,
Odysseus and Penelope are reunited, but not without a final
test on the part of Penelope to ensure Odysseus's identity.
However, they cannot live happily ever after just yet—the
families of the slain suitors want revenge. The gods finally
intervene, with both Athena and Zeus commanding peace.
Odysseus's final journey is to see his father and then to offer a
sacrifice to Poseidon, so that the god will leave him and his
family in peace.
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Plot Diagram
Falling ActionRising Action
Resolution
Climax
12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Introduction
Introduction
1. Telemachus leaves Ithaca to learn his father's fate.
Rising Action
2. Menelaus tells Telemachus that Odysseus is still alive.
3. Calypso, on Zeus's orders, reluctantly lets Odysseus depart.
4. Odysseus is shipwrecked and found by Nauticaa.
5. Odysseus tells adventures to Alcionus, who promises aid.
6. Odysseus, Telemachus meet in Ithaca for revenge.
7. Suitors taunt Odysseus, disguised as beggar.
8. Penelope tells Odysseus of her test for suitors.
Climax
9. Odysseus passes Penelope's test; suitors killed.
Falling Action
10. Odysseus passes final test, confirms identity.
11. Odysseus makes needed sacrifice to Poseidon.
Resolution
12. Odysseus reconciles with Laertes.
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Timeline of Events
10 years before present
After the Trojan War ends, Odysseus embarks on his
journey home to Ithaca.
10 to 7 years before present
Odysseus and his men face a series of trials sailing
home; his men are killed.
7 years before present
Odysseus's raft washes ashore on the island of Calypso,
who holds him captive for 7 years.
Very recently
Odysseus is rescued by Hermes at Athena's request.
The present
Suitors besiege Penelope and Telemachus, and
Telemachus leaves to find news of Odysseus.
Upon rescue
Odysseus sails to the land of the Phaeacians and tells of
his journey since the end of the war.
Days later
Odysseus returns to Ithaca in disguise and with
Telemachus plots revenge on the suitors.
Next day
Odysseus and Telemachus slaughter the suitors with
Athena's help.
Same day
Odysseus and Penelope are reunited.
Some days later
Odysseus visits his father and offers a sacrifice to
Poseidon so his family can live in peace.
The Odyssey Study Guide Book Summaries 11
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c Book SummariesThe Odyssey is divided into 24 books. The first four describe
the difficulties faced by Telemachus, the son of Odysseus.
Books 5–12 describe the adventures the hero encounters on
his way home. Books 13–24 tell how Odysseus returns to
Ithaca and is finally reunited with his wife, Penelope, and his
son. In this guide some books that describe continuous or
related actions have been combined for the purpose of
analysis.
Book 1
Summary
The Odyssey opens with the poet asking the Muse of Epic
Poetry, Calliope, to inspire him in the telling of this story.
The opening scene is on Mt. Olympus, with the gods, and
provides an example of Olympian diplomacy. Athena attempts
to persuade her father, Zeus, to let Odysseus return to his
family and home in Ithaca, where Odysseus's wife, Penelope, is
busy fighting off suitors who are keen to replace the
presumed-dead Odysseus. Athena convinces Zeus that
Hermes should be allowed to rescue Odysseus. Zeus agrees
and also tells Poseidon to leave Odysseus alone.
Odysseus, the story's protagonist and hero, has been stranded
on the island of Ogygia for years. He's being held captive by a
nymph, Calypso, who is in love with him. Additionally, Odysseus
is hiding from the god of the sea, Poseidon, who is angry that
Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus the Cyclops.
Athena descends from the heavens to counsel Odysseus's
son, Telemachus, who has been unable to regain control of his
home from Penelope's suitors. She goes to Ithaca disguised as
Mentes, an old friend of the family. There she tells Telemachus
that Odysseus will be returning home soon, but until then
Telemachus needs to protect his mother and their home from
the onslaught of suitors courting Penelope. The suitors are
surprised when Telemachus finally tells them to leave—one of
them notes that his confidence seems to have "come from the
gods," adding "only the gods could teach you/to sound so high
and mighty!"
Analysis
Book 1 introduces some of the multitudes of characters, many
interwoven plots, and significant themes encountered during
Odysseus's return home. Readers hear of the captive and long
absent Odysseus, observe the council of the gods, and learn of
the trouble that Penelope and Telemachus face back home in
Ithaca.
Through these situations Homer introduces important thematic
elements as well. Hospitality to strangers, strict protocols for
behavior toward the gods, the crafts and skills of a hero, and
the preservation of one's fame all figure here. Odysseus's
reputation and legacy are inseparable from his heroism, and
they make more difficult Penelope's choices when dealing with
the suitors. Both Athena and Zeus seem to be on Odysseus's
side, but Odysseus has angered Poseidon, whose power has
forced Odysseus to stay with Calypso.
Why does Penelope, Odysseus's wife, allow these potential
suitors to eat and drink their way through her wealth? While
reputation was crucial in ancient Greece, how one treated
guests was even more so. Strangers relied upon the hospitality
of others to survive. Penelope is bound by social customs to
allow the suitors into her home and to provide for them
generously—even if the suitors break the rules of the custom,
overstay their welcome, and take advantage of Odysseus's
absence. Penelope (and Odysseus by extension) is judged by
how well she treats the suitors. This is why Athena intervenes,
encouraging Telemachus to stand up for his family as the man
of the house, whom the suitors must respect. The Odyssey,
therefore, unfolds a parallel journey for Telemachus. With his
father absent, he needs the guidance of a god, Athena, on his
road to becoming a man. Athena's attention to him indicates
that he is a worthy hero, like his father—she would not bother
with him otherwise. She notes an "uncanny" physical
resemblance between the son and his father, which firmly
connects the two.
Telemachus demonstrates strength in taking the role of male
head of the family. When a bard sings the song of the
Achaeans' journey home from Troy, Penelope asks him to
desist, but Telemachus chides her and tells her to take heart
and summon courage. His chiding might be seen as lacking
filial respect, but Penelope accepts his words, accepting "the
clear good sense in what her son had said."
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Book 2
Summary
Telemachus gathers an assembly of Achaeans to make his
case for removing the suitors from his home. The suitors are
not behaving according to custom. Rather than seeking
permission from her father to marry Penelope, they stay at
Odysseus's home, consuming his wine, sheep, and goats.
Helped by Athena, who has applied her powers to make him
appear intimidating and confident, Telemachus threatens them
with vengeance from the gods for their behavior. One of the
suitors, Antinous, says that Penelope has led them on,
promising that she would choose a husband from among them
once she finishes the shroud she is weaving for Laertes. But
they now know from one of Penelope's maids that by night
Penelope undoes that day's weaving, indefinitely postponing
the decision.
Just after the angry Telemachus expresses his hope that the
suitors will be punished, Zeus sends an omen of two eagles.
The soothsayer Halitherses proclaims that this omen
prophesies the death of the suitors. The suitors scoff at these
words. Telemachus says he is finished trying to reason with the
suitors, and the suitors refuse to leave. On Athena's
instructions, he asks for a ship and crew in order to take to the
sea to seek information on the whereabouts of Odysseus.
Under disguise once again, Athena reassures Telemachus that
he will find success by searching for Odysseus. Athena then
disguises herself as Telemachus and gathers a crew and ship.
She also sends the ship a strong wind that will aid their
navigation. The old nurse, Eurycleia, implores Telemachus not
to go to sea as his father had done, but he reassures her by
sharing his sense that a god is assisting him.
Analysis
Book 2 finds Telemachus confronted with a growing fear that
he is not as courageous and smart as his father, Odysseus.
However, he comes from not one but two clever
parents—Penelope's shroud-weaving trick shows that she is
every bit as shrewd as her husband. As Telemachus confronts
the suitors, he demonstrates how he is growing into his new
role as man. He also remains calm in the face of the suitors'
insulting his mother, responding with logic rather than heated
emotion. He is bolstered in all this by the support of Athena.
Indeed, when the ship departs, she assumed "the pilot's
seat"—clear indication that she is setting the young man's
course—and "sent them a stiff following wind"—showing that
she powers him on his journey.
Telemachus also shows his concern for his mother's state of
mind. He instructs the nurse, Eurycleia, not to tell Penelope of
his departure lest she worry and "mar her lovely face with
tears."
The eagle symbol appears for the first time and in a powerful
way. Halitherses, an Ithacan loyal to Odysseus, reveals the
meaning, which foreshadows the epic's end and the suitors'
destruction. Augurs like Halitherses were vital links that
connected the gods to mortals, explaining the fate that
awaited humans. To the Greeks, the gods set their destiny;
mortals' lot was to make the choices they face, await the
unfolding of that destiny, and accept responsibility for their
actions.
Books 3–4
Summary
Book 3
Telemachus and Athena, disguised as Mentor, reach Pylos,
King Nestor's land, and witness an enormous ceremony in
which 4,500 people are sacrificing dozens of bulls to the god
Poseidon. Athena encourages Telemachus to pay close
attention to how Nestor acts and to be bold in his questions
about Odysseus. Nestor has little information about Odysseus,
but he relates the story of Agamemnon. That king had left
Aegisthus, a cousin, to rule in his stead when he departed for
the Trojan War, but Aegisthus seized the throne and became
the lover of Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra. When the
warrior returned, the usurper and betrayer killed him; the king's
death was then avenged by his son, Orestes, and daughter
Electra. Nestor advises Telemachus to visit Agamemnon's
brother, Menelaus, in Sparta and offers the help of his son
Pisistratus. He also refuses to let Telemachus sleep on his ship
and insists he spend the night in his own home, an act of
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hospitality for which Athena compliments him. Then she
transforms herself into an eagle and flies off. Nestor,
recognizing that Mentor and the eagle were both the bright-
eyed goddess, vows to make a sacrifice to honor her.
Book 4
Telemachus and Nestor's son Pisistratus are greeted in Sparta
by Menelaus and his queen, Helen, whose abduction caused
the Trojan War. Menelaus recounts his return home, delayed at
first when he was forced to remain on the island of Pharos as
punishment for an inadequate sacrifice to the gods. He and his
trusted men had to to find the solution to their predicament by
wrestling with the shape-shifting god Proteus, but their
perseverance finally forced Proteus to reveal how to leave the
island and appease the gods. He also informs Menelaus of the
death of his brother, Agamemnon, and the status of other
Greek heroes, including Odysseus. Menelaus tells Telemachus
that he would give up his riches for the chance to have
returned home sooner and avenged his brother.
Menelaus and Helen both tell Telemachus their memories of
Odysseus's bravery and cunning, and Telemachus is deeply
moved by their fondness for his father. Menelaus, in turn, is
upset when he hears about Penelope's suitors. He tells
Telemachus that he has heard that Odysseus is alive but
trapped by the nymph Calypso on the island of Ogygia.
Back in Ithaca Penelope and the suitors discover Telemachus's
departure. The suitors plan to assassinate him upon his return,
and Penelope is alarmed when she hears of the plot. Athena
assuages her fears by sending her a phantom in the form of
Penelope's sister who reassures her that Athena is with
Telemachus and protecting him. The phantom does not,
however, tell Penelope of Odysseus's whereabouts or
condition.
Analysis
Telemachus begins to learn the lessons of what it is to be a
man in Book 3, as he begins his journey. Raised fatherless, he
needs to see and be told the proper ways to behave. His first
lesson is the importance of appeasing the gods, as shown by
Nestor's sacrifice to Poseidon. Devotion to the gods is a duty
for mortals, and the lesson is reinforced when Nestor makes a
sacrifice to Athena after her transformation into an eagle.
Menelaus's tale of being stranded on Pharos because of an
inadequate sacrifice underscores the lesson further: do not
stint on devotions to the gods, or punishment will be sure and
swift.
Nestor and Menelaus both reinforce the importance of
hospitality as well. Nestor honors Telemachus in insisting that
the young man stay in his home and then providing him with a
fine chariot and noble horses to undertake his journey to
Sparta. That both kings treat him well even when his identity as
Odysseus's son is unknown to them shows how deeply
hospitality is valued.
The Agamemnon story (which Greek audiences would be
familiar with) reflects on the situation back in Ithaca.
Penelope's steadfastness contrasts with Clytemnestra's
adultery; the loyalty of Orestes and Electra serves as a model
for Telemachus. Nestor also gives him a warning: "Don't rove
from home too long," he says, "leaving your own holdings
unprotected." A man must be ever vigilant.
Helen's and Menelaus's stories about Odysseus tell
Telemachus more about his father and the devotion that he
inspired in others—Menelaus mentions that he feels keenly
sorry for Odysseus for all he has suffered. Helen's story shows
Odysseus's steadfastness and strong leadership.
Menelaus's struggle with Proteus is another instance of the
theme of deception. The god who changes shapes is difficult
to overcome, but Menelaus and his men were able to do so and
thus obtain the secret of how to manage their departure from
Pharos. Persistence pays; it will lead the way to the truth.
It's also interesting to note that, while Athena sends Penelope
reassurance about her son in the form of a phantom omen, she
refuses to answer Penelope's questions about Odysseus. This
begs the question of just how much the gods believe they
should interfere in the lives of mortals.
Book 5
Summary
Book 5 opens on Mount Olympus at another council of the
gods. Athena once again asks Zeus to assist Odysseus, and
Zeus decides to send Hermes to help him break free of his
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captivity by the "lustrous" Calypso. However, Zeus warns that
Odysseus's journey home will not be easy. Athena is also
reminded that she must continue aiding Telemachus in his
journey home, particularly when it comes to the suitors' plans
to murder him.
Calypso is taken by surprise when Hermes arrives with strict
instructions from Zeus to free Odysseus and comments on the
double standard of male gods, who allow themselves to
philander with mortal women but deny the same freedom to
goddesses. She grudgingly agrees to let him go. Our first
glimpse of Odysseus finds him crying and homesick. He is in
disbelief that Calypso would free him. She warns him that his
journey home will be difficult and that, if he knew what lay
ahead of him, he would stay. But Odysseus says he longs to
return to his home and to Penelope. Supplied with tools by
Calypso, Odysseus builds himself a ship, which he outfits with
a sail using cloth she furnishes. He departs.
Odysseus's difficulties begin soon after leaving Calypso's
island. Poseidon conjures up a storm that shatters Odysseus's
ship, though, once the hero is forced to swim to land, Poseidon
abandons his torment. Athena and a sea nymph come to his
rescue, but, when the waters become turbulent again,
Odysseus prays to Poseidon for relief. Poseidon finally relents
and allows him to reach the island of Scheria, where the
Phaeacians reside.
Analysis
Athena wins Zeus's agreement to help Odysseus through her
powers of argument and persuasion—powers Odysseus has as
well. She appeals to Zeus by pointing to Odysseus's role as a
ruler, in which he showed himself "kindly as a father to his
children."
The first look at Odysseus may surprise some readers, who
expect a gallant and brave hero. He is crying openly, seemingly
defeated by the idea that he will ever make it back home to
Ithaca. Greek heroes expressed emotion openly; this scene
would not have been a shock to Homer's audience.
Odysseus mistrusts Calypso when she first tells him she will let
him go, which again raises the theme of deception. She vows
not to harm him, which wins his trust, but this challenge to a
character's truthfulness is a pattern that will recur in the epic.
Odysseus's ability to build a ship by himself shows his great
skill and craftsmanship. This characteristic links him to Athena
again, as she was the goddess of skills and crafts. His ability to
sail the ship alone is another substantial skill, one that the
seafaring Greeks would much admire.
When Calypso rails against the gods' double standard
regarding relations with mortals, she gives several examples. In
the end, though, she must comply with Zeus, the all-powerful.
Poseidon, too, is forced to follow Zeus's command and let
Odysseus sail his ship to Scheria, though that doesn't stop him
from splintering the ship into pieces and casting the hero into
the sea. His frustration at being forced to obey Zeus may have
been assuaged somewhat by Odysseus's pitiable plea for
mercy.
Books 6–7
Summary
Book 6
Athena schemes to introduce Odysseus to the daughter of the
Phaeacian king Alcinous, Nausicaa. She lures Nausicaa and her
maids near the shore where Odysseus has been sleeping, and
he is roused by the sound of them playing nearby. The maids
scatter as Odysseus approaches them, because he is naked
but for a few well-placed leaves. Nausicaa remains and listens
while Odysseus pleads with her to help him. Given the strict
Greek code of hospitality, Nausicaa agrees to help him, but she
tells him to enter alone and to ask Arete, the queen, for help.
Book 7
Odysseus calls upon Athena for guidance once again, and she
obliges by cloaking him in an obscuring mist. She moves
toward King Alcinous's palace and he follows. Athena tells him
his best bet is to pay attention to the queen, Arete, who has a
great deal of influence in her husband's kingdom. Once inside
the palace, Odysseus throws himself at Arete's feet and begs
her to help him. Alcinous declares that he will help Odysseus
get home, even though he is still in the dark as to the man's
identity. Arete is suspicious when she realizes that Odysseus is
wearing clothes she recognizes. This leads Odysseus to tell
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the king and queen how he met their daughter, Nausicaa.
Impressed with Odysseus's sense of respect and honor toward
his daughter, Alcinous tells Odysseus that he wishes Nausicaa
could marry him but agrees to help Odysseus by providing a
ship to take him home.
Analysis
The deception theme appears frequently in these two books,
from Athena's obscuring mist to Nausicaa's secret advice to
Odysseus and his own behavior in not admitting his true
identity when he first appears before Alcinous and Arete.
Alcinous nearly mistakes him for a god in disguise, implying
that it is not unusual for gods to disguise themselves as
mortals. The confusion also plays off an epithet often applied
to Odysseus throughout the epic—"godlike." Though mortal, he
has divine-seeming qualities, marking him as a worthy hero.
Those qualities shine through, even when Odysseus seems
nothing more than a tired, suffering man who yearns to return
to his home.
The themes of hospitality and devotion to the gods also
reemerge in the scene at the Phaeacians' palace. Alcinous and
Arete are generous in providing a feast to Odysseus even
though they do not know who he is. Similarly, Alcinous's
promise to provide him with a ship and crew shows great
kindness to a stranger. Alcinous's vow to sacrifice to the gods
before Odysseus departs recognizes that ventures should
begin only after proper devotion has been paid to the gods.
This hospitality and proper piety parallels what Telemachus
experienced with Nestor, linking father and son in their
adventures as they are linked by character.
Book 8
Summary
Alcinous calls his people to the meeting grounds, unknowingly
aided by Athena, who helps rouse interest. He commands his
citizens to find a ship and crew to help take Odysseus home to
Ithaca, promising that once a crew is found they will hold a
celebratory feast. During the celebration a bard named
Demodocus tells the legend of a verbal battle between
Agamemnon and Odysseus during the Trojan War. The
memories stirred by the song cause Odysseus to weep, and,
though he tries to hide it, the king notices and distracts the
crowd by suggesting they begin an athletic competition.
Odysseus is invited to take part in the competition, but he
declines, blaming his weariness from traveling. One of the
champions teases him, and Odysseus, angered, agrees to take
part in the games to prove him wrong. Odysseus easily wins
the competition, claiming he will defeat anyone who challenges
him. After the competition and another song by Demodocus,
the king calls upon his people to give Odysseus gifts for his
voyage. Demodocus sings a final song about how the
Achaeans and Odysseus defeated Troy due to Odysseus's
courage. Odysseus weeps again at the story, which the
watchful king once again notices, prompting him to ask
Odysseus to reveal himself.
Analysis
Alcinous proves himself to be a keen observer, as he notices
how Odysseus weeps at Demodocus's tales. Odysseus has
been careful to guard his identity, but the taunting at the
athletic competition stirs his need to prove his honor. It's likely
that Alcinous has guessed Odysseus's identity by this point.
This tension between reality and illusion is part of the
deception theme that is woven through The Odyssey. The
scenes with Demodocus give a glimpse into the role of the
bard in ancient Greek society. These storytellers related the
adventures of the gods and heroes, passing on Greek
values—as well as providing considerable entertainment. Their
position was considered important in a society in which many
people couldn't read. The speculation that Homer was blind is
based on this scene, particularly the fact that Demodocus is
blind. Some scholars and historians have suggested that
Homer put himself in his own tale, but this view is not widely
accepted. There were many bards in Homer's time who played
the role of storyteller for their audiences.
Book 9
Summary
Now that Alcinous and the Phaeacians know Odysseus's
identity, they ask him to relate where he's been since the war
ended. Odysseus recounts his adventures.
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After the Achaeans defeated Troy, he and his men sailed to a
different city, which they plundered. Odysseus warned his
army that they needed to leave quickly, but he was ignored.
The people of the city launched a counterattack, forcing
Odysseus and his men to hastily retreat back to sea. After
being blown off course by storms, they came to a land
inhabited by Lotus-eaters. After eating the lotus fruit,
Odysseus's army soon began to forget their memories of
home.
Odysseus was finally able to get his crew back on course, but
they soon found themselves in the land of the lawless
Cyclopes, giants with only one eye. Odysseus and a few men
were captured by one named Polyphemus, and, after the giant
killed and ate six of his men, Odysseus used his cunning to
escape. Odysseus tricked Polyphemus by telling him his name
was "Nobody," a name that would come in handy when he
made his escape. When Polyphemus fell asleep, Odysseus
drove a stake into his eye to blind him. The giant's screams
brought other Cyclopes to his cave, but, when they asked who
was hurting him, he responded "Nobody." After the others
departed, Odysseus revealed his true identity, not realizing that
Polyphemus was Poseidon's son. His true name didn't surprise
Polyphemus—the entire episode had been prophesied.
Polyphemus called upon his father to avenge him by ensuring
that Odysseus would either never make it home to Ithaca or
suffer greatly en route.
Analysis
This book and the next three are largely told in flashback, as
Odysseus fills in the details of his adventures over the past 10
years. His retelling reveals mistakes that he made, as well as
the courageous or cunning actions he took. Odysseus is fairly
direct in his recitation.
Even though Odysseus is initially hesitant in revealing his
identity to Alcinous and the Phaeacians, his reputation as a war
hero serves him well in this world. At this point Odysseus's
wanderings seem to be patterned on the typical hero's journey:
here he recounts the many trials he encountered that brought
him the necessary wisdom and insight he needed to truly
become a great leader. This wisdom is every bit as important
as his noted bravery and cunning in keeping himself alive.
The episode with the Lotus-eaters shines a light on a recurring
theme in The Odyssey: temptation. Just as Odysseus is
tempted by the allure of Calypso and Nausicaa, so are his men
tempted by the lure of forgetting that comes with ingesting the
lotus. In the same way that Odysseus is ultimately able to
break free of his temptation, so, too, is he able to convince his
men to leave before their ambition and drive have dried up and
been forgotten.
Odysseus's encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus reveals
why Poseidon has such antagonism toward him. Though
Odysseus escapes the giant through cunning, he makes the
mistake of revealing his true name to Polyphemus, thereby
securing the wrath of Poseidon. Even though Odysseus has
heroic qualities, he has some potentially fatal flaws as well. His
hubris, or excessive pride, is his tragic flaw, or hamartia, as the
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) called it. This flaw
connects Odysseus to many other Greek heroes. As in their
cases, it causes him a great deal of suffering, though it is clear
by his recounting of this story that he has gained wisdom from
his mistakes. The fact that Odysseus's assault on Polyphemus
was foretold brings up the theme of fate again.
Book 10
Summary
Odysseus and his men sailed on and landed at the home of
Aeolus, where they stayed for a month. Aeolus, master of the
winds, gave Odysseus a pouch that contained all of the winds
that would have driven their ship off course. The remaining
winds will help guide them back home to Ithaca. Ten days later
the ship was so near Ithaca that they could see the island.
While Odysseus slept his men discovered the pouch full of
winds and accidentally unleashed them, bringing on storms
that sent them off course again. With the helpful winds gone,
Odysseus and his men were forced to row their ship. They
reached a land inhabited by giant cannibals, the
Laestrygonians. The cannibals attacked them, spearing
Odysseus's men and devouring them. After Odysseus and his
remaining men escaped, they sailed to the island of Aeaea,
where the goddess Circe—a "nymph with lovely braids"—lives.
She fed a few of Odysseus's men a potion that turned them
into pigs and made them forget their memories. To escape,
Odysseus called upon Hermes. Hermes advised Odysseus to
find a plant that would counteract Circe's potion and render
him immune. He also advised Odysseus on how to overpower
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Circe should she attack. Odysseus and his men stayed on
Circe's island for a year but grew increasingly restless. During
this time Elpenor, one of the men, died in a drunken fall from
Circe's roof. Circe told Odysseus to travel to the Land of the
Dead to speak to the prophet Tiresias.
Analysis
Odysseus reveals another flaw in Book 10 that compounds his
hubris—poor judgment. He and his men are so close to home,
and yet Odysseus neglects to guard closely the pouch of
winds or even to stay awake. These mistakes cost him and his
men dearly. By the same token, the men demonstrate their
willingness to succumb to temptation, the downfall of mortals.
When Odysseus and his men are blown back to Aeolus's
island, the wind master refuses to help Odysseus further.
Odysseus's poor judgment costs him again in the land of the
Laestrygonians, when he sends his men to investigate, only to
see them killed.
Odysseus's interactions with Hermes are similar to those he
has with Athena. When Hermes acts he does so indirectly, as
Athena does, giving Odysseus advice on how to disarm Circe
but leaving it to Odysseus to take the steps necessary to
implement that advice.
Even after following Hermes's instructions and evading Circe's
spell, Odysseus chooses to stay with her for so long that his
crew grows restless and has to urge him to resume their
journey home. Once again Odysseus succumbs to temptation:
Circe has become his lover.
The death of Elpenor introduces another element to the story:
the need to give him a proper burial. Odysseus's obligation to
take care of this matter is one of his responsibilities as a
leader. Leaders have duties to those under them, just as their
followers owe them allegiance and obedience.
Book 11
Summary
Odysseus followed Circe's instructions and reached the Land
of the Dead. There he encountered Elpenor, who demanded a
proper burial, which Odysseus promised to carry out.
Odysseus then saw his mother, whom he did not know had
died. Finally, Tiresias appeared and told Odysseus that he
could make it home alive but would face much peril and
heartache along the way due to his conflict with Poseidon. He
also warned Odysseus that, if his men were to kill the cattle of
Helios, they would perish. Lastly, he advised Odysseus to make
a sacrifice to Poseidon after arriving home if he wanted to live
the rest of his life in peace.
Odysseus ends his storytelling and asks Alcinous and Arete
again for help getting home. They agree—on the condition that
he remain a while to elaborate on his experience in the Land of
the Dead. Odysseus recounts his meeting with such heroes as
Ajax, Hercules, and Achilles. He explains that Agamemnon told
him that Clytemnestra's betrayal marked all women as
untrustworthy and urged him to be cautious when he finally
returns home.
Analysis
Finding the Land of the Dead represents another trial and test
that Odysseus must face, and it is as much a mental trial as it
is a physical one. Odysseus is forced to confront his memories
of the people he has lost, as well as his own sense of mortality.
This journey to the Land of the Dead became a standard
feature of epics and of the journey of the hero.
Tiresias notes that Odysseus has incurred the ongoing wrath
of Poseidon and that their struggle is far from over. But
Tiresias does encourage Odysseus by saying that, if he
exercises good judgment, he will be able to outsmart Poseidon
and make it home to Ithaca safely. However, Tiresias notes
that Odysseus will arrive home as "a broken man," having lost
all of his men. He also hints that Odysseus's home is in chaos
and turmoil. Tiresias's advice to Odysseus sets up another trial
Odysseus and his men must face: what will they do if they
encounter the cattle of Helios?
Agamemnon's tale reintroduces the contrast between
Clytemnestra and Penelope. His embittered criticism of all
women based on his wife's infidelity underscores how loyal and
faithful Penelope has been—especially considering that she
had to remain faithful much longer than Clytemnestra had to.
Agamemnon's warning to be secretive and cautious when he
finally reaches his home foreshadows what Odysseus does.
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Book 12
Summary
Odysseus resumes his narrative. Because Odysseus promised
Elpenor in the Land of the Dead that he would give him a
proper burial, he returned to Circe's island to give him his
funeral rites. Before he departed for home, Circe advised
Odysseus on how to avoid the Sirens, who lure sailors into
shipwrecks with their hypnotic songs. Odysseus followed her
advice and had his men stuff their ears with wax so they would
not hear the song. He was curious, though, and, instead of
blocking his hearing, had his men bind him tightly against the
mast so he could not break free. He was tormented by the
song, but the ship got past the danger. After the Sirens they
had to avoid the Wandering Rocks—which only one ship had
ever survived.
The next trial forced a choice between two monsters: Scylla, a
six-headed beast, or Charybdis, a monster in the form of a
whirlpool. Scylla devoured six of the men, but the ship made it
past the twin monsters and reached the island of the sun god
Helios, home of the sacred cattle of Helios.
Odysseus made his men promise not to harm the cattle, but,
after being trapped by a storm for a month, their supplies
dwindled and the men grew hungry. When Odysseus fell
asleep, his men left the ship to slaughter the sacred cattle. This
act deeply angered Helios, who demanded punishment. After a
few days, Zeus sent a fierce storm that killed everyone aboard
except for Odysseus. The hero clung to a raft until washing
ashore on Calypso's island.
Analysis
Bound by his word to Elpenor, Odysseus doubles back to
Circe's island in order to give Elpenor's body the burial he
promised. This speaks to the theme of loyalty.
This book once again touches on the theme of temptation. Just
as the men faced temptation on the island of the Lotus-eaters,
they must resist the allure of the Sirens, who would cause
them to wreck their ship if they listened to their bewitching
songs. Odysseus's pride tells him that he can withstand the
temptation but only because of his cleverness. He suffers
greatly from hearing the alluring sound, but his strategy
succeeds—he is wily Odysseus indeed.
His ultimate test of judgment comes when they arrive at the
island of Helios. Warned by both Tiresias and Circe of the
danger there, Odysseus wishes to avoid the place altogether,
but that would entail sailing the sea at night, which is more
dangerous. Odysseus fails the test once again by falling
asleep—metaphorically dropping his guard—which opens the
way for his crew to make their fatal mistake. Did Odysseus err
in not giving his crew more information? Perhaps he did, or
perhaps they would have fallen prey to hunger anyway.
Books 13–14
Summary
Book 13
With this final story, Odysseus finishes his tale for the
Phaeacians. The epic shifts back to the present. He is ready to
return to Ithaca, finally, and the king once again promises his
help to Odysseus. This angers Poseidon, who still holds a
grudge against Odysseus. He appeals to Zeus, who allows
Poseidon to take out his frustration on the Phaeacians for
helping Odysseus.
Book 14
With the help of the Phaeacians, Odysseus reaches Ithaca.
Athena guides him once again, surrounding him with an
obscuring mist so that he can't recognize his own home. She
appears in disguise as a shepherd and tells him that he is
home. Odysseus does not reveal his true identity to her,
whereupon Athena changes into her goddess form and praises
Odysseus for his cleverness. Odysseus, unaware of all of
Athena's maneuverings thus far, asks her why she seemed to
forget him after the war. Athena tells him she was afraid of
incurring the wrath of Poseidon. She also warns him that all is
not well at his home, and Odysseus learns about the suitors.
He asks Athena for help, and she disguises him as a beggar
and sends him off to meet his old loyal swineherd, Eumaeus.
As a test of Eumaeus's loyalty, the disguised Odysseus makes
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up a story of how Odysseus once generously lent him a cloak
when he thought he might freeze to death. Eumaeus, delighted
by this story of his master's virtue, lends the beggar his own
cloak.
Analysis
The punishment of the Phaeacians is another example of
Poseidon's vengeance and of the importance of not defying
the gods. Given that Odysseus had told them of Poseidon's
persecution of him, they were, in a sense, forewarned.
The interaction between Eumaeus and Odysseus (in disguise)
shows how Odysseus's true friends have stayed loyal to him
despite having no news of him for nearly 10 years. Eumaeus
despises the suitors and their disrespect of Odysseus's home
and legacy. He believes that the suitors will be appropriately
punished by the gods for this disrespect. The story that the
disguised Odysseus tells Eumaeus aligns closely with events in
his own life, and through the telling it's clear he regrets that he
deserted his family in his quest for glory. Now that he has
gained some distance and perspective, Odysseus seems to
recognize that he will benefit more from piety and humility.
Books 15–16
Summary
Book 15
In Book 15 the narrative shifts back to Telemachus, as Athena
goes to him and advises him to return home to Ithaca. She also
warns him about the suitors' plot to murder him and offers a
strategy to avoid their ambush. Telemachus and Pisistratus
prepare to leave, and Telemachus notices an omen of good
luck: an eagle clutching a goose in its talons. He sets sail for
Ithaca.
Book 16
Back on Ithaca Odysseus gives Eumaeus one more test of
loyalty by telling him that he plans to beg for help at the palace.
Eumaeus advises him to stay put until Telemachus returns, due
the unpredictable behavior of the suitors. Odysseus accepts
his advice and asks Eumaeus to tell him about his life.
Eumaeus explains the he had been born into royalty but was
kidnapped and forced to become a servant.
Telemachus finally arrives home, avoiding the suitors with
Athena's guidance. She also directs him to Eumaeus's home.
Athena alters Odysseus's appearance from a beggar back into
a younger version of himself. When Telemachus sees this
transformation, he is shocked, taking him for a god. Odysseus
reveals that he is Telemachus's father, and the two conspire to
get rid of the suitors. Athena turns Odysseus back into a
beggar once again, so that only Telemachus will know his true
identity. Back at the palace, the suitors discuss their plot to kill
Telemachus. Amphinomus tells the others they should be
patient and wait for the gods to reveal their plans before they
make a move. The other suitors agree to hold off.
Analysis
Even though Odysseus and Telemachus are both courageous
and cunning, they need Athena's assistance, especially as they
near their home and face mortal danger from the suitors.
Odysseus is certainly showing the caution that Agamemnon
advised when they spoke in the Land of the Dead. His testing
of Eumaeus signals how he will act with others in Ithaca. He
does reveal himself to his noble son, a signal that Telemachus
is a worthy adult now and that Odysseus will need some help.
Eumaeus's story of his life shows how fate can shape a life in
this world. Eumaeus's loss of status highlights the fact that
privilege can be taken away without notice or justification.
That Telemachus is willing to offer his father (disguised as a
beggar) food and shelter shows that he has learned the
importance of hospitality on his journey.
Books 17–18
Summary
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Book 17
Odysseus sets off for the palace accompanied by Eumaeus,
who still does not know Odysseus's true identity. Telemachus
goes ahead, accompanied by a prophet who informs Penelope
that Odysseus is back in Ithaca, scheming to overthrow the
suitors, news that she refuses to believe.
Inside the banquet hall, Telemachus and Athena advise
Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, to beg at the suitors'
table for scraps as a way of discerning who the worst-behaved
suitors are. Most of the suitors are kind, but Antinous
antagonizes Odysseus, though Odysseus manages to control
himself. He does, however, warn Antinous that to be
unnecessarily cruel to a man in need will surely be noticed and
punished by the gods.
Book 18
As the evening wears on, another beggar shows up, and
Antinous eggs him on to start a fight with Odysseus. Odysseus
demurs at first but eventually agrees to the contest. He does
not use his full strength in order to avoid hurting the other man,
but he wins anyway. Odysseus gives Amphinomus a warning of
dire events to come, and the suitor is shaken, but he remains.
As the suitors feast and carouse, Odysseus berates some of
the maidservants for not tending to their mistress. When one
talks back, he threatens them and scares them off. The suitors
protest noisily until Amphinomus urges them to settle down
and let Telemachus tend to the beggars. They agree and
depart for home.
Analysis
Deception and cunning play a large role in this section.
Consider the prudence with which Telemachus refrains from
telling his mother that Odysseus has returned, as well as
Odysseus's restraint in not defending himself against Antinous.
The restraint of father and son goes hand in hand with their
cleverness; by swallowing their anger and irritation, they are
more likely to succeed in bringing their house back to order.
Many of the tensions laid out earlier in The Odyssey begin to
build toward climax here, in the meeting between Odysseus
and Telemachus and in the confrontation between Odysseus
and the suitors. The suitors' end is again foreshadowed in the
speech of beggar Odysseus to Amphinomus, in which he says
that he is destined to be great even though he is now a beggar.
He was brought down, he says, by recklessness and warns, "let
no man ever by lawless all his life,/just take in peace what the
gods will send." Amphinomus errs, though, and remains in
Odysseus's halls, and "even then" Athena "bound him fast to
death." While his kindness might suggest he merited mercy, he,
like the other suitors, has abused the hospitality of Odysseus's
house and must pay the price.
Odysseus accepts the challenge to fight the other beggar to
defend his honor. Again, he uses caution, taking care not to
injure the other beggar too badly. Odysseus is still practicing
the restraint he has displayed since his return to Ithaca. He is
also showing a willingness to delay his immediate satisfaction
to achieve the larger goal of killing all the trespassing suitors
and disloyal maids. A shrewd strategist, he bides his time until
everything is in place.
Books 19–20
Summary
Book 19
After the suitors have retired for the evening, Odysseus and
Telemachus take action for the next day by hiding all the
weapons in the house. Odysseus meets with Penelope but still
refrains from revealing his true identity to her. Odysseus's
childhood nurse, Eurycleia, recognizes him first when she
notices a scar he received as a child. Odysseus makes her
swear not to tell Penelope. She offers to tell him which maids
were disloyal to him; he replies that he will watch them and
judge for himself. Penelope tells the disguised Odysseus that
she is planning a contest the next day to finally choose a
suitor. She will ask them to demonstrate a skill that only
Odysseus has proved before, involving stringing and using his
mighty bow. Odysseus the beggar claims that her husband will
be home before the contest can begin. Penelope retires to her
room and weeps.
The Odyssey Study Guide Book Summaries 21
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Book 20
Odysseus stays up late that night thinking about the next day's
revenge on the suitors. Athena appears to him and tells him he
will be victorious not only over the suitors but over any of their
families that seek revenge. Odysseus also overhears Penelope
praying for her death if Odysseus does not reappear. He offers
a prayer to Zeus, who sends a crash of thunder as an answer
of support.
The next day the seer Theoclymenus warns the suitors about
dark omens he is seeing: blood, mist, and ghosts. The suitors
laugh him off. Only Amphinomus, who recognizes the eagle
flying overhead with a dove clutched in its talons as an omen,
believes the seer's words. He also attempts to warn the other
suitors, but they ignore him.
Analysis
It's uncertain as to when, exactly, Penelope guesses
Odysseus's true identity. She seems skeptical of the "beggar"
from early on and grows increasingly suspicious as he
continually tries to tell her that Odysseus will return home
soon. Is she just testing the beggar's honesty about knowing
Odysseus, or does she, in fact, suspect the truth? She also
mistakenly refers to the beggar as Eurycleia's "master" but
corrects herself quickly. She appears to feel she can speak
freely with him in a way that seems unlikely for a woman of her
status to use in addressing a beggar. Her mentioning the
contest she plans to stage seems like another test, because
only Odysseus has ever been able to perform the task she is
asking the suitors to prove. Whether she has guessed his
identity or not, she shows cleverness again in devising a test
the suitors are bound to fail.
With tensions mounting the epic takes on a tone of foreboding.
Odysseus grows restless and uneasy seeing the suitors
continue their revelry, blind to the fate that will soon befall
them. In Book 20 Telemachus demonstrates he has grown
bolder and braver, scolding the suitors for their bad behavior.
It's a mark of how far he's come since the beginning of the
story, when he let them run rampant over the household.
Athena's intervention is significant in these scenes. The night
before the upcoming massacre, she gives peaceful sleep to
weeping Penelope and reassures Odysseus. The next day she
mocks the suitors by exacerbating their misbehavior, forcing
them to throw things, and even they seem unnerved by their
behavior.
The eagle omen that Amphinomus comments on recalls the
eagle omen from the beginning of the epic. Then, two eagles
careened through the air and flew off. This eagle has a dove as
its prey. Amphinomus understands the message—the suitors,
like the dove, are certain victims of a more powerful force.
Book 21
Summary
The contest begins. Penelope brings out Odysseus's bow, and
Telemachus tries and fails to string it three times; on the fourth
attempt, his father signals him to stop with a quiet shake of the
head. The suitors begin to take turns, and each of them fails as
well. Antinous finally requests that they postpone the contest
for a day.
Odysseus finally reveals himself to Eumaeus and the servant
Philoetius and fills them in on his plan of revenge. They agree
to help. After the suitors have all failed to string the bow,
Odysseus asks if he might try. He strings it with ease and
shoots an arrow through the 12 axes. He and Telemachus turn
to face the suitors together, and Telemachus draws his
weapons.
Analysis
Telemachus's failed attempt to string the bow is probably
meant to put the suitors off any suspicion they might have felt.
That he comes close to stringing it suggests he is nearly as
strong as his father. He obeys his father's silent instruction, of
course; he is not the one in charge. He also asserts his
importance when he attempts to keep his mother out of harm's
way. He knows the slaughter that is about to happen and
wants to keep her safe.
Odysseus's ability to string the bow and shoot an arrow
through the 12 axes speaks to his heroic strength. The scene is
also important because, not only does it reveal his real identity
to the suitors, but it also shows that he is stronger and more
capable than they are.
The Odyssey Study Guide Book Summaries 22
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The book ends on a riveting cliffhanger that marks fine
storytelling. The lasting image of father and son, armed and
bent on exacting their revenge, compels the reader—and the
action—forward.
Book 22
Summary
Odysseus removes his rags, prays to Apollo, and then shoots
an arrow through Antinous's throat. The other suitors are
stunned, and Odysseus announces what he plans to do to the
rest of them. They offer to repay everything they have taken
from his home, but Odysseus has made up his mind. The
suitors attempt to find weapons, but they only have swords
and no armor. Odysseus and Telemachus begin to kill the
suitors. No one is spared.
Analysis
Book 22 is the epic's climax. Odysseus has shown restraint
and good judgment in biding his time before killing the suitors.
This reflects his training and experience as a military leader, as
he was able to assess, strategize, and follow through. He is
also able to control his emotions. His decision to kill Antinous
first is also strategic—he is the most antagonistic of the suitors
and their de facto leader. Odysseus kills him before the other
suitors have even fully realized that the beggar is, in fact,
Odysseus.
The fact that Odysseus denies the suitors' offer of repayment
is significant—this is about honor not money. In the ancient
Greeks' view of justice, only revenge can balance the scale.
Athena guides Odysseus in this scene and only directly
intervenes toward the end, when she appears as Mentor. She
knows that Odysseus and Telemachus need to fight their own
battle, though she protects them throughout. Odysseus does
not necessarily take pleasure in killing the suitors—he believes
he is only doing what is just and what the gods have already
willed.
Book 23
Summary
The battle is over, and the scene shifts to Penelope, who has
been hiding in her quarters. She still cannot believe that
Odysseus has returned and that the suitors are all dead. Even
upon seeing him with her own eyes, she seems uncertain. She
tests him by seeing if he remembers their bed, which was
carved from an olive tree that is rooted in the house. When she
instructs her maid to move it, an infuriated Odysseus objects
and explains why it cannot be moved. This reaction finally
convinces Penelope that Odysseus is indeed home.
Even though they are finally reunited, Odysseus has one final
task to complete. Tiresias had prophesied to him that, in order
to truly live out a long life of peace, he must travel as far inland
as a possible, away from the sea, to make a sacrifice to
Poseidon.
Analysis
Many readers may wonder why Penelope is so cautious about
believing that Odysseus is truly before her. But It only makes
sense for her to test him. With so many disguises and gods
about, she would be dim not to be careful. As the narrative has
shown, Penelope is hardly foolish. She is shrewd and cautious
throughout the epic. In a way, her skepticism shows real loyalty
to Odysseus—she does not want to be tricked and therefore
be unfaithful.
The fact that Odysseus must leave his now-peaceful home yet
again demonstrates the power and fear that the gods hold
over mortals. As much as Odysseus has missed his family, he
cannot risk further angering Poseidon if he wants to settle into
a long and happy life at home. His further, temporary absence
is necessary in order to protect his family in the long run.
Book 24
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Summary
The final book of The Odyssey opens in a different location
from the previous chapter, with Hermes bringing the souls of
the dead suitors to the Land of the Dead. There they meet
Achilles and Agamemnon, who ask how so many young
warriors could have died. After one recounts the tale,
Agamemnon contrasts the betrayal he suffered at the hands of
his own wife with Penelope's steadfast loyalty.
Odysseus visits his father, Laertes, who seems old and broken.
He does not recognize his son; Odysseus does not say who he
is. As the old man laments the loss of his son, Odysseus is
overcome and reveals himself. After he proves the truth of his
claim by showing a scar and recounting memories, the two
reconcile and enjoy a lunch Telemachus helped prepare.
The families of the slain suitors are seeking revenge on
Odysseus, but Athena intervenes to help Odysseus avoid
another fight. She causes the families to forget their losses,
and Odysseus is once again installed as Ithaca's revered king.
Analysis
Many readers have questioned why The Odyssey doesn't just
end with Penelope and Odysseus reuniting. But the final book
wraps up a few important plot points. Remember that
Odysseus encountered his mother in the Land of the Dead,
and she informed him of his father's suffering. Odysseus's
reunion with his father provides another resolution and also
solidifies the father-son motif that runs throughout the epic.
It is telling that Athena appears undisguised at the conclusion
of the book. She gives direct orders from the gods for peace in
Ithaca. This seems to be a notable message that it is futile to
oppose the will of the gods.
g Quotes
"Ah, how shameless—the way
these mortals blame the gods./...
they themselves, with their own
reckless ways,/compound their
pains beyond their proper share."
— Zeus , Book 1
Zeus, king of the gods, speaks to the theme of fate. He says
that mortals don't take responsibility for their own lives and
that they do, in fact, have much more freedom of choice than
they'd like to believe. Zeus believes that the mortals actually
make their own lives worse because they are "reckless" and
prone to temptation.
"Fear the gods' wrath—before they
wheel in outrage/and make these
crimes recoil on your heads."
— Telemachus , Book 2
Telemachus berates the suitors for their bad behavior and
threatens them with the justice of the gods. The suitors have
taken advantage of Penelope's hospitality, an action that the
gods wouldn't approve of. Telemachus is warning the suitors
that, because they have not displayed sufficient piety, the gods
will punish them.
"But here's an unlucky wanderer
strayed our way,/and we must
tend him well. Every stranger and
beggar/ comes from Zeus."
— Nausicaa , Book 6
Nausicaa mentions that every wanderer comes from Zeus. He
is the god not only of wanderers but also of hospitality, and this
is why Nausicaa mentions that they must "tend [Odysseus]
well." To not offer hospitality to a stranger would be a grievous
offense in ancient Greece and would likely anger the gods.
"Zeus of the Strangers guards all
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guests and suppliants:/strangers
are sacred—Zeus will avenge their
rights!"
— Odysseus , Book 9
Odysseus pleads with Polyphemus, the one-eyed Cyclops and
son of Poseidon. The Cyclopes are a "lawless" people, and the
way Polyphemus treats Odysseus and his men is cruel—he
even eats six of the men. Here, Odysseus is appealing to the
custom of hospitality that was so important to ancient Greeks
and their gods—particularly Zeus, the god of strangers and
hospitality.
"Even so, you and your crew may
still reach home,/suffering all the
way, if you only have the power/to
curb their wild desire and curb
your own."
— Tiresias , Book 11
Tiresias the blind prophet foretells the outcome of Odysseus's
journey but warns him that succumbing to temptation will
cause Odysseus and his men suffering. His prophecy touches
on the theme of fate: how much control does Odysseus really
have over himself and his men if the gods are calling the shots?
Or are they?
"You terrible man,/foxy, ingenious,
never tired of twists and tricks."
— Athena , Book 13
Athena is praising Odysseus for his cunning and cleverness,
qualities she prides herself on possessing as well. She's saying
that he may very well be the craftiest man among mortals and
even challenges the gods; her use of the word terrible is
actually a compliment, although it suggests that Odysseus is
not entirely admirable either.
"Trust me, the blessed gods have
no love for crime./They honor
justice."
— Eumaeus , Book 14
Eumaeus, Odysseus's trusty swineherd, is reassuring
Odysseus that the suitors will be punished for their bad
behavior, because the gods frown upon mortals who flout the
kindness of hospitality. Justice is a big theme in The Odyssey,
both among gods and mortals. Often mortals will turn to the
gods to help them achieve justice, and fear of divine retribution
persuades many to follow the moral code.
"Should he wheel with his staff and
beat the scoundrel senseless?/...
He steeled himself instead, his
mind in full control."
— Narrator , Book 17
Odysseus practices self-restraint—he's come a long way from
his days of being tied to a ship mast because he wanted to
hear the Sirens' song. His impulse is to hurt the other beggar,
whom the suitors have goaded him (in disguise) to fight. Yet
Odysseus knows that, in order for his plan of vengeance to
work, he will need to keep "his mind in full control."
"A wild wicked swath I cut,
indulged my lust for violence/...
Look at me now./And so, I say, let
no man ever be lawless all his
life,/just take in peace what gifts
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the gods will send."
— Odysseus , Book 18
Odysseus shows remarkable growth and self-reflection here,
toward the end of his epic. His journey has been inward as
much as it has been outward. He looks back on all the pain he
caused and the risks he took during his life and realizes it was
not worth the peace he now craves. Here he is showing a
sense of piety and respect toward the gods, hoping to be
rewarded for what he's learned.
"No fear of the gods who rule the
skies up there,/... Now all your
necks are in the noose—your
doom is sealed!"
— Odysseus , Book 22
Odysseus is addressing the suitors in the climactic moments
before their slaughter. He warns them that, by not fearing the
wrath of the gods who frown upon bad moral behavior, their
punishment is ordained and inevitable. And he's right—Athena
has arranged and orchestrated much of what follows.
l Symbols
Penelope's Shroud
Penelope is introduced weaving a funereal shroud for her
father-in-law, Laertes. This would have been a common task
for a woman of the house in Homer's time. Penelope's home
has been besieged by suitors, while she has seemingly waited
in vain for her husband, Odysseus, to return for 20 years. She
tells the suitors she will choose a husband once she finishes
the shroud. What they don't know is that each night she
undoes the shroud, prolonging inevitably the choice she must
make. Because Penelope is largely powerless to do anything
about the suitors, her shroud ploy symbolizes that she shares
her husband's cleverness and cunning. It also represents her
fidelity to her marriage. That she dismantles a funereal shroud
while delaying taking a new husband also suggests that she is
unwilling to accept the death of her real husband.
Odysseus's Bow and Arrow
Penelope's final contest for the suitors requires them to wield
Odysseus's bow and arrow to shoot through 12 axes. This
symbolizes, first, her search for a man who can rival
Odysseus's strength—or that she is looking for Odysseus
himself to appear. It's telling that none of the suitors can even
string the bow; only Telemachus comes close, and he is
Odysseus's son. The bow and arrow symbolize Odysseus's
strength, as well as how well matched he and Penelope are.
Eagle Omen
The vision of an eagle appears at least four times in The
Odyssey. First, Zeus sends an omen at the assembly
Telemachus has gathered to announce that he will go in
search of information about Odysseus. The vision that Zeus
sends is of two eagles fighting each other to the death, which a
person in the crowd skilled in lore reads to mean the death of
the suitors. Later in the book, Telemachus again sees the
omen of the eagle, this time clutching a goose in its talons, as
he leaves to return home to Ithaca. He sees this as a sign from
Zeus that he is helping him. The significance seems to be that
the family is connected through this symbol of an eagle, and
the fate of their family can be seen in it.
m Themes
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Hubris
Many characters in The Odyssey display hubris, the arrogance
of overweening pride. They generally suffer for it. Even
Odysseus, who is in the end reunited with the devoted
Penelope and his loving son, Telemachus, and who is
reconciled with father Laertes, suffers for a decade before
reaching that point. While it's true that suffering is sometimes
in the arms of the lovely Circe or the beautiful Calypso, his
seven years with her reduced him to a despondent, tearful
man—hardly the picture of someone content with giving in to
temptation. The arrogant Antinous is the first to die, and the
arrogant Polyphemus, convinced that mere humans cannot
harm him, is tricked and punished with blindness.
Temptation
Temptation befalls many of the characters in The Odyssey,
and the outcome is usually a frustrating setback. Odysseus
and his men succumb to temptation on numerous occasions,
usually with disastrous consequences. Odysseus's men fall
prey to the Lotus-eaters and barely escape with their
memories intact. They open the pouch of winds out of
curiosity, only to find themselves blown far from the home they
had almost reached. When they encounter the songs of the
Sirens, they protect themselves from temptation by plugging
their ears with beeswax but must lash Odysseus to the mast
because he is too tempted by the alluring song to apply this
countermeasure. Perhaps their greatest fall to temptation,
however, is eating the cattle of Helios, after repeatedly being
warned not to. Zeus is so angry that he slaughters every last
one of them.
Homecoming
The central drive of the epic is Odysseus's desire to return
home, to reach the love of his family and the comfort of his
palace. With home is tied the idea of loyalty and fidelity, with
Penelope, Telemachus, and the loyal servants being the chief
representatives. Penelope endures years of importuning by the
obnoxious suitors, demonstrating her worth by keeping them
at bay through stratagems worthy of her cunning husband's
mind. Telemachus, despite his father's two-decade absence,
feels the proper fidelity and devotion of a son, an indication of
his virtue. While Odysseus must first disguise himself upon
reaching Ithaca—as he does so often throughout his
adventures—home represents the place where he can finally
be his true self: master strategist, skilled warrior, loving
husband, guiding father, and dutiful son.
The stories of Menelaus and Agamemnon, related by Menelaus
to Telemachus, provide interesting contrasts. Menelaus must
also undergo trials and effectively do penance to the gods in
order to reach home peacefully. Agamemnon, however, came
back to the danger of an unfaithful wife and her murderous
lover. The success of a homecoming depends on the merits of
those one comes home to.
Hospitality
Modern readers tend to be surprised at the overwhelming
emphasis placed on hospitality in The Odyssey. It seems to
dictate not only social interactions among mortals but also
treatment by the gods. Hospitality is how characters assess
one another's moral code, and it's how they stay safe in a
world where people are constantly venturing into foreign and
unknown lands. Travelers in ancient Greece (and there were
many) had to rely upon the kindness of strangers for food,
shelter, and warmth. To invest in being a hospitable host meant
that it was more likely that the host, too, would encounter a
warm welcome should he or she ever be lost or in need. Hosts
usually enjoyed having strangers visit—strangers who brought
tales of strange lands and stories of adventures to entertain
them with.
Odysseus encounters a range of hospitality throughout the
epic—from the helpfulness of the Phaeacians to the
murderousness of the Cyclops. Even Odysseus must return to
his own home to punish the suitors who abused the rules of
hospitality that custom dictated must be extended to them.
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Deception
Deception touches nearly every major character in The
Odyssey. Athena is nearly always in disguise when she advises
Odysseus, who is often in disguise as well or is careful about
how and when he reveals his true identity. It's no coincidence
that it is often Athena who masterminds Odysseus's disguises,
altering his appearance to make him seem stronger or weaker
as befits her plans.
Illusion and trickery are traits that both Odysseus and Athena
admire, and not just when it comes to physical appearances.
Odysseus deploys deception when he cannot rely on strength
alone, such as when he tricks Polyphemus into believing that
his name is "Nobody" in order to deter his neighbors from
coming to his aid. Penelope and Telemachus both dissemble
as well; being cagey is apparently a useful survival mechanism.
Fate
Fate seems to be the strongest force in shaping mortals' lives.
The gods determine mortals' fate, though human action has
weight. Sometimes it seems as though the gods decide the
bigger picture but leave mortals power to make specific
choices. No one counseled Odysseus on how to handle the
problem of Polyphemus. Anchinous and Arete chose to offer
Odysseus hospitality. Tiresias warns Odysseus that his men
should not eat the cattle of Helios, but he didn't say that they
had no choice in the matter. He only told them they would
suffer dire consequences if they did. That he was right did not
mean those consequences were inevitable—only that fate was
unavoidable if they made certain choices.
Justice
Adherence to customs decreed by the gods rules much of
mortal behavior in The Odyssey. Disregarding those customs
can get a mortal swiftly punished, both by other mortals and by
the gods. The gods feel justified in punishing mortals any time
they feel disrespected or if a mortal has reached too far—for
example, become too arrogant. Zeus is the ultimate dispenser
of justice, or at least the ultimate rule-setter. Even a powerful
god such as Poseidon must submit to his decisions.
Vengeance
Vengeance is another major theme of The Odyssey, found in
the plot of Poseidon's revenge on Odysseus, the story of
Orestes and Electra's revenge on Aegisthus and Clytemnestra
for the murder of their father Agamemnon, and on Telemachus
and Odysseus's destruction of the suitors and the
maidservants. In each case the avenging party punishes a
violation of the natural order. To Poseidon, Odysseus showed
him too little devotion, albeit the warrior was unaware of
Polyphemus's relation to Poseidon. Aegisthus and
Clytemnestra clearly violated the trust that Agamemnon had
placed in them and violated the loyalty due to him as a ruler
and as a husband. The suitors abandoned the proper behavior
due from a guest, and the servants showed disloyalty.
Vengeance is implacable and usually thorough. Only because
Poseidon was countermanded by Zeus does Odysseus survive.
e Suggested ReadingAtwood, Margaret. The Penelopiad. New York: Canongate,
2005. Print.
Clay, Jenny Strauss. The Wrath of Athena: Gods and Men in
The Odyssey. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996. Print.
Fowler, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Homer.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. Print.
Fox, Robin Lane. The Classical World: An Epic History from
Homer to Hadrian. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books, 2006. Print.
Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin,
1998. Print.
Morrison, James V. A Companion to Homer's Odyssey.
Westport: Greenwood, 2003. Print.
The Odyssey Study Guide Suggested Reading 28
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Power, Henry. Homer's Odyssey: A Reading Guide: Edinburgh:
Edinburgh UP, 2011. Print.
Schein, Seth, ed. Reading the Odyssey: Selected Critical
Essays. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1995. Print.
Snider, Denton J. Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary. Project
Gutenberg, n.d. Web. 20 June 2016.