STUDIES ON THE BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES OF SOME …S'ET-'ltP . GEOGRAPHICAL SET-U OPF THE STUDY ARE A The Aligarh distric liet s in the North-West of Uttar Pradesh a, Northern state

STUDIES ON T H E BIOCHEMICAL R E S P O N S E S OF SOME SELECTED

PERENNIALS TO COAL-SMOKE POLLUTION

Ph. D. THESIS IN

BOTANY

SAHEED. S.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (INDIA) 1994

•ZAD

r

T4700

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, THE MOST GRACIOUS, MOST MERCIFUL

Mischief has appeared on land and sea because of (the meed) that the hands of men have earned. That (God) may give them a taste of some of their deeds : inorder that they may turn back.

[Holy Quran, 30:19]

Nay, but you are people who have wasted their own selves. [Holy Quran, 36:19]

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

#1% ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

(iyE'DiavPE(D TO 'BCE

fMÊMOfRif 0 5 f W i T "

^^ •Sa ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, ALIGARH-202 002, INDIA Tel. (0571) 25676

A. K. M. GHOUSE Ph.D., F.L.S.. FJ^M

ProfvMor 6 Chairman 0»terf

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Studies on the biochemical responses

of some selected perennials to coal-smoke pollution" embodies original and bonafide

work carried out under my supervision by Mr. Saheed, S. It may be submitted to the

Aligarh Muslim University, Aiigarh towards the fulfilment of requirements for the degree

of Doctor of Philosphy in Botany.

(A.K.M. Ghouse)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 bow in reverence to Almtghly, Allah whose benign benediction gave me the

required zeal for the completion of this work.

Words are limited and the pages are not sufficient to express my sincere

thanks and debt to my venerable supervisor Prof. A.K.M. Ghouse, Ex-Chairman,

Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for his brilliant super-

vision, constant encouragement, invigorating suggetions and boundless generosity

throughout the period of this research study at AMU. It was only due to his immense

help, one of my long cherished ambitions has come to this shape, as a last man in the

queue under his expert guidance. His fruitful discussions and constructive criticism

have always been a source of great inspiration to me.

No less is my indebtedness to Prof. Wazahat Hussain, the present Chairman

of Department of Botany, AMU, for his encouragement by providing necessary

laboratory and library facilities throughout the present investigation.

I also feel indebted to Prof. Ziauddin Ahmad, Department of Botany, who

has always been my well wisher and encouraged me with his rich experience and

productive knowledge during the entire period of the present study.

Deep appreciation is extended to my senior laboratory colleagues, Dr.

Farooq A. Lone and Mrs. Azra Parveen, for their ungrudging help and constant

inspiration. A special credit deserves the former who always assisted me efficiently

in each and every stage of this work, and this work would not have been completed

without his limitless help.

A grateful acknowledgement is also extended to Drs. Farced A. Khan, P.R.

Khan and M.I.H. Khan, for their cherished co-operation in different ways.

J place on records my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Munawar Fazal, Dr. Imran

Khan, Dr. Hisamuddin, Dr. M.J. Pasha, Dr. KalintuUah and Dr. N.H. Shah, for

their critical views, total involvement and co-operation in bringing out this work.

1 acknowledge with immense pleasure from the core of my heart, the help received

from Mr. Abbas T.P., Mr. Kunhalavi, M. Mr. Subramanian, G.A. and Mr. Faizal,

A.U., at the time of dire need.

Many of myfriends deserve to be mentioned here, especially Mr. A bduraheem

K., Mr. Lateef, C.P.A., Dr. Sakeer Husain, Mr. Azees, TV., Mr. Abubakkar, K.K.,

Mr. Ashaq Raza,Mr. Shamsul Hayat, Mr. Moinuddin Khan and Mr. Majid Kazi,

their mere association, encouragement and accompaniment have helped me a lot.

Thanks are also due to Mr. Aslam Raza, Mr. S. Waheed andAsim Raza of

KLIC, Aligarh for the excellent laser printing and patience.

The financial assistance rendered by the University Grants Commission

(UGC), New Delhi in the form of Junior and Senior Research Fellowships is also

gratefully acknowledged.

Finally, it will be unfair on my part if I do not aknowledge my elder brothers

and sisters, who have been generous engough to inspire me to cross the horizon of

this too long and rather irksome academic career. They stood shoulder to shoulder

throughout my past and present. —

(SAHEED, S.) ' •

CONTENTS Page No,

INTRODUCTION 1 - 3

GEOGRAPHICAL SET-UP OF THE STUDY AREA 4 - 7

MATERIALS AND METHODS 8 - 2 0

OBSERVATIONS 21 - 4 7

Sulphur 2 1 - 2 3 Photosynthetic pigments 23-24 Carbohydrate 24 -27 Protein 27 -30 Nitrogen 3 0 - 3 3 Phosphorus 33-36 Potassium 36-39 Sodium 39-42 Calcium 42 -45 Ascorbic Acid 45 -46 Proline 46-47

DISCUSSION 4 8 - 8 9

Sulphur 48 -51 Chlorophyll Pigments 52 -55 Carotenoids 56-57 Carbohydrate 58-61 Protein" 62 -64 Nitrogen 65 -68 Phosphorus 69 -72 Potassium 73-76 Sodium 77-80 Calcium 8 1 - 8 3 Ascorbic Acid 8 4 - 8 6 Proline 87 -89

Page No.

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF 90 - 91 THE SELECTED SPECIES

CONCLUSION 92 - 93

SUMMARY 94 -100

REFERENCES 101 -125

APPENDIX I - II

INTRODUCTION

The coal based thermal power plants are the point sources of air pollution with

a more or less definite pattern of emission. The organic fuel burnt at thermal power

plants contains harmful impurities which are injected into the environment in gaseous

form (SOj, NOjj, CO, HC's and Fluoride etc.) and solid components of combustion

products (Fly ash, Bottom ash. Particulate matter etc.) which cause deleterious

effects on the whole complex of the hving system or the biosphere including the

vegetation, aquatic life of the region, animals and man. These thermal power plants

use thousands of tons of low quality, high ash content coal per day (Indian bituminous

coal contains 15 to 45 per cent ash against 3 to 5 per cent of in situ formed European

coal). A super thermal power plant using even normal or low sulphur coal will emit

about 100 tons of sulphur dioxide into the environment every day. It has been

reported that after the consumption of 80 million tons of coal, 1.35 million tons of

SOj is released into the atmosphere (Kumar and Prakash, 1977). As quoted by

Sharma (1986) 13 million tons offly ash, 4,80,000 tons of SO^, 2,80,000 tons ofNO^,

16, 000 tons of CO and 5,000 tons of hydrocarbons are released into the atmosphere

each year by our thermal power plants as long back as 1980. Further it has been

estimated that, every three tons of carbon burnt consumes eight tons of oxygen. That

is, we are borrowing from the present oxygen reserve of the atmosphere. With an

estimated known workable fossil fuel reserve of 8.6 trillion tons, man can deplete

about 17 X 10" tons of atmospheric oxygen (Sahu, 1994).

Toxic substances contained in flue gases discharged from stacks of thermal

power plants are potentially harmful to vegetation. Significant injury to living

vegetation can occur when atmospheric conditions are not conducive to rapid

dispersion of the pollutants. This injury can reduce the photosynthetic capacity of

the vegetation resulting in lower yields of green plant products and, in severe cases.

death of sensitive species. The main culprit of this in coal smoke is SO . The

devastating effect of SO^ on vegetation is well established and proved beyond doubt

(Katze/a/., 1939; Whitby, 1939; Thomas, 1951;Pelz, 1956; Thomas and Hendricks,

1956; Thomas, 1961; Linzon, 1965; Prokopiev, 1965; Rao and Le Blanc, 1966;

Dochinger, 1968;Stern, 1968; Jacobson and Hill, 1970; Jones e/a/., 1974;Muddand

Kozlowski, 1975; Mansfield, 1976; Kumar, 1977; Hallgren, 1978;MalhotraandBlanel,

1980;Dubeye^flf/., 1982; Iriving and Miller, 1984;Treshow, 1984; Malhotra and Khan,

1984;Heggestade/a/., 1986;Farooqe/fl/., 1988; Amundson^/a/., 1990; Murray and

Wilson, 1990; Sharma and Prakash, 1991;PolleeM/., 1992; Efee/a/ . , 1993;Qifuer

al, 1993; Huang a/., 1993).

A team of environmental botanists working at the department of botany,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, has studied the adverse effects of vegetation

around a thermal power plant, and found to affect some timber trees (Khan, 1982;

Ghouseefa/., 1984a,b; 1986a; Ahmad and Kalimullah, 1986,1988;Kalimullahcra/.,

1987; Guptas/a/. , 1988), Vegetable Crops (Amani and Ghouse, 1978; Gupta, 1981;

Khan and Khan, 1991) and the various weeds of the locality (Amani et al, 1979a,b;

Amani, 1982; Ghouse and Khan, 1983, 1984,1986;Khan, 1985; Ghouse and Saquib,

1985; Iqbal et al, 1986a,b; 1987a, b; Mahmooduzzafar et al, 1986, 1987; Saquib,

1989;Usmani, 1990;Malibarie/a/., 1991; Saheede/a/., 1993 a; Lone era/., 1994b).

Further, morphological variations, variation in the leaf epidermal architecture, sulphur

catching capacity as well as changes in the amount ofphotosynthetic pigments of different

plant species have also been studied under the influence of coal smoke pollution (Ghouse

etal, 1980; Khan and Khair, 1984, 1985a,b; Khan e/fl/., 1984; Ghouse a/., 1985

Ghouse and Saquib, 1986; Ghouse etal, 1986b; Gupta and Ghouse, 1986, 1987b

Saquib etal, 1986; Ahmad a/., 1987; Khan and Ghouse, 1988; Khan and Usmani

1988; Ghouse et al, 1989; Khan et al, 1991; Saquib and Ahmad, 1991; Lone and

Ghouse, 1992; Ghouse era/., 1993;Lonee/a/., 1993; Lone and Ghouse, 1993;Saheed

et al, 1993b; Lone et al., 1994a,b) and the biochemical impact on some plantation crops

(Lone, 1993). Measuring a physiological response to SO^ exposure under field conditions

is an important step in understanding the responses of trees to fumigation episodes and

in further predicting the effect on trees under field conditions. Regardless of several

reports on Indian crops and other plant species, the literature concerning the biochemical

responses of perennial broad-leaved forms under the stress of coal-smoke pollution in

field conditions is very meagre, and is yet to be carried out in detail. Therefore, the

present study has been directed in this line in order to unreel the biochemical behaviour

of some perennial species under the stress of coal-smoke pollution. The study will

elucidate the seasonal variations in the mineral balance, photosynthetic pigments, ascorbic

acid and proline, as well as some metabolic products like carbohydrate and proteins etc.

in the leaves of various selected species. Furthermore, the newly formed bark and wood

samples of the selected species have also been designed for analysis subjecting several

biochemical parameters. The experimental site for the present study has been selected

around a coal-fired power plant situated at Kasimpur, 16 kms. North-East of Aligarh City

in Uttar Pradesh.

The massive plantation drive launched in this country requires a proper

selection of species for plantation in areas which are under air pollution threats. For

this purpose, an effective screening of trees is essential, rather than seasonal crops

due to the long standing experience of trees to ambient pollution load. Trees are

already known to act as biological scavengers of toxic elements emanating out of coal

burning. They are capable of fixing atmospheric metallic Jlnd non-metallic oxides

present in ambient air. It is, therefore, believed to be essential to investigate the

common tree sj^cies^for their relative capability to fix the toxic elements by wide

screening techniques. The present investigation is undertaken with the hope that it

will yield useful data for an overall assessment of species for its performance and

suitability to plant in large number to provide green cover and biological purifiers to

the site.

Q'EOgfK^ÎCSlL S'ET-'ltP

GEOGRAPHICAL SET-UP OF THE STUDY AREA

The Aligarh district lies in the North-West of Uttar Pradesh, a Northern state

of India, in the fertile agricultural area of Ganga Jamuna Doab between 27° 29 N and

28° 11 N latitude and 77° 29 E and 78° 38 E longitude (Fig. 1). Kasimpur, the site of

Thermal Power Plant Complex, lies in the Morthal Pargana of the Koil Tehsil in the

Aligarh district. On the northern border of the town, flows the Upper Gangetic Canal

supplying water to the power plant. This place is about 16 km. (road distance) in the

north-east of Aligarh city (Fig. 2) situated between 27° 59 N and 28° 3 N latitude and

78° 8 E and 78° 93 E longitude, about 187 meters above the sea level.

METEOROLOGY

The study area experiences a dry and tropical monsoon type of climate with

seasonal rhythm marked by the north-east to south-west monsoon. The year com-

prises three principal seasons viz. cold weather season (winter), hot weather season

(summer) and rainy season (monsoon).

The Cold Weather SeasonAVinter (November to March)

The beginning of winter season is marked by a considerable fall in tempera-

ture. In this season, a relatively low pressure exists over the Indian seas, thus causing

the winds to blow from plains towards the seas. The mean maximum temperature is

27.11°C inNovember and 30.14°C inMarch, while the average minimum temperature

for these months is 12.98°C and 14.63°C respectively (Fig.3). It is very cold in the

month of January (7.87°C - 21.32°C), the temperature begins to rise (14.63°C-

30.14°C) in March. In winter months the nights are very cold and the days are

comparatively warmer with foggy mornings.

Wind direction during the winter season is predominantly from east to west.

KOIL TAHSIL ( ALIGARH )

N

{»axj RAILWAY TRACK

= 1 UPPER 6AN6A CANAL

Z l j ROAOS

^ H i j EXPERIMENTAL SITES

3 KM U-1

FIG. 2

Fig. 3 The graph shows monthly temperature in centigrade (Average of years 1991-1993)

Tomperaturo ( C)

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Winter Summer- - Mansoon

— ^ Minimum - + - Average Maximum

west to east or south east to noth east. The winds during this season are light and blow

at an average speed of 3.06 km/hour (Fig.6A). The average relative humidity during

this season is 49%, 57.5%, 61%, 52% and 38.5% for months November to March

respectively (Fig.5). The rainfall in this season is irregular and sporadic (Fig.4).

The Hot Weather Season/Summer (April to June)

This season extends from March to June. It begins with an appreciable rise in

temperature and a decrease in pressure. Due to wide range of temperature during the

summer months, days are warm and nights are pleasant. The minimum and maximum

temperatures in April are 19.01°C and 37.01®C respectively. The temperature

continues to rise during May (23.29''C-39.50»C) and June (26.60''C-40.86»C) (Fig.3).

Days are hot and dry, the average relative humidity declining to 30%, 35% and 44.5%

in the months of April, May and June, respectively (Fig.5). The hot day winds

blowing with high velocity form a regular phenomenon. The velocity of wind begins

to increase steadily from April with an average wind speed of 4.31km/hour (Fig.6-

B). The wind speed rapidly increases during 8 am to 1 pm causing the wind to blow

almost with the force of gale during the next 2-3 hours. It then falls suddenly by 6.

pm and a calm usually prevails during the night.

Dust and thunder storms are frequent, at times accompanied by rains. The

rains are rare, sporadic, short lived and highly variable in amounts. The average

monthly rainfall is about 0.75 mm for April, 14.4 mm for May and 23.60 mm for June

respectively (Fig.4).

The Rainy Season/Monsoon (July to October)

The atmospheric temperature falls with the arrival of the humid oceanic

currents and the air becomes cool and pleasing by the end of June. The average

minimum and maximum temperatures fall to 24.84°C - 34.48"C in July, 24.79"C -

Fig. 4 The graph shows monthly rainfall in mm (Average of years 1991-1993)

300 Rainfall (mm)

Nov Dec Jan Fab Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Winter Summer - - Monsoon--Maximum Average Minimum

Fig.5 The graph shows monthly relative humidity In percentage (Average of years 1991-1993)

100 Relative humidity («)

Nov Dec J&n Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Winter Summer - - Monsoon--Maximum Average Minimum

( s c a l e 1 C i n - 5 V . )

N

3.if7

3 . 0

3 .57

3 . 0 7

0 1.88 2 .85

FIG. 6 A : VELOCITY « PERCENTAGE OF WIND DIRECTION DURING WINTER SEASON

5'32

h.22 I3.6f»

5.23 3 . 0 8

F I G . 6 B : VELOCITY & PERCENTAGE OF WIND DIRECTION DURING SUMMER SEASON

3.60

3.6«f 1 3 -66

3 . 6 0 f colm ^ 3.U6

i».58 1 3 . 0 2

2 .71

F IG . 6 C : VELOCITY ^ PERCENTAGE OF WIND DIRECTION DURING MONSOON SEASON

33 .38°C in August, 22.54''C- SS-eCCin September and I8.46''Cto 33.47''Cin October

(Fig. 3). The average relative humidity is 72%, 75%, 70% and 52% for t h ^ e months / \

respectively (Fig. 5). The sky is generally overcast. Rain set isusually by the end of June

or early July and continues untill the end of September or early October. The average

maximum rainfall (about 191 mm and 177.5 mm) was observed in the months of July and

August respectively (Fig.4). During this season winds blow pre-dominantly from east-

west, to west-east, and to south-west to north-east, to south-west and to south-e^st to

north-west (Fig.6C) with an average speed of 3.54 km/hour.

SOURCE OF POLLUTION

The thermal power plant complex of Kasimpur was found to be the source of

pollution. The complex, one of the three major thermal power plants of Uttar Pradesh

is located along the banks of the Upper Gangetic Canal running in the north-west to

south-east direction and consists of three power stations (A,B and C) having a

capacity of 90 MW, 210 MW and 230 MW electricity generation respectively (Plate-

I). The whole complex runs on the low grade coal transported from various collieries

of North India. The chief chemical constituents of coal are 2.92% moisture, 22.20%

ash, 31.86% volatile matter, 0.49% sulphur, 5.61% hydrogen, 5.24% nitrogen,

20.23% oxygen and 42.45% fixed carbon on an average (Table-1).

The data (Table-2) on coal combustion at the above source shows that annual

coal consumption comes to about 1,28,544 metric tons for plant 'A ' , 5,35,971 metric

tons for plant 'B' and 8,66,200 metric tons for plant ' C . The total annual coal

consumption in all the power plants comes to be about 1,5 3 0,715 metric tons.The daily

average coal consumption is about 4194 metric tons. The average monthly and daily coal

consumption during the different seasons (winter, summer and monsoon) is given in table

(2). On the other hand, the unburnt coal possess considerable amounts of sulphur,

nitrogen and carbon and when subjected to 1200''C - MOO^C high temperature for its

1

PLATE-I

ABOVE} Pliotogir«|)h ihovtt tht atalti-it&«k ^mtt rumt

B lLOWt jPhofogmiKfiilMMri tlic ttiick liNkt

{itti stiKk) iitd ^C* (rtgtii mtkS

Table 2. Data on coal consumption (in metric tonnes) in the Thermal Power Plant Complex ofKasimpur (An average of data forthe years, 1991-1993)

Months Power Stations Total Monthly Consumption

A B C

*

Nov 08530 42650 72059 123239 Dec 09240 53153 83674 146067 Jan 10992 48070 93579 152641 Feb 12830 38128 78697 129655 March 18941 56674 85688 161303 Apnl 14338 52810 72844 139992 May 12665 53252 67929 133846 June 08627 38382 58957 105966 July 07920 26623 56011 090554 August 07322 38403 63050 108775 Sept 08899 42852 66602 118353 Oct 08240 44974 67110 120324

Total m Wmter (Nov - March) 60533 00 238675 00 413697 00 712905 00

Monthly average 12106.60 47735 00 82739 40 142581 00

Wmter daily average 400 88 1580 63 2739 15 1953 16

Total m Summer (Apnl - June) 35630 00 144444 00 199730 00 379804 00

Summer Monthly average 11876 67 48148 00 66576 67 126601 33

Summer daily average 391 54 1587 30 2194 84 4173 67

Total in Monsoon (July - Oct) 32381 00 152852.00 252773 00 438006 00

Monsoon Monthlv average 08095 25 38213 00 63193 25 109501 50

Monsoon dail> average 263 26 1242 69 2055 00 3561 00

Annual consumption 128544 00 535971 00 866200 00 1530725 00

A\'erage monthl) consumption 10712 33 44664 25 72183 33 127559 58

A\'erage daiK consumption 352 17 1468 50 2373 15 4193 74

Source Courtse> of AEE, Thermal power plant complex of Kasimpur

Table 3. Amount of gases released from the Thermal Power Plant Complex in different Months (Average of three years, 1991-1993).

Months Amount of SO^ Amount of NO^ Amount of CO^ Months

Kg/hr ppm/hr Kg/hr ppm/hr Kg/hr ppm/hr

Nov 16437 0016 294416 0 294 7784993 07 785 Dec 18848 0019 337696 0 338 11294414 11 294 Jan 19695 0 020 352894 0 353 14647129 14 647 Feb 18523 0019 331869 0 332 14550399 14 550 March 20814 0 021 372920 0 373 17809853 17810 Apnl 18675 0019 334590 0 335 1819826 01 820 May 17278 0017 309442 0 309 2801652 02 802 June 14129 0014 253152 0 253 2292021 02 300 July 11684 0012 209354 0 209 1895479 01 900 Aug 14503 0015 259862 0 260 2352779 02 353 Sep 15271 0015 273623 0 274 2477369 02 477 Oct 15533 0016 278180 0 278 2519855 02 520

Average in Winter (Nov - March)

18863 0 0190 337959 0 338 13217358 13 217

Average in Summer (Apnl - June)

16694 00170 299061 0 299 2304500 02 307

Average in Monsoon (July - Oct)

14248 0 0145 255255 0 255 2311370 02 312

Average 16782 00169 300666 0 300 5944409 05 945

Source CourtscN of AEE, Thermal power plant of Kasimpur

combustion, obviously produces noxious gases like SO , NO^ and CO^. These gases

along with other particulate pollutants spread into the atmosphere through various stacks.

The computed amounts of SO^, NO^ and CO^ being released into the atmosphere in kg.

per hour and ppm per hour are given in Table-3.

SOIL AND EDAPHIC CONDITIONS

The soil at the test site for the present study has a structure categorised by the

Agricultural Directorate (Soil Survey and Research, Aligarh) as type III (Fig.7).

This consists of the loam and clayey loam type of soil with a very high pH value and

very poor drainage system. During monsoon season it suffers from water Jogging.

The clay content is maximum at the top and decreases with depth. It is ash grey in

colour tending to become black when moist. The poor drainage results in the

deposition of soluble sodium salts on the surface in the form of 'Reh' . During drought

periods, the land becomes white and salt infested. The soil is mostly of alkaline in

nature. The data obtained on the mechanical analysis as well as the physico-chemical

properties of the soil collected from the test site as well as from the reference site

during the study period is given in Table-4. It is clear from the data that the sand

fraction at both the sites is below 50%. The coarse silt happens to be higher in

percentage than the fine silt at both the places. Further, the clay percentage in soil

is slightly higher at Aligarh site than at Kasimpur.

The soil pH at both the sites is alkaline, however, the alkalinity is higher at

Aligarh site than at kasimpur. Further, there was a linear increase in soil pH at both

the sites from summer to winter seasons. Total nitrogen as well as available

phosphorus contents were recorded lesser at the polluted site compared to non-

polluted site. On the other hand exchangeable potassium was same in polluted as well

as control sites in summer season. However, slightly lesser contents were observed in

monsoon and winter seasons at the latter site. Sulphur was found in higher amounts at the

polluted site, the maximum contents being observed in monsoon season. Similarly,

organic carbon was also recorded higher at the pollutd site than at the control.

7

KOIL TAHSIL SOILS

k - i TYPE I I I

m i l TYPE IV

m i USAR

t-.-i KHADAR

SITES 0 3 ' • • '

KM

FIG. 7

Tflbic 4. Mechanical and physico-chemical analysis* of soil samples collected from the polluted and control sites during the study period.

Mechanical Analysis Site P Site C

1 Sand(%) Coarse Fine

2 Silt (%) Coarse

Fine

3 a a y ( % )

4 Texture Class

Physico-Chemical Analysis

1 Porosity

2 Water Holding Capacity

3 E C (m mhos/gm)

4 C E C (m eq /g soil)

1 07 48 50

16 93 10 70

22 80

Sandy Clay Loam

46 65

39 10

4 30x10 3

14 30

1 87 42 21

14 90 11 82

29 90

Sandy Clay Loam

43 24

35 49

3 33x103

04 10

SUMMER MONSOON WINTER

Si te -^ P C P C P C

5 pH 7 60 8 00 7 85 8 17 7 87 8 20

6 Total N(%) 0 070 0 076 0 060 0 063 0 068 0 072

7 Available P(%) 0 080 0 085 0 110 0 120 0 130 0 140

8 Exchangeable K(%) 0 077 0 077 0 077 0 075 0 077 0 076

9 Sulphur (ng/gm) 500 285 525 290 520 290

10 Organic C (%) 4 10 1 67 5 10 1 90 5 00 1 90

Site P= Polluted Site (Kasimpur) Site C= Control Site (Aligarh) ' Soil analysis earned out at the Agncultural Directorate (Soil Surve) and Research), Aligarh

fAOllt^HilSlLS

fKCET^CCXDS

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SITES

Under these ecological and meteorological conditions (As described in earlier

chapter) the test site for the present study was maintained within I km. from the pollution

source in the down wind direction. The Botanical Garden of the Botany Department of

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh served as a control site situated at a distance of 16 km.

in the cross wind direction from the test site and free of any coal-smoke pollution (See

Fig. 2).

SELECTION OF THE SPECIES

After a general survey, the following species growing in open land were

selected at the rate 5 per site.

1. Botanical Name = AZADIRACHTAINDICA A. IIJSS

English Name = NEEM TREE, MARGOSA TREE

Family = MELIACEAE

Age = 25 YEARS

This is a medium-sized tree with a clear bole of 10-25', and a girth of 6-8', with

a large crown. Bark, grey or dark grey or nearly black; leaves, imparipinnate,

alternate, bluntly serrate. Flowers white or pale yellow, small, honey scented. The

tree is evergreen, first flush of growth starts in the begnning of March and the first

collection was made in the first week of April. It is commonly found throughout the

greater part of India, but wild on the east cost and the Deccan; also in Siwaliks; very

often cultivated. Grows on almost all kinds of soils, but does well on black cotton

soil. Almost every part of the tree is bitter and has found application in indigenous

8

medicine. Timber pest proof used for furniture, agricultural implements, board,

pencils, small articles etc. The tree is well suited for afforestration in dry situations

and is a common avenue tree.

2. Botanical Name = TAMARINDUS INDICAUnn.

English Name = TAMARIND-TREE

Family = CAESALPINIACEAE

Age = 25 YEARS

A moderate-sized to large, evergreen shade tree, with handsome, dense

crown, stem short, thick, seldom straight. Bark, brownish or dark grey, longitudi-

nally and horizontally fissured. Leaves, paripinnate; leaflets generally 10-20 pairs,

subsessile; flowers, small, yellowish with pink stripes. Fruits, greyish-brown green,

more or less constricted between seeds, slightly curved. Growth activity starts by the

first week of March and the first collection was made in the first week of April. The

tree is indigenous to tropical Africa, cultivated or found naturalized almost through-

out the plains and Sub-Himalayan tracts of India, particularly in the south. Largely

planted on road sides. Grows from the coast to the hills, young plants grow best on

porous soil. It is a good source of tartaric acid, malic acid, and other important

vitamins and minerals. Timber used for agricultural implements.

3. Botanical Name = CASSIA FISTULA Unn.

English Name = INDIAN LABURNUM, GOLDEN SHOWERS

Family = CAESALPINIACEAE

Age = 30 YEARS

A deciduous, medium-sized tree with a bole of 12-15' high and 3-4' in girth.

Indigenous to India, and naturalized in tropical Africa, South America and West

Indies. Leaves, 20-40 cm, glandless; leaflets 4-8 pairs. The first flush of growth

starts from the beginning of April and the first collection was made in the second

week of May. Bark, grey, smooth, exfoliating in small woody scales. The fruits are

pendulous, cylindrical 25-50 cm long. Leaves are antiperiodic, laxative and used in

jaundice, piles, rheumaticism, ulcers and skin-eruptions. Fruit pulp rich in protein

and carbohydrate, laxative and antibiluous; given in diabetes and blood-poisoning.

Timber is a suitable substitute for teak and sal. The tree is excellent for agro-and

social forestry. Reported to fix nitrogen and used as green manure.

4. Botanical Name = FICUS BENGALENSISUnn.

English Name = BANYAN TREE

Family = MORACEAE

Age = 25 YEARS

A very large tree with spreading branches, evergreen, attaining at times the

height of 100'; aerial roots many. It attains large dimensions, the leafy crovirn

sometimes attaining a circumference of 1,000 - 2,000'. Leaves 4-8 in long coria-

ceous, ovale to elliptic with round or subcordate base; fruits sessile in pairs. Various

parts of the plant are considered as medicinal. The growth activity starts in the

middle of March a'-.d the first collection was made in April. The bark contains 11%

tannin. The wood is grey or greyish white and moderately hard. It is durable under

water, the wood of aerial roots is stronger and more elastic. The tree occurs

throughout the forest tracts of India. It is grown in gardens and road-sides for shade.

The banyan tree is one of the recorded host of Indian lac insects.

10

5. Botanical Name = FJCVS RELIGIOSA Unn.

English Name = PEEPAL TREE

Family = MORACEAE

Age = 25 YEARS

A large evergreen fast growing tree, epiphytic when young, with spreading

branches and round or broadly ovate, caudate, more or less pendulous leaves; Bark,

rough, white to grey, fruits sessile in auxiliary pairs, depressed globose. The fruits

and tender buds are occasionally eaten in time of scarity. The leaves and twigs are

lopped for cattle fodder. The first flush of growth starts at the end of March,

accordingly the first collection was made in the last week of April. The tree yields

a latex, and the various parts of the plant are considered as medicinal. The bark

contains 45% tannin. The tree is found wild or cultivated rarely throughout India and

is held sacred by Hindus and Buddhists. It is planted as an avenue or road side tree,

and is also one of the recorded host of the Indian lac insect in Madhya Pradesh,

Bengal and Assam.

SAMPLES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

For each species 5 individuals of almost similar age group were selected at each

site and from each tree newly emerged 15 days old leaves were sampled in the months

of March to May (Sumiror season), depending on the time of initiation of extension

growth. The leaves with an apparently healthy look were collected very carefully from all

the sides of the tree crown as well as from the top and bottom of the canopy. About 100

samples were collected from each tree, mixed together and thus it served as one replicate.

Similarly, the same number of leaves were collected for all individual representatives and

the samples collected from 5 trees served as 5 replicates for each species at each site. The

sampled leaves were packed in polythene bags and brought to the laboratory in ice

11

boxes. Before being, processed for any chemical analysis the leaves were gently cleaned

with moist cotton to remove any particulate matter deposited on their surfaces. Except for

chlorophyll, protein, proline and ascorbic acid estimations where the fresh material was

used, the samples were oven dried for other biochemical studies.

The subsequent samplings for similar studies were made in monsoon, and late

winter seasons. It was insured that the foliage of last two collections represent the

product of first flush and the foliage developed in the subsequent flushes, if any, was

carefully discarded. Bark and wood samples were also collected from the experimen-

tal trees in summer, monsoon and winter seasons, along with the foliage. From each

selected individual, two blocks of about 2 cm thick were chiseled out of the main

trunk at chest height (1.5 meters from the ground) and each block containing

sufficient amount of bark and wood portions. The sampled blocks were processed

with stainless steel penknife to separate carefully the portions of wood and new bark.

The older and apparently dead parts of the bark were discarded. Thus the sundered

wood and bark portions were chopped off in fine slices and sufficiently dried in an

oven at 80°C. The bark and wood samples of both the blocks of each replicating

individual were mixed and ground in a laboratory grinder to a fine powder and used

for desired analysis. The grinder was thoroughly washed and cleaned after every use

to avoid contamination.

PARAMETERS

The samples of leaves, bark and wood of the selected species were analysed on

a comparative basis for sulphur, photosynthetic pigments, carbohydrate, protein, nitro-

gen, phosphorous, potassium, sodium, calcium as well as ascorbic acid and proline

contents. The observations recorded on these parameters have been discussed seperately

under different heads.

12

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The data were analysed by Split-plot design by the method mentioned by Sir

S.A. Fisher (Dospekhov, 1984). The correlation coefficient (r) has been calculated

between sulphur and other parameters.

METHODOLOGY

The following procedures has been followed for the estimation of

various biochemical parameters in the present study.

SULPHUR

For the estimation of Sulphate-Sulphur, the method givenby Patterson (1958)

was adopted. The oven dried samples of leaves, bark and wood were ground and

passed through 72 mesh screen. 300 mg screened powder and 0.1 ml selenium

dioxide (SeO^) solution was digested using 10 ml conc. HNOj and 1 ml of conc. HCl.

After filtering the digested material, 10 ml of 3% glycerol was added and volume

made upto 100 ml with distilled water. To this solution 5 ml of 2% barium chloride

(BaClj) solution was added to precipitate sulphur as barium sulphate (BaSO^). The

optical density was noted at 420 nm on a spectrophotometer. The amount of sulphur

was determi^.ed by freshly prepared standard curve with potassium sulphate solution.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

The fresh leaf samples after being brought to the laboratory were removed

from the ice bags and their surface gently cleaned with the moist cotton to remove

any particulate matter deposited over them. The chlorophyll content was estimated

by following the method of Arnon (1949). One gram fresh sample was crushed gently

13

with 80% acetone in a mortar and pestle. To this was added a little pinch of calcium

carbonate (CaCOj). The samples after being ground to a fine pulp were centrifuged

(5000 rpm for 5 minutes) and the supernatant transferred to a 100 ml volumetric

flask. The residue was repeatedly ground and centrifuged till it turned colourless,

thus ensuring the complete extraction of chlorophyll from the tissue. The volume of

the extract was made 100 ml by adding 80% acetone. The absorption of the solution

was read at 663, 645, 510 and 480 nm on spectrophotometer. The chlorophyll (a and

b) and carotenoid contents were analysed by applying the formulae given by

Maclachlan and Zalik (1963) and Duxbury and Yentsch (1956), respectively. The

total chlorophyll was estimated by applying the formula given by Arnon (1949). 12.3 D663 - 0.86 D645

mg chlorophyll a/g tissue = x V d X 1000 x W

19.3 D645 - 3.60 D663 mg chlorophyll b/g tissue = x V

d X 1000 X W

7.6D480- 1.49 D510 mg carotenoids /g tissue = x V

d x 1000 x W

20.2 D645 - 8.02 D663 mg total chlorophyll/g tissue = x V

d X 1000 X W

Where D663, D645, D510 and D480 represent the values of optical densities

at the respective absorption spectra.

V = final volume of chlorophyll extract in 80% acetone.

W = fresh weight of tissue extracted,

d = length of light path.

14

CARBOHYDRATE

The total carbohydrate contents of leaves, bark and wood samples was

estimated by following the method of Dubois etal. (1956) (Sadasivum and Manikam,

1992). 100 mg of the dried sample was taken in a boiling tube and hydrolysed by keeping

it in a boiling water bath for three hours with 5 ml of 2.5N-HC1 and cooled to room

temperature. Solid sodium carbonate was added to this solution to neutralize it until the

effervescene ceased. The volume of the solution was made up to 100 ml and then

centrifuged. Then 0.1 and 0.2 ml ofthe sample solution was pipetted out in graduated

tubes and final volume made upto 1 ml with double distilled water. 1 ml of 5% phenol

solution was added to each tube followed by 5 ml of 96% H^SO^ and shaken well. The

test tubes with solutions after 10 minutes were then placed in water bath at 25-30°C for

20 minutes and the colour read at 490 nm on "Spectronic-20" colorimeter. A blank was

run with each sample. The carbohydrate content was calculated by comparing the optical

density of the sample with a calibration curve plotted by taking known dilutions of

standard solutions of chemically pure glucose.

PROTEIN

The protein contents in the samples was estimated by following the method of

Lowry^/a/. (195 l)(Sadasivam and Manikam, 1992). One gram offresh leaf sample (for

bark and wood dry samples were used) was homogenised with 5-10 ml of phosphate

buffer (pH 7-9) in a glass mortar. The solution was centrifuged and the supernatant used

for protein estimation. 0.1 ml and 0.2 ml ofthe sample extract was pipetted out in two

graduated tubes and volume made upto 1 ml in each tube. Another tube with 1 ml of water

served as blank. To each of these test tubes was added 5 ml of Reagent C (Appendix-

3.3). The solution was mixed well and allowed to stand for lOminutes. ThenO.5 ml of

Reagent D (Appendix-3.4) was added to this solution in each tube and incubated at room

temperature in dark for 30 minutes. The blue colour developed was read at 660 nm on

15

a "Spectronic-20" colorimeter. The protein content was estimated comparing the

optical density of each sample with a calibration curve plotted by taking known dilutions

of a standard solution of bovine serum albumin (Fraction V).

NITROGEN

The oven dried samples of leaves, bark and wood were powered and passed

through 72 mesh screen. The samples were then digested by following the method

of Lindner (1944).

Digestion of Samples

100 mg dry powder of the sample was taken in a 50 ml kjeldahl flask. Two

ml of pure H^SO^ was added and the mixture was heated for about two hours to

dissolve the powder. This acid turned the contents black. After cooling the flask for

about 15 minutes, 0.5 ml of chemically pure 30% hydrogen peroxide was added drop

wise. The solution was again heated about 30 minutes, until it turned light yellow

in colour and then cooled with 3-4 drops of HÔj, it was reheated for about 15

minutes to get a clean extract. Excess of hydrogen peroxide was avoided which

would otherwise oxidise the ammonia in the absence of organic matter. The peroxide

digested material was transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask with three or four

washings with double distilled water (DDW) and the volume made upto mark. This

served as the stock solution foi the estimation of N, P and K.

Estimation of Nitrogen

A 10 ml aliquot of the peroxide digested material was transferred to a 50 ml

volumetric flask. To this, 2 ml of 2.5N sodium hydroxide was added to neutralize

the excess of acid partially. To prevent the turbidity, one ml of 10% sodium silicate

was added to the flask and the volume made up. In a 10 ml graduated test tube, 5

16

ml of aliquot of this solution was taken and added with 5 ml of Nessler's reagent

(Appendix-1.1) and followed by thorough shaking. The final volume was made up

with DDW and kept for about 5 minutes for the maximum colour development. This

solution was taken in a colorimetric tube and its optical density measured at 525 nm

on a "Spectronic-20" colorimeter. A blank was run simultaneously during determi-

nation. A standard curve of known dilution of ammonium sulphate solution was made

and the reading of each sample compared with the calibration curve. Nitrogen in each

sample was calculated in terms of percentage on dry weight basis.

PHOSPHORUS

The samples were digested by following the method of Lindner (1944) (as

described in case of Nitrogen) and phosphorus was estimated by the method given

by Fiske and Subbarow (1925). In a 10 ml graduated tube, 5 ml of aliquot of peroxide

digested material was taken and 1 ml Molybdate reagent (Appendix-2.1) was added

carefully, followed by 0.4 ml of Amino-naphthol-sulphonic acid (Appendix-2.2).

The colour of the solution turned blue and its volume made upto 10 ml with double

distilled water. The solution was shaken well and allowed to stand for 5 minutes for

maximum colour development. The solution was transferred to a colorimetric tube

and per cent transmittance was read at 620 nm, on a "Spectronic-20" colorimeter.

The standard curve was plotted by using known dilutions of monobasic potassium

phosphate solution.

POTASSIUM

The samples of leaves, bark and wood were digested by the method of Lindner

1944 (as described in case of nitrogen). The potassium contents in the samples were

estimated flame photometrically. One ml of aliquot (peroxide digested material) was

suitably diluted with double distilled water in a graduated tube. A blank containing only

17

distilled water was run simultaneously. The readings were compared with a calibration

curve plotted using the known dilutions of a standard potassium sulphate solution. The

potassium was expressed on per cent dry weight basis.

CALCIUM

The oven dried samples of leaves, bark and wood have powdered and passed

through 72 mesh screen. The samples were digested following the procedure given

by Singh (1988).

Digestion of Plant Materials

50 mg of the oven dried plant material was taken in a 50 ml volumetric flask.

Two ml of concentrated Nitric Acid (HNOj) was poured into it and heated on a hot

plate till brown effervescence was produced. At this stage, sufficient quantity of

TAM solution (Appendix-4.1) was added to make the solution clear and then heated

to dryness. After adding sufficient quantity of double distilled water (DDW), the

solution was transferred to another 50 ml volumetric flask with three washings. The

final volume was made upto the mark with double distilled water, the calcium content

of the samples was calculated on per cent basis by reading in a flame photometer with

the help of calcium filter. The readings were compared with a standard curve plotted,

using known dilutions of calcium bicarbonate.

SODIUM

The samples were digested by following the procedure given by Singh (1988)

(as described in case of Calcium). The digested samples of leaf, bark and wood was

taken to a flame photometer and the sodium content was read with the help of sodium

filter. The per cent quantity of the element was calculated by comparing the readings

on a standard curve plotted by using known dilutions of sodium chloride.

18

ASCORBIC ACID

The ascorbic acid content of leaves was determined colorimetrically by using

the 2,6-dichlorophenol Indophenol (DC PIP) method (Keller and Schwager, 1977).

0.5 gm leaf was homogenised in a solution prepared by dissolving 0.5 gm oxalic acid

and 0.015 gm EDTA. The homogenate was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min.

To one ml of supernatant 0.5 ml of 2, 6 DC PIP was added with a constant shaking

at Ajj^ of pink colour was recorded (Es). To this pink colour 1 per cent aqueous

solution of ascorbic acid was added in order to remove pink colour and again A ^ was

recorded (ET). The blank was prepared with distilled water and 2, 6 DC PIP and A ^ ,

was recorded (Eo) with "Spectronic-20" spectrophotometer. Amounts were deter-

mined with the help of a calibration curve prepared by using one per cent ascorbic

acid solution.

Eo-Es-ET Ascorbic acid mg/gm fresh leaf = x F

W

Where, W = weight of leaf

F = Factor (Calculated from Calibration Curve)

The amount of ascorbic acid expressed in the table is mg/100 gm fresh sample.

PROLINE

The free proline content in leaf fresh weight was identified by means of a

colorimetric method using ninhydrin, according to Bates et a/.,(1973). 0.5 mg leaf

samples were extracted by homogenizing in 10 ml of 3% aqueous sulphosalicyclic

acid and filtered the homogenate through Whatman No. 2 filter paper. From this, 2

ml of filtrate was taken in an another test tube added 2 ml glacial acetic acid and 2 ml acid-

ninhydrin to it. Then, test tubes were transferred into a boiling water bath for 1 hr. The

19

reaction was terminated after 1 hr. by placing the tubes in an ice bath, added 4 ml toluence

to the reaction mixture and stirred well for about 20-30 sec. The toluence layer was

separated and warmed it to room temperature. The colour intensity (red colour) was read

at 520 nm. In a similar way a series of standard was prepared with pure proline (Zigma

proline) and plotted a standard curve. The amount of proline in the test sample was

calculated from the standard curve and expressed in fiMg' fresh weight of leaves as a

mean value from five replicate calculations.

20

(yBS'EîVTlOh^

OBSERVATIONS

SULPHUR IN LEAVES

The data, on the effect of coal-smoke pollution in relation to sulphate contents

of the leaves are summarized in Table-5. The data show that all the investigated

species have recorded an increased amount of sulphate-sulphur in their foliage under

the pollution stress.

The Fig. 8 indicates the seasonal trend in the accumulation of sulphate-sulphur

in the foliage of the investigated species. It becomes clear from the figure that, all

the investigated species have accumulated the peak amount of sulphur in the

monsoon season, irrespective of the pollution level with the exception of Cassia

fistula in which the peak occurs in winter.

The per cent variation given in Fig. 11 shows that the variation in sulphate-

sulphur content happens to be positive in the polluted population of all the

investigated species irrespective of seasonal conditions. The variation in the

inorganic sulphur content happens to be the highest in Azadirachta indica (Winter

collection) which is closely followed by Ficus religiosa (Monsoon collection),

Ficus bengahftsis and Cassia fistula (Summer collection), while in Tamarindus

indica, the variation ranged from 40.67% to 45.89%, the highest occurring in

monsoon.

The seasonal mean of sulphate-sulphur occurrence given in Fig. 11 reveals

that all the investigated species have accumulated increased percentage of sulphate-

sulphur in their foliage in the SO^ enriched environment and can be arranged in

decreasing order as under: F. religiosa (83.43%), F. bengalensis (82.26%), C.

//5/i//a (80.51%), 7W;ca (73.53%) and T. indica (43.06%).

SULPHUR IN BARK

The sulphate-sulphur contents of the newly formed bark tissues on analysis

> ^ it) OS

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J 1 i i B Control • Polluted

S - Summer M - Monsoon

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W - Wuiter

Fig.8. Seasonal variation in the contents of sulphate-sulphur (per cent dry weight) in the leaves of various trees species.

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Fig.9. Seasonal variation in the contents of sulphate-sulphur ( per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various trees species.

show that it accumulates significantly in the bark tissues of all the investigated

species under the stress of coal-smoke pollution, except T. indica in which the

accumulation has been found to be non-significant (Table-6).

The seasonal changes in the amount of sulphate-sulphur content in the bark

is given in Fig. 9. It indicates that the highest amount of sulphur occurs in monsoon

in the case of C. fistula and F. religiosa, in summer in case of A. indica, T. indica

and F. bengalensis. However, the interseasonal variation in C. fistula and Ficus

spp. has been found to be statistically non-significant. The per cent variation noted

over the control on sulphate-sulphur contents (Fig. 11) shows that the newly formed

bark tissues of all the investigated species express positive variation over the control

in their sulphate-sulphur contents in all seasons under pollution stress. The per cent

variationin sulphate-sulphur content is wider in F. bengalensis (59.01%) occurring

in monsoon collection and it is followed by C. fistula (41.81%) occurring in winter,

F. religiosa, A. indica and T. indica occurring in summer.

The seasonal mean of sulphate-sulphur content in bark of the investigated

species given in Fig. 11. It reveals that, the bark samples of all the investigated

species have accumulated significant amount of sulphate under pollution stress

except T. indica in which the accumulation has been found to be non-significant.

Among them, the highest percentage of accumulation has been observed in the bark

samples of Z'. bengalensis (54.83%), followed by C. fistula (38.84%), F. religiosa

(37.62%) and A. indica (28.87%).

SULPHUR IN WOOD

The results obtained in the present study on the sulphate-sulphur contents in

the sap wood samples of the investigated species show that in all the investigated

species, the level of sulphate in the sap wood samples increases under the influence

of coal-smoke pollution. But, it happens to be only marginal and non-significant in

the case of T. indica and F. religiosa (Table-7).

22

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Fig.lO. Seasonal variation in the contents of sulphate-sulphur ( per cent dry weight) In the wood samples of various trees species.

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The seasonal variation in the sulphate-sulphur contents is represented by Fig 10.

The figure indicates that, in A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa, the amount of

accumulation reaches the peak in monsoon and slightly falls in winter, where as in C.

fistula and F. bengalensis the amount of sulphate-sulphur increases in sap wood

samples from summer to winter in a gradual manner. However, the interseasonal

variation occurred in all the investigated species has been found to be non-significant,

irrespective of seasonal as well as pollution level.

The per cent variation worked out over the control on the basis of their

sulphate-sulphur contents, given in Fig. 11 implies that, in all the species studied

there has been a positive variation in sulphate-sulphur contents in their sap wood

samples. The variation being the widest in summer in A. indica (17.89%), C. fistula

(55.69%) and F. religiosa (8.94%), while in F. bengalensis the maximum variation

occurs in monsoon (21.73%) and T. indica in winter (6.25%).

The seasonal mean of sulphate-sulphur contents included in Fig. 11 shows that

the significant amount of sulphate-sulphur accumulation has occurred in the sap

wood samples of mt/zca (14.56%), C. fistula .\1%) and F. bengalensis^

(17.39%), while in T. indica and F. religiosa it has been found to be only marginal

and non-significant.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENT

The data (Table 8-12) cn the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the

photosynthetic pigments in the foliage of the investigated species reveal that, in all

of them the amount of photosynthetic pigments (Chl.a,b, carotenoids and total

chlorophyll) undergoes a significant loss under pollution stress, except in F.

bengalensis, in which the photosynthetic pigments exhibit a significant gain in the

SOj enriched atmosphere.

The seasonal alteration in the level of photosynthetic pigments given in Fig.

23

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Fig.l2. Seasonal changes of photosynthetic pigments (mg/g fresh weight) in the leaves of Azadirachta indica.

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Fig.l14. Seasonal changes of photosynthetic pigments (mg/g fresh weight) in the leaves of Azadirachta i n d i c a .

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Fig.l6. Seasonal changes of photosynthetic pigments (mg/g fresh weight) in the leaves of Azadirachta i n d i c a .

12-14, shows that all the investigated species behave almost in a similar manner

in respect to their contents of the photosynthetic pigments. The amount of

photosynthetic pigments has been found to be the highest in monsoon samples in

all the species irrespective of the level of the pollution.

The Fig. 12-16, show the per cent variation in photosynthetic pigment

between the control and the polluted samples of the investigated species in the

different seasons. Among the different pigments assessed, chlorophyll a shows the

widest variation in T. indica followed by chlorophyll b, while the carotenoids have

been found to vary in a narrow range.

In A. indica and F. bengalensis chlorophyll b and carotenoids show wider

variation than chlorophyll a in comparision to the control sets. In F. religiosa on

the other hand, the carotenoids take the lead to record the widest deviation from that

of control, the chlorophyll b follows the carotenoids, while chlorophyll a records the

least variation compared to control.

Cassia fistula shows that the chlorophyll 'a ' and carotenoids are more

affected than the others, recording the highest variation in the young as well as

in the older leaves, although the level of variation is narrowed down in the

monsoon, where the carotenoids take the lead to record the highest variation among

other pigments.

CARBOHYDRATE IN LEAVES

The data on the total carbohydrate contents in the leaves collected in various

seasons from the species investigated in the present study are summarized in Table-

13. The data reveal that in all the investigated species there has been an increase in

the amount of carbohydrate except in T. indica under the stress of coal-smoke

pollution.

The Fig. 17 indicates the seasonal variation in the amount of carbohydrate

24

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Fig.l 7. Seasonal variation in the contents of carbohydrate (per cent dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

in the foliage of different species studied. A glance at the figure clearly shows that

there has been a steady increase in the level of carbohydrate in the leaves of the

polluted population of A. indica, C. fistula and F. bengalensis, from summer to

winter. In T. indica and F. religiosa the peak amount of carbohydrate has been

recorded in the control as well as in the polluted population in monsoon. However,

the variation between the control and the polluted population has been found to be

non-significant in A. indica and T. indica.

The per cent variation in Fig. 20 points out that in C. fistula and F. religiosa

there has been an initial decrease of carbohydrate in the summer foliage followed by

an increase in the other season under the environmental stress. In T. indica on the

other hand, the level of carbohydrate under pollution stress is always lesser than in

control. But in A. indica and F. bengalensis an opposite trend in carbohydrate level

has been recorded, irrespective of the seasonal variation in the climatic conditions.

The seasonal mean given in Fig. 20 indicates that in all the investigated species

there has been an increased percentage of carbohydrate under the stress of coal-

smoke pollution with the exception of T. indica in which a negative effect has been

recorded. The increase happens to be the highest in F. bengalensis (33.01%)

followed by A. indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa (7.70%, 5.53% and 2.06%

respectively). However, the increase in carbohydrate level in C. fistula over the

control has been found to be non-significant.

CARBOHYDRATE IN BARK

The analysis of total carbohydrate in the bark samples of the different species

investigated shows (Table-14) that it increases significantly in the newly formed

bark tissues of A. indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa under pollution stress, while

in the rest of the species the level of carbohydrate undergoes a considerable loss.

The Fig. 18 expresses the seasonal trend of carbohydrate level in the bark

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Fig.18. Seasonal variation in the contents of carbohydrate (per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

tissues of the various investigated species It becomes clear that in all the investi-

gated species there has been a gradual increase of carbohydrate from summer to

winter with the single exception of the monsoon samples of the control sets of C.

fistula in which a slight dip in carbohydrate level has been observed. However, in

A. indica, the increase in carbohydrate level has been found to be only marginal

and non-significant.

The per cent variation in carbohydrate level in bark over the control has been

expressed in Fig. 20. It shows that the carbohydrate level falls in T. indica and F.

bengalensis 'in all the seasons with the highest occurring in winter, while in^ . indica

and F. religiosa there has been an increase in the carbohydrate percentage in all

seasons. In C. fistula on the contrary, there has been an initial decrease followed by

subsequent raise in the carbohydrate level under the pollution stress. The positive

variation in carbohydrate level has been found to be the maximum in monsoon

(32.07%) in A. indica and in summer (27.98%) in F. religiosa.

The seasonal mean of carbohydrate in the bark samples of the different species

under taken for the present study is indicated in Fig. 20. A glance at the figure clearly

shows that in A. indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa there has been an increased

percentage of carbohydrate accumulation under pollution stress, while T. indica and

F. bengalensis have experienced severe loss in the level of carbohydrate.

CARBOHYDRATE IN WOOD

The total carbohydrate content in sap wood on analysis shows that, the wood

has more carbohydrate than leaves and bark in a given species. There has been a

decrease in the level of carbohydrate in the sap wood samples of all the investigated

species except in F. bengalensis under pollution stress, in which a significant

increase in the carbohydarte level has been noticed over the control (Table -15).

The seasonal alteration of carbohydrate given in Fig. 19, indicates that the

26

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Fig.l9. Seasonal variation in the contents of carbohydrate (pcrcent dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

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response ofy4. indica, C. fistula tiwA T. /W/'ca is almost similar under pollution stress.

All the above mentioned species have recorded a fall in monsoon in respect of their

carbohydrate content in the sap wood samples. In A. indica and T. indica, the peak

amount of carbohydrate occurred in summer, while in C. fistula the same recorded

in winter. On the other hand, in F. bengalensis there has been an increase in the

amount of carbohydrate from summer to winter. In F. religiosa, the carbohydrate

level has been observed to undergo a marginal and non-significant loss under

pollution stress.

The per cent variation given in Fig. 20 implies that in all the investigated

species there has been a negative variation in carbohydrate percentage under the

influence of coal-smoke pollution with the exception ofF. bengalensis in which there

has been a positive variation in the level of carbohydrate in all the seasons.

The seasonal mean in the level of carbohydrate in the sap wood of the

investigated species is given in Fig. 20. It shows that there has been a significant

decrease in the amount of carbohydrate in A.indica, C. fistula, T. indica and F.

religiosa, upto the extent of 14.65%, 12.29%, 21.50% and 8.53%, respectively

under pollution stress. InF. bengalensis a significant increase of (7.39%) carbohy-

drate occurs under the same environmental condition.

PROTEIN IN LEAVES

The results obtained in the present study on the effect of coal-^moke pollution

on the protein contents in the leaves of the various species investigated are

summarized in Table-16. The data reveal that the amount of protein increases

significantly in all the species investigated in the SO^ enriched environment, except

in T. indica in which the amount of protein undergoes a significant decrease under

the pollution stress.

The seasonal trend of changes in protein in the leaves of the various species

27

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es O U

V M) ee a JS

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20

151

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J M W M W

40-

35

30

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KL Jl M W

40

35

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Control Polluted

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40

35

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LULII S M W

W- Winter

Fig.21. Seasonal alteration in the amount of protein (per cent dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

studied are represented through Fig. 21. It becomes clear that in A. indica and F.

religiosa the content of protein gradually falls from summer to winter, with the single

exception of the control sets of A. indica in which the winter foliage has been

observed to have a slight increase. In 7". indica and F. bengalensis, the maximum

amount of protein occurs in monsoon, while in C. fistula the climax is recorded in

winter by following a moderate dip in monsoon. However, the interaction has been

found to be non-significant in all species except F. bengalensis.

The Fig. 24 on per cent variation worked out over the control on the basis of

the contents of protein in the foliage of different species investigated shows that in

T. indica the level of protein falls on the negative side under the coal-smoke

pollution, while in the rest of the species there has been a positive variation in protein

percentage in all the seasons. The maximum decrease has been recorded in winter

(32.44%) in T. indica. The highest increase in the percentage of protein under

pollution stress has been noted in monsoon (59.80%) mA. indica andF. bengalensis

(94.07%), in summer (37.76%) in C. fistula and in winter (47.08%) inF. religiosa.

The seasonal mean given in Fig. 24 manifests that in A. indica, C. fistula, F.

bengalensis and F. religiosa there has been an increased percentage of protein

accumulation under pollution stress (48.68%, 18.87%,51% and 29.01%), while in T.

indica the level of protein undergoes considerable decrease.

PROTEIN IN BARK

The protein content in bark on analysis shows that it undergoes a significant

loss in C. fistula and Ficus spp., under the influence of coal-smoke pollution, while

in the rest of the species this important cellular component builds up positively,

irrespective of the level of pollution in the ambient air (Table-17).

The seasonal variation observed in the protein content of the newly formed

bark tissues in the different investigated species is given in Fig. 22. The figure

28

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Control Polluted

ILLJL M W


F.bengalensis.

HLJL M W

W- Winter

Fig.22. Seasonal alteration in the amount of protein (per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

reveals that in A. indica and T. iudica there has been a gradual increase in the level

of protein in bark tissues from summer to winter except a slight fall in the level of

protein in the winter samples of the control population of A. indica, while in the rest

of the species the peak amount of protein has been recorded in monsoon, although

the change remains non-significant in A. indica, C. fistula and the Ficus spp.

The per cent variation given in Fig. 24 indicates that there has been a marked

negative variation in the amount of protein in the newly formed bark tissues of C.

fistula and Ficus spp., under the pollution load. The variation widely varies in

summer in C. fistula (25.40%) and F. religiosa (41.67%), and in monsoon in the case

of F. bengalensis (31.53%). The positive variation in the percentage of protein

observed under pollution stress reaches the highest in summer in A. indica (64.60%)

and T. indica (80.20%).

The seasonal mean of protein gievn in Fig. 24 implies that in C. fistula, F.

religiosa and F. bengalensis there has been a significant loss in the amount of protein

in the SO^ enriched environment (22.53%, 36.63% and 26.32%), while in A. indica

(33.59%) and T. indica there has been a considerable gain (52.23%) in this vital

component of cells.

PROTEIN IN WOOD

The data in Table-18 on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the protein

contents of the sap wood samples analysed point out that ihe amount of protein

significantly increases in A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa under the influence of

pollution, while in the rest of the species the protein content falls significantly.

The Fig. 23 on seasonal variation of protein in the different investigated

species shows that in A. indica there has been a sharp increase in the amount of

protein from summer to winter. The trend has followed the same course in C. fistula

also, but the increase from summer to winter has been only marginal. In T. indica

29

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U

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El Control • Polluted

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7

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i L i d l M

W - Winter

W

Fig.23. Seasonal alteration in the amount of protein (per cent dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

tb B u h. V

fS ei)

a minor increase of protein has been recorded in monsoon samples compared to other

seasons. On the other hand, in F. hengalensis poWnXtA sets show a gradual increase

of protein from summer to winter but the control population records a slight fall in

protein content in monsoon followed by the peak in winter. However, in religiosa

there has been a gradual but non-2significant decrease in the protein content of sap

wood samples from summer to winter.

The per cent variation worked out over the control and given in Fig. 24 reveals

that it becomes positive under pollution stress in A. indica, T. indica and F.

religiosa. The variation becomes wider in winter iny4. indica {59.26%) and T. indica

(29.63%), and in monsoon in case ofF. religiosa(4S.S7%). However, the negative

variation in protein recorded in the wood samples over the control happens to be the

maximum in monsoon (22.43%) in case of C. fistula and in summer (32.47%) in F.

bengalensis.

The seasonal mean shown in Fig. 24 indicates that there has been a significant

gain in the level ofprotein in^. indica, (44.41%) T. indica {\9.05%) andF. religiosa

(30.60%) under pollution stress, while in C. fistula andF. bengalensis there has been

a considerable loss in protein.

NITROGEN IN LEAVES

The nitrogen content of leaves on analysis shows that all the investigated

species recorded increased amount of nitrogen under coal-smoke pollution,

irrespective of seasonal conditions, with the single exception of Tamarindus indica

in which there is significant decrease in the amount of nitorgen in the polluted

population (Table -19).

The Fig. 25 indicates the seasonal variation in the amount of nitrogen content

in the leaves of the selected species. A glance at the figure indicates that in

Azadirachta indica and Ficus religiosa there has been a fall in the level of nitrogen

30

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m o ON f—* m (N O 00 m o r-in CJ ON (S rr r-en r4

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C.fistula.

M

LULII

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F.reUgiosa.

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F.bengalensis.

JLIJI M W W - Winter

Fig.25. Seasonal variation in the nitrogen content ( per cent dry weight) in the foliage of various tree species.

from summer to winter irrespective of the pollution level. In Tamarindus indica and

Ficus bengalensis the maximum amount of nitrogen has been recorded in monsoon,

and in winter in case of Cassia fistula.

The Fig. 28 shows the per cent variation of nitrogen in leaves over the control.

A glance on the figure shows that the nitrogen level of the foliage of all the

investigated species is positive under pollution stress except in T. indica in which

a fall in the level of nitrogen has been recorded in all seasons, the variation being

wider in winter, amounting upto 32.47% . In F. religiosa and F. bengalensis the

variation touches the peak in winter (40.11% and 73.57%), whereas in .,4. indica the

variation strikes wider in monsoon (59.77%) and in C. fistula in summer (41.56%).

The mean of the season ( Fig. 28 ) worked out shows that in A. indica, C. fistula, F.

religiosa and F. bengalensis there has been a gain in the nitrogen content under the

pollution stress upto the extent of 40.92%, 20.93%, 24.00% and 36.35% respec-

tively, while in T. indica a considerable loss ( 20.12%) has been recorded.

NITROGEN IN BARK

The data on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the nitrogen content of the

newly formed bark samples of different species studied show that in A. indica and

T. indica, there has been an increase in the amount of nitrogen to the extent of

significance under the pollution stress. In the rest of the species, on the other hand,

the nitrogen content falls far below the lelvel of control, irrespective of seasonal

conditions (Table -20 ).

The Fig. 26 shows the seasonal variation in the amount of nitrogen in the

newly formed bark samples of the selected species. In A. indica and T. indica there

has been a continuous increase in the amount of nitrogen in the newly formed bark

tissues. While in the rest of the species the nitrogen content showed its peak in the

monsoon samples. However, the interseasonal variation in A. indica and the

31

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Ji

tn 4-t R ft u

JES

O £ e o es 2 ti a S

c

Z O c« <

CA hi V E E s

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Q Q D U U O

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a I

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t-O C/D C/3 d ^

f^ ^ ^ (N <N o o o o o o

I

Q Q Q U O O

P Q Q O O U

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O) vq vq t- 0\ CN I S m

d d d d d d d d d d

, o o > i n VO VO m o 'iS- o x f VO o\

t - - VO 00 T l - \o ts d d d d d d d d d d

VO » r- m 00 TT «n >n VO m o n 00 o Ti" ( S

TJ- n Tf <N f o

d d d d d d d d d d

U

R

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o

c u E w CO u U E to VI « J3

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Q U

Q U

c o w (S u V, V E CS M u

u u E E « eo

£

D D U U

Q Q O O

u o

= I

6

A.indica. C.fistula. 1 6-

1.4-1.2

1.0-

0.8-

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 J1

1.6-

1.4-

1.2 1.0-

0.8-

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0 .4 -

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T.indica. 1.6-

1.4-

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1.0-

0.8-

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0 JUU M w

1.6

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0.8

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LUUI M W

Control Polluted

1.6'

1.4

1.2

1.0 0,8 0.6 0.4

0.2

0


F.bengalensis.

JLILII M W W - Winter

Fig.26. Seasonal variation in the nitrogen content ( per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

summer and winter samples ofF. hengalensis, do not show any significant difference

under normal condition.

The Fig. 28 on per cent variation shows that a low level of nitrogen has been

found in the newly formed bark tissues of C. fistula and F/cw5spp. under pollution

stress. However in the rest of the species the level of nitrogen has been found higher

in control. The highest percentage of variation has been observed in the summer

samples (Young leaves) of A. indica (63.34%) and in the winter samples (Older

leaves) of T. indica (91.31%).

The mean of the season noted in respect to its nitrogen content shows that in

C. fistula, F. religiosa and F. bengalensis there is an overall loss of nitrogen under

the pollution stress, while in A. indica and T. indica a considerable increase in

nitrogen content has been recorded.

NITROGEN IN WOOD

The data summarized in Table- 21 show that in A. indica, T. indica and F.

religiosa there has been an increase in the amount of nitrogen in the sap wood

samples of the polluted populations, while in the rest of the species, an opposite

condition prevails under the stress of coal-smoke pollution.

The Fig. 27 elucidates the seasonal variation in the amount of nitrogen in the

sap wood samples of the selected species. A glance at the figure clearly shows that

in F. religiosa there is a continuous fall in the level oi nitrogen both in the control

as well as in treated, while the rest records a more or less gradual increase from

summer to winter with a sharp fall in case of F. bengalensis and a non-significant

increase in case of T. indica in monsoon.

The Fig. 28 on per cent variation shows that,under the stress of coal-smoke

pollution A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa show positive variation in nitrogen

percentage in the sap wood samples. The variation is wider in the younger leaves

32

u >

lo es Q U

-a o e ^ u us

x: M • M

T5 e w u V a

B B e w B V bfi e • M B Is

fS JU s 03 H

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c« t. E E s

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1/3 U Nw u u eu, C<5

lO vO — (N (N o o o o b b I I I « r Q Q O U U U

OS

u

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o

Q N

cn fn — <N f^ o o o b b b I I I -i fN) m

Q Q O U U O

— OS OS O O O b b b I I I — fs

Q Q O U O U

t-- »/-> o o o b b b

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t»3

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c

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— o ^ o o p b b b • I ' — <s r

Q O G U U U

OJ ro 0 < 0\ CO TT in DO <r) OS o m 00 VO m (S fS ts (S fS ts b b b b b b b b b b

OS 00 (N cn OS o 00 m O o 00 rr 00 (N

00 r- ts b b b b b b b b b b

ro cs so so o en o lyo so so F-H so ts (N r-i CN b b b b b b b b b b

1 so in OS o o so O 00 m o in cs m (N (S rs rsj

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U

s:

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1 6

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A.indica. 1 6 -

1 4 1 2

1 01 0 8

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C.fistula.

JLM M W M W

1 6

1 4

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1 0

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02

0

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II II il M W

1 6

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1 0

0 8

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Il II II M

Q Control • Polluted

W

1 6-

1 4 1 2

1 0 0 8 0 6 '

0 4 -

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F.bengalensis.

ILHLL M W

W - Wuiter

Fig.27. Seasonal variation in the nitrogen content ( per cent dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

< til

I u H

c 8 (A G

I

I

I

S I I c c

i •s, a

I

s 1 e •I 2

I •

g e o V e Sd e

• mm e e

es •c es > e u u V Pm 00 <s w

S o 2 T o c o 7 •= s T o o o o- o

(Summer foliage) in A. indica (31.14%), and T. indica and F. religiosa in

the older leaves i.e. winter foliage . On the other hand, in C. fistula and F.

bengalensis the variation falls on the negative side in all the seasons under

pollution stress, the highest variation occurring in monsoon.

The mean of the seasons ( Fig. 28) worked out in respect to its nitrogen per

cent indicates that in A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa there has been a

significant gain in nitrogen in the sap wood samples under the influence of coal-

smoke pollution, while in the rest (C. fistula and F. bengalensis ) there has been

a fall in the nitrogen level under the coal-smoke pollution.

PHOSPHORUS IN LEAVES

The data (Table-22) on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the phosphorus

content of the leaves show that in Ficus spp. there has been an increase in the amount

of phosphorus in polluted populations, while in A. indica and T. indica the level

of phosphorus recorded a significant fall compared to control. However, in C.

fistula the level of phosphorus remains almost at the same level irrespective of the

level of pollution.

The Fig. 29 shows that in A. indica, C. fistula and in Ficus spp., there has

been a continuous fall in the level of phosphorus from summer to winter except in

the monsoon samples of the control sets of C. fistula in which a significant raise has

been recorded. In all the investigated species the peak concentrations of phosphorus

has touched in summer (i.e. young foliage) except in T. indica which has a monsoon

peak.

The Fig. 32 on per cent variation worked out on phosphorus content in the

foliage of the investigated species in various seasons shows that in Ficus there

has been a positive variation in the phosphorus percentage under the pollution stress,

with the maximum in summer in the case of F. religiosa (19.04%) and in the

33

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es O U

O S e o es 2 2 C»

u e

Z o <

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en

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vo o — — o o o d d d I I I — (M

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tA) 3 : S o P p

d d d

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a

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< s ( S 0 0 o vo Os ON t - Os i n 0 0 o o m o I T l t s ( N CS ( S ( N m

d d d d d d d d d d

' O VT) r—1 o o o o 00 00 m o t s 00 \D ON

1—1 (S (S (S c s a en CS d d d d d d d d d d

00 i n T T o o ON c s O 0 0 0 0 I T l

c s CO c s c s en

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0

0 8-

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0

C.fistula.

iLlUl S M W

T.indica,

lUUl S M W

0 8 '

0 7. 0 6

0 5 l

0 4

0 3.

0 2.

0 1

0

F.religiosa.

M

Control Polluted

H w

0 8 -

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0


F .bengaJensis.

M W

W - Winter

Fig.29. Seasonal alteration in the phosphorus content (percent dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

winter in the case of F. bengalemis (24.16%). In C. fistula and in T. indica,

on the other hand, there has been a positive variation in the phosphorus percentage

in the young foliage of summer samples, followed by a sharp fall in the negative

side in the subsequent seasons. The negative variation of phosphorus in the

foliage has attained the highest under pollution stress in winter in case of C. fistula

and T. indica, while in A. indica, there has been a wider variation (Negetive)

of phosphorus in the foliage in summer and monsoon followed by a significant gain

in winter under the pollution stress.

The seasonal mean (Fig. 32) in respect of phosphorus content in the different

species investigated has shown that all the investigated species have recorded a

higher percentage of phosphorus content from the normal, under the pollution stress

with the single exception of T. indica in which a depletion of 5.92% of phosphorus

occurs. The maximum gain has been recorded in the Ficus spp. and the minimum

in A. indica.

PHOSPHORUS IN BARK

The phosphorus content in the newly formed bark on analysis has revealed that

it increases to a level of significance in A. indica and F. religiosa under the coal-

smoke pollution, while in the rest of the species there has been a significant depletion

of this vital element (Table-23)

The Fig. 30 indicates the seasonal variation in phosphorus content in the bark

of the investigated species. It becomes obvious that in C. fistula, T. indica and

F. religiosa, there has been a continuous increase of phosphorus from summer to

winter, irrespective of the pollution level, while in A. indica and F. bengalensis,

the trend is slightly disturbed by the peak concentration attaining in monsoon in the

former and a sharp and significant fall taking place in monsoon in the case of the

latter.

3A

iS e« A

>

IT)

CB Q u

® £ e e « 2 U A

I. W e

.e •Sf 'Z

•o e V V u V

le S h o £ a n O X a o •*-> B S O E <

*

z e« H

CM Z o

h i

E E s

H CM

U U

f^ vo VO O O O o o o

o o o I

O D Q O U U

o

VO fO o

o

VO O d

cs o

U

Q o s :

- s : 0

1

VO —' 00 o — o o o o d o d

Q D Q U U U

Tf r-.m o o o o o o

o I

o I — fM

Q P O U U U

T i - r - - oo o o o o o o d d d I I I <s

P O O u o u

00 o

On o r-

o

r-i/-) o

vO o d

00 o o O o

d

rr o

U U U

Q

<3

s 1 1

I Sd ^

a o

C/3 c/l t/5 I I I — <N m

P P P u u o

vo o

cs 00 o

d

vO c s OS t - - r - i/^ t s t -en m r l - 0 0 T r 0 0 OS 0 0 0 0 O o o o o

d d d d d d d d d d

^ 1 CM < s t - - 0 0 VO VO >/-) 00 o VO m O o o o o o o

d d d d d d d d d d

in VO O O

U

•2 c

c o <<

o

e u E es V

U E m <« u JS

B s ta u tn k. <2 Q u

I

P u

i CO o tn 0 1 u jC

C B u u 6 S e3 <S u u

£ £ Q Q U U I •

P P u o

I £ 3 B 1 cS

0, u

040

030

Ol'i

020-

015-1

010 0 0 5

0

A.indica.

• I l l • • M W

040

035H 030

025 I

020

015J

oloj 005

0

C.fistula.

JL { M W

040 035 H 030 0^1 0^ 015.J 010,

005 0

TAndica.

ll M W

040-1 035-030 0^1 OJO 015. 010.

0 05

0

F.religiosa.

ll ll II S M w

B Contro] • Polluted

040-035 030

OJO 015 010 005 0

F.bengalensis.


JLLII M W

W - Wmter

Fig.30. Seasonal alteration in the phosphorus content (per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

The Fig. 32 on per cent variation worked out on the basis of phosphorus

content over the control has shown that in case of C. fistula, T. indica and F.

bengalensis, there has been a fall in the level of phosphorus irrespective of the

prevailing seasonal conditions with the maximum occurring in monsoon in C. fistula

and T. indica, and in winter in the case of F. bengalensis. However in the rest of

the species, there has been a positive variation in the phosphorus content against

pollution stress. The variation in phosphorus content has occurred to the maximum

in summer in case of A. indica (33.33%) and in monsoon in case of F. religiosa

(37.50%)

The Fig. 32 on mean of the seasons shows that there has been a significant

depletion of phosphorus in C. fistula, T. indica and F. bengalensis under pollution

stress (21.75%, 20.18% and 21.95%), while in A. indica and F. religiosa there

has been a significant gain of phosphorus.

PHOSPHORUS IN WOOD

The data given in Table-24 on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on phospho-

rus content of the sap wood samples of the various investigated species show that

in A. indica and F. bengalensis there has been a significant increase of phosphorus

under the pollution stress, while in rest of the species the level of phosphorus shows

a significant fall.

The f ig. 31 on seasonal variation of phosphorus in the sap wood samples of

the different investigated species shows that there has been an increase in the level

of phosphorus from summer to winter in all the species except in A. indica and the

polluted sets of C. fistula, in which the peak touches in monsoon in former and a

gradual fall in the latter.

The Fig. 32 on per cent variation worked out on phosphorus content of sap

wood samples indicates that C. fistula, T. indica and F. religiosa experience a

35

>

VI ee Q

.e

® £ e o CB 2 V A 2 c»

k 4-1 e

O <

c« b. w E E s 03

H

C/D

u u CL,

t^ — o o — o o o d d d I I I ^ r) r

D P Q (J U U

U

o s:

o

00 o o o GOO rr 00 o o o o o o

o o o I

o I

o o

Q O O U U O

Q Q Q U U U

o O C) d d d

Q Q Q (J O U

O U a. u

Q ^ tn CS

U

s

c

I « o §

^ o o o o o p d d d • I ' — r^

O Q Q C U CJ

t-- 0\ 00 00 r- m 00 o\ m o V-) o IT)

fN fS (N fS (S (N ( S ( N

d d d d d d d d d d

VO r o t N fM CO f o 0 0 0 0 Ov 0 0 r r m

CS t s t s c s

d d d d d d d d d d

o 0 0 0 0 en > 1 vo fn iri o\ VO O CS CS CS CS CS CN CS CS

d d d d d d d d d d

'SI- Ti- oo 0 0 ITl o • 1—c 0 0 es m VO CS CS SO i r i 0\

CS CS CS <—' CS 1—< CS

d d d d d d d d d d

U

s:

a K

-O

k:

c Hi E « (L> 4> a ea <f> u

B O tn 03 V

Q u

Q U

c o to CB U « U B es CO v X!

c a u u e B CS es U V i i! U Ur

D O u u

Q Q U U

•V V

3 "K O Oh

B 0 u 1

O

0 8

0 7, 0 6

0 5 0 4'

03J 0 2.

0 1

A.indica.

LUHL

0 8-

0 7 ,

0 6

0 5 -

0 4

0 3 .

0 2.

0 1

C.fistula.

M W M W

0 8-1

0 7 0 6

0 5 1

0 4

0 3 0 2,

0 1

T.indica.

M W

0 8 -

0 7 ,

0 6

OS--0 4

0 3 0 2,

0 1

F.religiosa.

JLILII M


W

0 8 0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4


F.bengaJensis.

S M W

W - Wmter

Fig.31. Seasonal alteration in the phosphorus content (per cent dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

b. •M B « U u Pm fo M)

a

§

5

•5 g 1 •

o o + *

o u- O O o n -r £ S ? o o o

fall in phosphorus content under the pollution stress. The fall attained the highest

level in the winter season in C. fistula and F. religiosa, while in T. indica, the

summer samples has recorded the highest variations (28.07%). However, the rest of

the species have exhibited positive variation under the pollution stress. The

variation has grown wider in winter in case of A. indica (30.38%) and in the summer

in case of F. bengalensis (30.89%).

The seasonal mean of phosphorus level shown in Fig -32 indicates that C.

fistula, T. indica and F. religiosa have been facing considerable depletion in their

phosphorus content under pollution stress (15.50%, 21.78% and 23.41% respec-

tively), while A. indica and F. bengalensis have been gaining considerable amount.

POTASSIUM IN LEAVES

The data in Table-25 show that the potassium content increases to a level of

significance in Tamarindus indica and undergoes a significant loss in F. bengalensis

and F. religiosa, while in the rest it remains almost at the same level irrespective of

pollution level.

The Fig. 33 shows the variation in potassium level in the different seasons. In

A. indica and C. fistula, the potassium level has touched the peak in summer in the

polluted populations, while in the control the same recorded in monsoon samples of

the leaves. In T. indica and F. religiosa there has been a fall in the content of

potassium from summer to monsoon and then a slight increase in winter. But in F.

bengalensis there has been a continuous fall from summer to winter in both the

polluted and control populations. In both the species ofFicus the highest amount

of potassium has been recorded in the summer samples of leaves irrespective of

pollution level.

The Fig. 36 on per cent variation indicates that both Ficus religiosa and F.

bengalensis show a negative variation in the level of potassium under pollution stress

36

>

08 Q U

JS

® £ e o M (A S t» 2

L. s

CA Z o c«

CO 4t E E 9

H O)

05 M u 0k

<N (N lyi m iz; d d

Q Q Q U O U

O

t> t-

r - ' d

00 VO

00 On

u

Q u ^ R

-s: u cs

a N

— 00 O ON

on —; p ^ d d

Q Q O (J O (J

^ oo r-IT) 00 oo o o o d d d

P Q Q CJ U U

(N On 'a-O O d d d

Q Q Q U U U

VO

—I o

ON <N

m f—4 r-d

fO VO

o f—< ON d

iri 00 00

— — o NO d

r-00 d

o m 00

t-NO 00

o ts o o —

CJ U U

?3 t<i

5

Q o R

s: i s <3

I

§ O

Nj

00 VO r- f^ t^ o ^ ^ d d d

Q Q Q U U U

0 r x ON rr NO NO 00 10 r-

d —'

NO 00 cs 00 00 ON in tr, r- NO NO m 00 cs NO

I—1 d I-H

<N rf ON Tl- CS m t-- cs 00 r- cs • 00 0\ NO

r- 00 00 NO NO NO vr. r-d d d d —

m m tN oo (S ^ —'

' •«» to s:

s: -c

o k:

c u B cs w t> E CO tn U

§ w cs u

D u I rj

Q CJ

c o en ea u w e CS en U

C C I I cs cS (U V k- u u u <2 ^ D D u u

D Q U U

•o —. u o

11 Cu U

4 On 3 5

3 0

2 5

20

1 5

1.0

0.5

0

A.indica. 4 0 3 5 -

3 0

2 5 2.0

1 5 -

1 0.

0 5

0

C.fistula.

M W JULJI

S M W

4 0 -

3 .5

3 .0

2 5 1

2.0

1.5-

1.0.

0.5

0

T.indica.

JLIII M W

4 0

3 5

3 0

2 5

2 0

1 5

1 0

0 5

0

F.religiosa.

M B Control • Polluted

W

4.0

3 .5

3.0

2 5

2 0

1 5

I 0

0 5

0


F.bengalensis

I M W

W - Wmter

Fig.33. Seasonal variation in the potassium content (per cent dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

in all the seasons. But C. fistula records a non-significant negative variation of

potassium in monsoon and significant variation in winter season, after experiencing

a significant positive variation in summer. In all the three above species maximum

variation of potassium has been recorded in winter. In T. indica, on the other hand,

there has been a positive variation in the level of potassium under the pollution stress,

while in A. indica the variation falls on the negative side in monsoon and positive in

the other seasons.

The mean of potassum level in leaves indicates that T. indica accumulates the

highest amount of potassium in leaves under pollution stress (22.47%) followed by

C. fistula (4.62%) and A. indica(2.60%), while in Ficus spp. there is a significant

depletion of potassium.

POTASSIUM IN BARK

The data in Table-26 show that the potassium content falls to a level of

significance in the newly formed bark samples of A. indica and Ficus spp., under the

stress of coal-smoke pollution, while in T. indica it shows a significant increase

over to its control under the same environmental conditon. However, in C. fistula

the content of potassium remains at the same level irrespective of pollution level.

A glance at the Fig. 34 clearly indicates that A. indica and F. bengalensis

behave more or less in a similar manner with respect to its level of potassium in the

newly formed bark samples under pollution stress. In both the species the highest

amount of potassium recorded in monsoon samples of the bark both in the control as

well as in the polluted samples. In C. fistula there is a significant increase in the

amount of potassium from summer to monsoon and then there is a significant fall in

winter. In T. indica a gradual increase of potassium from summer to winter has been

recorded. But in F. religiosa there is a significant fall in the amount of potassium

from summer to monsoon and then there is a slight increase in winter.

37

ti >

OS O u

k M iC V

® £ e o oj es

e

M) •mm

•o

9i W V D.

E

(A ee o a

e 3 o E <

Ji « H

O

CA

E E 9 C«

H C/3

C/3 Eii] u

c/3

—' ro — m r-o o o d d d I I I

Q Q Q U O U

o

c

IT) m fi vo c/5 O O

J Z d d I I I

vo —< ^ (N r o o o d d d I I I

o C/D (/3 o z

Q Q Q U U U

D Q Q U U U

Q Q Q U U U

U

•w*

<3

a

Q O C

s: 53

14)

U u ;

(N 00 — li?

O o P d o d

Q Q Q U U U

V-) <N (N fN 00 <N VO r- c VO 00 ON •ri cn in Ti- 00 d d d d d d d d d d

c s r-H o ,—1 00 o r -VO T-M VO I T l «N (S VO Ov iri d d d d d d d d d d

fo Ov 00 VO in <N VO •rr 00 < s CM rri r -

r t VO 00 VO d d d d d d d d d d

00 r- (N ON 00 VO vO VO o f S VO f—1 ON fn VO o m in (N 00 o I T ) lA) d d d d d d d —' d d

U

tn s:

I o to o

c u E eo «

U E C8 trt U M

a o tn cs u

D U I

Q U

B O <n u E CD CO u

g g e 6 a cs

.5 .P Q D U U

Q Q O U

T3 — U O = I

I I a. u

A.indica. C.fistula. I 1 4 .

) 2 1 0 '

0 8 -

0 6 .

0 4 .

02

0 JLLML S M W

] 6 -

1 4

1 2 l

1 0

0 8

0 6

0 4

0 2

0 -

I 6-1 4 -

1 2 '

1 0 '

0 8 '

0 6 .

0 4 .

0 2

0 •

JLI

JLM S M W

T.tndica.

M W

1 6

1 4

1 2

1 0

0 8

0 6

0 4

0 2

0

F.religiosa.

I S M

El Control • Polluted

W

1 6

1 4

1 2 1 0


F.bengalensis

M W W - Wmtcr

Fig.34. Seasonal variation in the potassium content (per cent dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

The Fig. 36 shows the per cent variation in the potassium content of newly

formed bark. It clearly indicates that in A. indica and Ficus spp. the variation falls

on the negetive side in all the seasons. The wider variation occurring in monsoon

in the case of F. religiosa and in the winter in F. bengalensis and A. indica. In T.

indica, on the other hand, the level of potassium shows positive variation under

pollution stress with the maximum attaining in monsoon (29.50%). In this respect

C. fistula showed a unique behaviour compared to others showing positive variaton

of potassium in summer and winter samples under pollution stress (43.86% and

11.95% respectively), but in monsoon season a significant fall in the negative side

has been observed (27.55%).

The seasonal mean of potassium content (See fig. 36) indicates that in A.

indica and Ficus spp. there has been a significant depletion of potassium under

pollution stress (20.72%, 24.60% and 11%), while in T. indica an opposite trend has

been noted. However in 'C. fistula the depletion of potassium recorded under

pollution stress has been marginal and non significant.

POTASSIUM IN WOOD

The potassium content of the sap wood samples of different species on

analysis shows that in A. indica, C. fistula and F. bengalensis, there is an increased

amount of potassium under pollution stress, while in the others the potassium level

undergoes a severe loss (Table -27 ).

The Fig. 35 on seasonal variation of potassium in the sap wood samples of

different species shows that indica and C. fistula behave almost in a similar manner

under the pollution stress. In both the species peak concentration of potassium

touches in monsoon except in the polluted population of C. fistula in which peak

touches in summer. In T. indica peak concentration of potassium recorded in summer

samples of the wood of polluted sets, while in the control sets the same has been

38

> a

Vl et Q U

® £ e e

e:

CZ3

iz: O

w V 6 g s

c «

H

D w On

<N O C/D C/5 d

Q Q Q O U U

U

<3 u s:

•s: V)

(S ^ t^ —' <N — o o o

d d d

Q Q Q U U O

ir, \o iT, —' (N (N o o o

d d d

O O P U U CJ

o ff) — o o

d d

o

d

-- m O Q Q U U U

u u

a

S c

i c

I

§ o

o

00 (N vo X ^ ^ O O p d d o ' I I <

— n r^ Q Q O U U U

VO rr t-- fM o ( S 00 p—t o m lA) o ID o ( S <N <N

d d d d d d d d d d

00 CN o (M 00 o ON o VO ( N ON 00 v£) o CS <N CS CS r-d d d d d d d d d d

CS CS 00 On lA) o 00 00 r - CS ro in

CS CNl cs m m CS r o CS d d d d d d d d d d

o On o r- ,—1 00 NO 1/1 On m lo On o o 00 VD CS CS m CS CS m CS d d d d d d d d d d

U

>1 to c

I

B u e <0 u u E es

O

§ cn ca V tn

o u

Q U

1 CS u V E a u .c

B B I I es es U u

D D u u I I —• n

Q O U U

•H £ — B g 5 CLh U

0 8

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0

A.indica.

JL M W

0 8

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0

C.fistula.

M W

0 8-

0 7 .

0 6

0 5 -

0 4

0 3 .

0 2 .

0 1

0

TAndica.

I I M W

0 8 0 7 .

06

0 5-

0 4

0 3 .

0 2.

0 1

0

F.religiosa.

J S M

Control Polluted

W

0 8'

0 7 0 6

0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2.

0 1

0

F.bengalensis.


1 M W W - Winter

Fig.35. Seasonal variation in the potassium content (per cent dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

(b 

B V u h £ NO ei)

I .g

a

2

•g g

w

g O I - vo o O o — " T o o

recorded in monsoon. However in both the sets the amount of potassium happens

to be the least in winter. The behaviour of Ficus spp. has also been noted to be almost

similar except there is an increase in the contents of potassium in the polluted

population of the winter samples of F. bengalensis, whereas F. religiosa has

recorded a decrease in the content of potassium in winter samples of the polluted

populations.

The Fig. 36 on per cent variation of potassium content in sap wood samples

shows that in F. religiosa there is a significant fall in the negative side in the level

of potassium from summer to winter, with the maximum occurring in monsoon

(68.44%). While in T. indica there is a positive variation in the potassium content

in the summer samples of the sap wood (49.80%). However, in the other seasons

there has been a negative variation.

In F. bengalensis the positive variation has been observed in monsoon and

winter season attaining the maximum in winter (47.40%). In A. indica and C. fistula

the variation goes on the postive side in the amount of potassium in all seasons. The

highest percentage of variation has been observed in winter in C. fistula (32.23%)

and in summer (16.46%) mA. indica.

The seasonal mean (Fig. 36) of potassium content in wood samples shows

that T. indica and F. religiosa experience a significant depletion of potassium

under pollution stress (8.73%, 11.25%), while the others giving a significant

increase.

SODIUM IN LEAVES

The present study on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the sodium content

in the leaves of the various investigated species reveals that in A. indica, C. fistula

and T. indica, there has been a significant increase in the level of sodium under

pollution stress, while in the rest of the species, the level of sodium undergoes a

significant loss (Table-28).

39

> V)

•J fi U

x:

® £ e o es 2

UD .S is

fc. a

S

U) • M

•o •Sf M E

E s

•5 c M

e s o E

ao »s

JS ee H

o

k u E S s

0«

cn

U Pm 1/5

m O C/3 C/3 6

Q P Q D U O

o Ov O

O cs

CJ

I

r- (N cs o o o d d d

P Q Q O U a

r- t^ o <s - r q o o d d d

P P P U U U

(S o iri cT)

d z I • • ^ r>j n

P P P u o u

o r-ro d

O in ro O ts

o 00

o <s

o tN d

U U U

55 Or

tS

55

C

s: 55

I

a O .Ss (U V. S

— 00 IT s O o P d d <=>

P P P U O U

o o O o O o o o O o o rj- (—1 TJ- m 0 0 r-

( S ( N ts rn d d d d d d d d d d

o O o o o o o o o VD m o 0 0 o t s t s CO ( S < s ( S o

d d d d d d d d d d

o o O o o O o o o O 00 CO VO m o <N r}- ON

rj- in TJ- Tl-d d d d d d d d d d

o ON

O tT ( S

O

s:

I -C)

Ss o

c il E eg 0) 4> E « V) w

B O tn «o u

G o

p U

(3 O tn 03 10 tn « g 03 in 4)

JS

es B B V 0) E E es CS V V ti w ^ ll o o o D o u

P P O U

« o

0 8 "

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2 0 1

0

A.indica. 0 8

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2 0 1

0

C.fistula.

I M W M W

0 8-

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0

T.indica.

JL M W

0 8 "

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3

0 2

0 1

0

F.religiosa.

I B Control • Polluted

M

0 8-

0 7

0 6

0 5

0 4

0 3 l

0 2

0 1

0

F.bengalensis.

W S - Summer M - Monsoon

Jl S M W

W - Winter

Fig.37. Seasonal alteration in the amount of sodium ( mg/gm dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

The Fig. 37 indicates the seasonal variation in the level of sodium in

different species. It clearly shove's that in all the investigated species, the peak level

of sodium has been recorded in monsoon samples, irrespective of the pollution

level, although the interseasonal variation occurring in A. indica and F. religiosa

has been found to be non-significant under pollution stress.

The Fig. 40 on per cent variation worked out on the basis of the contents of

sodium analysed in the foliage of various species studied indicates that in A. indica,

C. fistula and T. indica the per cent variation is positive under pollution stress with

the maximum occurring in the foliage of monsoon (23.68%) in^^. indica, in winter

(47.82%) in C. fistula and in summer (33.33%) in T. indica. In the Ficus spp. the

per cent variation happens to be negative indicating the depleted level of sodium

irrespective of the seasonal variation in the physical factors of the site.

The seasonal mean given in Fig. 40 points out that the Ficus spp. have

experienced considerable depletion of sodium to the extent of 20.58% to 27.27% in

the different seasons under pollution stress. In A. indica, C. fistula and T. indica,

on the other hand, the variation has been on positive side to the extent of 17.64%,

20.58% and 17.85% respectively under the same environmental condition.

SODIUM IN BARK

The observation recorded on the contents of sodium in the newly formed bark

samples of the various investigated species indicates that the amount of sodium

increases to a level of significance in the bark tissues of A. indica, C. fistula and F. ^

religiosa under pollution stress, while in the rest of the species, there has been a

significant depletion (Table -29).

The Fig. 38 indicate the seasonal trend of sodium balance in the different

investigated species. In A. indica and F. religiosa, there has been a raise in the level

of sodium over the control under the pollution stress, the peak striking at the winter.

117

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0 6

0 5

0 4

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0

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M W M W

0 g-* 0 7

0 6

0 5

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Jl M W

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1 B Control • Polluted

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0 8 0 7

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W


I S M W

W - Winter

Fig.38. Seasonal alteration in the amount of sodium ( mg/gm dry weight) in the bark samples of various tree species.

In C. fistula the trend of variation has followed the line but the peak occurs in

monsoon. In T. indica, the level of sodium increased from summer to winter but the

pollution stress has kept the sodium level lower than the control. In F. bengalensis

also the level of sodium has remained low indicating the severe depletion of this light

metal under the pollution stress with the maximum amount of depletion taking place

in winter.

The per cent variation worked out on the basis of sodium content in the bark

tissues of the various investigated species is indicated in Fig. 40. The figure implies

that in T. indica and F. bengalensis there has been a negative but non-significant

variation in the level of sodium under pollution stress, while in the other species the

variation has been positive and significant. The variation becomes wider in summer

in case of A. indica (53.33%) and F. religiosa (45.83%) and in monsoon in the case

of C. fistula (S2.05%).

The seasonal mean of sodium given in Fig. 40 reveals that T. indica and F.

bengalensis have experienced significant depletion in the sodium content in the

newly formed bark tissues under pollution stress (22.50% and 36.17%), while in A.

indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa there has been a considerable gain (35.89%,

56.09% and 43.75%).

SODIUM IN WOOD

The sodium content, in the sap wood samples, on analysis shows that it falls

to a level of significance in all the investigated species under pollution stress with the

single exception of T. indica in which the sodium level significantly goes up (Table

-30).

The Fig. 39 on seasonal variation shows that in Ficus spp., there has been a t

gradual increase in the amount of sodium from summer to winter, while in T. indica

it falls in winter after attaining the maximum in monsoon. In C. fistula, the sodium

41

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V JS

•s = c o « 2 es

v> e

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o o o O o o o o o o VO ON ON r- oo o (S fS (S CN (S ( S

d d d d d d d d d d

o o o o o o o o o o Tj- Ti- r j - i n 00 m vo so

es <s >—1 ts ( S ( S

d d d d d d d d d d

o o o o o o o o o o ts t-- (S ON t o 00 iri

fS (N <N (S <N d d d d d d d d d d

o o o o o o o o o o vo r- o 00 vo <s fN ( S I—1 CM r-<

d d d d d d d d d d

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to •*««» tn C

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c E cs p

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c o to <0 1» £ Q O I r)

P u

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£ G Q u u

P P O U

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0 8 0 7

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hi. M W

08" 0 7

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U U I T.indica,

JLLI

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0 8

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F.religiosa. 0 8

0 7

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ILII S M W

W- Winter

Fig.39. Seasonal alteration in the amount of sodium (mg/gm dry weight) in the wood samples of various tree species.

o o o o

—i—

I

fi o o

I

1

lillliillllliil

_ _ 1

I €

§ O e I

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o t o

level shows a decline from summer to winter. In A. indica, the amount of sodium

takes deep dip in monsoon and raises in winter.

The Fig. 40 on per cent variation worked out on the basis of sodium content

in the sap wood samples of the different species studied indicates that there has been

a negative variation in the level of sodium in A. indica and F. religiosa under

pollution stress, while in C. fistula and F. bengalemis the negative variation

recorded over the control is only marginal and non-significant. However in T.

indica, there has been a positive variation under pollution stress, although it is

non significant.

The seasonal mean of sodium given in Fig. 40 shows that, A. indica, C.

fistula, F. religiosa and F. bengalensis have experienced significant depletion in

the sodium content in their sap wood samples under pollution stress, while in T.

indica, the sodium level increases to the extent of 35.29% under the same

environmental condition.

CALCIUM IN LEAVES

The data on the contents of calcium (per cent dry weight) in the leaves

collected in various seasons from the species investigated in the present study are

summarized in Table-31. The data reveal that A. indica and T. indica have

accumulated an increased amount of calcium in their foliage under pollution stress,

while in the rest of the species, the level of calcium has fallen significantly compared

to control.

The Fig. 41 indicates the seasonal alteration in calcium balance in the different

species. A glance at the figure clearly shows that in A. indica and T. indica, there

has been an apparent fall in the level of calcium from summer to winter, but not to

the extent of statistical significance. However, in C. fistula, the gradual fall in the

level of calcium has been found to be significant. The trend has been slightly

42

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JS JSP '5

t •a e V u 1m

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F.bengalensis.

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W - Wmter

Fig.41. Seasonal variation in the calcium content ( per cent dry weight) in the leaves of various tree species.

disturbed in Ficus spp. in having the peak in monsoon under the pollution stress.

However, the seasonal variation occurring in F. religiosa has been found non-

significant as in the case of A. indica and T. indica.

The Fig. 41, on per cent variation worked out on the basis of calcium content

in the foliage of various investigated species, shows that there has been a significant

fall in the level of calcium in the leaves of C. fistula and F. bengalensis, while in F.

religiosa it is non-significant. In C. fistula and F. bengalensis the highest

percentage of variation has been recorded in the winter samples, amounting upto

12.74% and 19.02% respectively. However, the positive variation registered over

the control in A. indica and T. indica has also been found statistically non-

significant.

The seasonal mean given in Fig. 44 shows that, C. fistula And Ficus spp. have

experienced significant depletion in the calcium content in their foliage under

pollution stress (9.06%, 5.41% and 9.80%), while in indica and T. indica, there

has been a significant increase in calcium content under the pollution stress.

CALCIUM IN BARK

The calcium content in the newly formed bark, on analysis, has shown that,

it increases to a level of significance under pollution load in all the investigated

species with the single exception ofF. religiosa in which the calcium level falls under

the pollution stress. (Table-32).

The Fig. 42 indicates the seasonal variation in the content of calcium in the

bark tissues of the investigated species. It becomes clear that in all the investigated

species there has been a gradual increase in the amount of calcium from summer to

winter under pollution stress. However, the interseasonal variation recorded in the

present study happens to be non-significant in the case of A. indica and C. fistula.

The Fig. 44 on per cent variation denotes that in all the investigated species

43

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A.indica. C,fistula.

M W M W

T.indica.

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F.religiosa.

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Control Polluted

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F.bengalensis.

M W W - Wmter

Fig.129. Seasonal variation in the calcium content ( per cent dry weight ) in the wood samples of various tree species.

there has been a positive variation of calcium observed in their bark samples with the

single exception of F. religiosa in v hich a significant fall on the negative side has

been recorded in their vînter samples. The variation has been found to be the highest

in summer in case of/4, indica and F. bengalensis, amounting upto 4.96% and 9.74%,

respectively. In T. indica on the other hand, the peak percentage of calcium

(18.38%) has been found to occur in monsoon. However, in C. fistula \ht variation

in the level of calcium recorded over the control in all the seasons has been found

to be statistically significant.

The Fig. 44 on seasonal mean of calcium reveals that in A. indica, C. fistula,

T. indica and F. bengalensis there has been an increased percentage of calcium

accumulation to the extent of significance under pollution stress (4.09%, 7.28%,

12.14% and 5.68% respectively), while in F. religiosa a significant depletion of

3.33% has been recorded.

CALCIUM IN WOOD

The data (Table-33) on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the calcium

content of the sap wood samples of the selected species in the different seasons imply

that in C. fistula and in the summer and monsoon samples of F. bengalensis there

has been an increase in the amount of calcium under pollution stress, while in the rest

of the species investigated a significant fall in the level of calcium has been recorded.

The Fig. 43 on seasonal deviation in the balance of calcium in the sap wood

sampels of the various investigated species points out that there has been a gradual

increase in the level of calcium from summer to winter in all the species investigated

except in T. indica in which the monsoon samples recorded the peak. However, the

seasonal variation in respect to their calcium content in indica and F. religiosa has

been found to be statistically non-significant.

The per cent variation worked out on the basis of the calcium content of the

44

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d d d d d d d d

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1 4-1 2

1 0-

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04-02J 0

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S M E Control • Polluted

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M W W - Wmter

Fig.43. Seasonal variation in the calcium content ( per cent dry weight ) in the wood samples of various tree species.

2 g J L

VO - i -

o o

o o o i l i l lM

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sap wood samples of the selected species is given in Fig. 44. It manifests that in A.

indica, T. indica and F. religiosa there has been a negative variation in the level of

calcium under pollution stress, and the variation has been found to the extent of

significance only in T. indica with the maximum occurring in monsoon (27.25%).

The positive variation of calcium recorded in C. fistula and F. bengalensis in the

different seasons has been found statistically significant.

The seasonal mean of calcium in the wood samples given in Fig. 44 indicates

that in A. indica, T. indica, F. religiosa and F. bengalensis there has been a

significant loss of calcium in sap wood upto the extent of 19.42%, 21.07%, 5.03%

and 7.39% respectively. While in C. fistula the calcium percentage increased to a

level of significance (23.24%) under polluted condition.

ASCORBIC ACID IN LEAVES

The data, on the effect of coal-smoke pollution on the ascorbic acid contents

in the leaves of the various investigated species show that, the level of ascorbic acid

falls considerably in all the investigated species under pollution stress (Table-34).

The Fig. 45 indicates the seasonal trend in the level of ascorbic acid in the

different investigated species. It becomes clear that in all the investigated species,

there has been a gradual increase in the level of ascorbic acid with the growing age

of the leaves, irrespective of the level of pollution, although the interseasonal

variation has been found to be non-significant in all the species studied.

The per cent variation over the control given in Fig. 46 shows that, the per cent

variation of ascorbic acid contents is negative under pollution stress in all the

investigated species in all seasons. In T. indica, F. religiosa and F. bengalensis the

per cent variation widely varies in summer i.e. in young foliage (38.65%, 45.07%

and 47.79%) and the variation narrows down in older leaves in winter, while in

C. fistula, a more or less to the same extent (21%) of ascorbic acid content remains

45

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Tt ON o VO oo

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o 00 W) 1—H

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a, U u 0, U fi U u

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c o <n <s (U « u 6 « tn

B C O U e E eo t8 £ 2 I-. u £ <2 Q Q u u

Q Q O U

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1 1

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I L U I S M W

r T 6

5

4

3

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1

0

C.fistula.

T.indica.

J l L l J I

M W

M W

F.religiosa,

llJlJl E Control • Polluted

M W


F.bengalensis.

J I J l I I S M W

W - Winter

Fig.45. Seasonal variation in the amount of ascorbic acid (mg/100 gm fresh weight) in the leaves of different tree species.

.to

1 I

u

I

g o f o

+ o +

o ? o O C O « t S' g

I .S j

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vc bi)

throughout, without undergoing any change in per cent variation. However, the

fall in ascorbic acid recorded over the control in A. indica has been very extensive

in summer (31.27%) and narrowed down in winter (21.36%).

The seasonal mean of per cent variation occurred is represented in Fig. 46

and it reveals that, the investigated species have experienced considerable loss of

ascorbic acid in their foliage under pollution stress. The degree of loss in

decreasing order falls as F. religiosa (42.54%)< F. hengalensis (41.63%) < T.

indica (37.88%) < A. indica (26.89%) < C. fistula (21.12%).

PROLINE IN LEAVES

The proline content in leaves has been analysed and the data obtained are given

in Table-35. The analysis shows that the level of free proline increases significantly

in the foliage of all the investigated species under the influence of pollution stress

with the exception of A. indica in which there has been a significant loss in the

production of free proline under the same level of coal-smoke pollution.

The seasonal trend in the level of proline in the different species studied

depicted in Fig. 47 shows that, the level of free proline in leaves reaches its summit

in the winter foliage of all the species after a sharp fall in the monsoon both in control

as well as in those facing the coal-smoke pollution. But, the interseasonal

variation in free proline content of leaves in T. indica, C. fistula and F.

bengalensis has been found to be statistically non-significant.

The per cent variation calculated over the control, on the basis of the amount

of free proline in the foliage of the different species under study is shown in Fig.

48. The figure elucidates that the variation has been positive in the production of

free proline under pollution stress except in /W/ca in which the variation falls

on the negative side. The variation widens in the young foliage i.e. in summer

(67.80%) in case of C. fistula and in the monsoon foliage (49.43%,28.50%) in case

46

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Fig.47. Seasonal variation in the amount of proline (/imoles/g fresh tissue) in the foliage of different tree species.

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of T. indica and F. hengalensis, while in F. reUgiosa maximum variation occurs in

the older leaves (30.92%). However in A. indica the negative variation becomes the

highest in monsoon foliage (38.32%).

The seasonal mean given in Fig. 35 reveals that, there has been a considerable

gain in the amount of free proline in the foliage of C. fistula, T. indica mAF. religiosa

and F. hengalensis (52.70%, 40.18% ,23.31% and 12.96%) under pollution stress,

while 'mA. indica, there has been a significant fall in the level of free proline as a result

of coal-smoke pollution.

47

ÎSCUSSIOfhC

D I S C U S S I O N

SULPHUR

Sulphur is an essential element as it forms a constituent ofnumber of amino acids

(Devlin and Witham, 1986). The inorganic sulphur taken up by theplants enter the system

in organic form. The excess ofsulphur is usually accumulated in sulphate form (Thomas

etaL, 1950;Jones, 1962; Decormis, 1969;Fallere/fl/., 1970;HaIlgren, 1978;Thoiron

eta!., ]981;Cram, 1983;Pandey, 1983; Leggee/^?/., 1988) and get eliminated in due

course of time. When they are stored in leaves, they get eliminated when leaves fall and

similarly those stored in bark get eliminated when the bark peels off year after year

(Garsed, 1984; Rennenberg, 1984; Lone, 1993).

The plants in general, when they are grown in sulphur rich atmosphere absorb

excess amount of the element and accumulate in different parts, what has not been

incorporated in the organic system. There are a number of reports regarding the

response of different plants to SO^ exposure under control conditions (Bleasdale,

1952;Tingeye/a/., 1971; Khan and Malhotra, 1977;Lauenroth era/., 1979;Pandey

and Rao, 1978; Garsed o/., 1981; Elkiey and Ormrod, 1981; Koziol and Whatley,

1984; Jagere/o/., 1985; Farooq e/a/., 1988; Beg and Farooq, 1988; Van der Stegen

and Mj'ttenaere, 1991; Wookey and Ineson, 1991; Fuehrer e/of/., 1993) as well as to

SO^ enriched ambient atmosphere under field conditions (Jones et a!., 1974: Wood

and Bonimamu 1975; Ziegler, 1975; Legge e/o/., 1977; 1978; 1980; 1981; 1988:

Pandey. 1983; Trilica o/., 1985: Amundson f /a / . , 1986; 1990; Zech e/«/., 1985,

1990/91: Rao and Dubey 1990 a. b).

When the plants are exposed to SO^. the gas enters the leaf system along with

the air through the stomata and get dissolved in water and affect the working of the

organic system of the cells, disturbing the pH of the medium as well as interfering

the metabolic activities ofthe cells (Malhotra and Sarkar, 1979;Garsede/flr/., 1981; Yu

and Wang, 1981; Trilicae/a/., 1985; Rao and Dubey, 1990a).

The present study to evaluate the sulphur content of the leaves, yielded data

which has brought to light that the selected species have absorbed excess sulphur in

the form of SO^ and accumulated in leaves as well as in other parts of the plant namely

bark and wood. The amount of sulphur accumulated depends on the species as well

as the organs in which they are stored. In general the excess sulphur has been

accumulated as a storage product in leaves and less so in bark and wood. Similar

observations have been recorded by a number of earlier workers in various broad

leaved as well as in conifers (Prasad and Rao, 1982; Pandey, 1983; Alekseev and Rak,

1985; Murray, 1985;Zeche/a/., 1985;Iqbal, 1988; Singh and Rao, 1988; Murray and

Wilson, 1990, 1991; Rao and Dubey, 1990 a, b; Sharma and Prakash, 1991; Van der

stegan and Myttenaere, 1991; Zech eâ/., 1990/91; Lone and Ghouse, 1993;Kupka,

1993; Sah and Meiwes, 1993; Wulfe^ a/., 1993).

The results obtained in the present study on seasonal variation in the sulphur

content of leaves, bark and wood have shown that the seasonal conditions prevailing

in and around the site of study has a profound effect on the sulphur accumulation

in general (Fig. 8-10). In summer, when the growth starts after winter break, the

sulphur content in young tender leaves is found to be the minimum, while in monsoon,

when the leaves become fully grown and mature, the sulphur accumulation becomes

the highest and later recedes in winter. This trend of change in sulphur content

appears to be related to the seasonal conditions as well as to the habit of the species.

In the evergreen species it appears that the seasonal condition and the habit of the

species play a higher role than any other factor. In the heavy and dense atmosphere

of monsoon season, with high humidity, these species catch more SO^ and accumulate

high quantities of sulphur. The same species after monsoon lose some of the

accumulated sulphur and show lesser amount in the older leaves of winter. This state

A9

of affair occurs in the control set as well as in the one which faces pollution, indicating

the phenomenon is more related to the habit of the species than the pollution level

of the atmosphere. In an attempt to study the coal-smoke pollution in the same

experimental site, on some tropical trees Lone (1993) has found that the maximum

concentration of sulphur occurring in monsoon season in Mangifera indica, Psidium

guajava, Syzygium cumini And Eucalyptus citriodora, all having evergreen habit, and

attributed to the active period of growth of these species. The works of Huttunen

etal., (1985) on Scot pine andPahkala (1986) on Hypogymnia spp. have also shown

that these two temperate evergreen species also behave like the tropical evergreen

ones worked out in this laboratory. Contrary to the above, the deciduous Cassia

fistula shows a continuous increase in the amount of inorganic sulphur in its foliage

with the growing age of the foliage culminating in late winter leaves. Lone (1993) has

also reported that in case of the deciduous Dalhergia sissoo and Tectona grandis,

a similar state of affairs in sulphur accumulation as it is noted in the present study

in the case of the deciduous Cassia fistula.

It appears that the phenomenon of sulphur acumulation is more related to age

factor of the leaves than that of seasonal condition of the ambient atmosphere in the

control as well as in the population facing the pollution problem. Lone (1993) has

interpreted the behaviour to be an adaptive measure to avoid excess accumulation of

sulphur in the species worked out by him namely Dalbergia sissoo and Tectona

grandis which drop off their leaves at the time of winter break under the local climatic

conditions.

The results obtained in the present study on sulphur accumulation in newly

formed bark as well as the sap wood of the selected species indicate that the amount

of sulphur content is far less in the bark and in the wood compared to leaves in all

seasons. In the sulphur enriched atmosphere the investigated species showed a

positive accumulation over the control in all seasons, but the degree of accumulation

50

depending on the species. The deciduous species {C. fistula) showed a high amount

of sulphur under coal-smoke pollution in the wood. While in the rest (All evergreen)

the sulphur content varied in wood to a lesser extent compared to control. The

sulphur content in bark, on the other hand, does not show any correlation with the

habit of the species. The evergreen broad leaved Ficus bengalensis shows the highest «

variation in its sulphur content in bark over the control and this is closely followed

by the deciduous broad leaved C. fistula and the evergreen Ficus religiosa. The

minimum amount of sulphur has been found in small leaved Tamarindus indica. This

may be due to the smaller leaf size of the species rather than the habit of the trees.

Among the evergreen species only Azadirachta indica shows significant

amount of sulphur accumulation in wood as well as in bark under coal-smoke

pollution, while the rest have no significant variation in sulpur content of wood,

although all of them have significantly high content of sulphur in the newly formed

bark tissues with the exception of T. indica.

51

C H L O R O P H Y L L PIGMENTS

Chlorophylls, the green pigments of plants are the most important pigments

responsible for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy and are thus active

in the process of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll molecule has a cyclic tetrapyrrolic

structure (Porphyrin), with an isocyclic ring containing a magnesium atom at its

centre and a phytol chain attached to it. Chloroplast of higher plants alvâys contain

two types of chlorophyll. One is invariably chlorophyll a, and the other is

chlorophyll b, which has an aldehyde group instead of a methyl group attached to

ring II. Most higher plants contain about twice as much chlorophyll a as chlorophyll

b. Carotenoids, on the other hand are also found in varying amounts in nearly all

higher plants and are believed to be vital for two important functions: (a), they

protect against the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll and (b), they absorb and transfer

light energy to chlorophyll a (Devlin and Witham, 1986).

The pigment analysis undertaken in the present study reveal that the ratio of

chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b under normal conditions range from 1:0.65 to 1:0.76

in the species investigated (Table-36). This goes against the common belief that

chlorophyll a is twice the number of chlorophyll b as mentioned by Lehninger et al,

(1992). The pigment contents when analyzed, has revealed that all the investigated

species undergo considerable loss in their coloured pigments under coal-smoke

pollution with the exception of F. bengalensis in which the pigment strategy has

proved to be highly productive under coal-smoke pollution. The loss in chlorophyll

pigments under sulphur dioxide pollution has been a common observation by almost

all workers in the past both under controlled as well as under field conditions.

"(Wellburne/a/., 1972;Malhotra, 1977;Pandey andRao, 1978; Prasad and Rao, 1982;

Devi and Patel, 1983; Pandey, 1983; Irving and Miller, 1984; Malhotra and Khan,

1984; Sharma and Rao, 1985; Singh e/a/., 1985; Yunusetal.,\9B5, Kumar and Yadav,

1986; Nandi etai, 1986; Singh and Rao, 1986; Agrawal etal, 1987; Chand and Kumar,

1987; Gupta and Ghouse, 1987b; Beg and Farooq, 1988; Farooq e/a/., 1988; Singh

and Rao, 1988; Vijayan and Bedi, 1988; Prakash a/.. 1989a; Singh, 1989; Saquib

and Ahmad, 1991; Sharma and Prakash, 1991; Ghouse et al., 1993;

Ramasubramanian et al, 1993; Sabu etal, 1993; Sarinen and Liski, 1993). The

reduction in chlorophyll contents by sulphur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and

hydrogen chloride is a generally accepted fact, as these compounds create low pH

of the medium which eventually brings about decolourization and degradation of

pigments (Arndt, 1971;Puckete/a/., 1973; Devi and Patel, 1983). But the observations

recorded in the present study on Ficus bengalensis appears to be unique to this

species, as it experiences significant gain in the amount of chlorophyll pigments and

carotenoids under coal-smoke pollution, instead of undergoing any loss. A similar

situation of increased chlorophyll contents has been come across by Fulford and

Murray (1990) in two species of Eucalyptus under SO^ pollution. Earlier, Murray

and Wilson (1988) have also demonstrated the increase in chlorophyll concentration

in Eucalyptus tereticornis when exposed to concentrations of SO^ and hydrogen

fluoride. Doley (1988) has found increase in chlorophyll concentration in four

species oiPinus under fluoride pollution. Devi and Patel (1983) have also found

increased amount of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll in a number of

species including Ficus bengalensis under the pollution caused by fertilizer complex

of Baroda. The gain in pigment concentration found in F. bengalensis has been

reflected in the higher carbohydrate content under coal-smoke pollution, discussed

elsewhere in detail. Devi and Patel (1983) have also found increased sugar

production in plants in which there has been an increase in chlorophyll concentration

under pollution stress. The correlation coefficient worked out between sulphur and

photosynthetic pigments in the investigated species given in Table-37, has clearly

revealed that the degree of dependence of these pigments over sulphur is quite high

53

in all species. All the species showed a negative correlation with the exception ofF.

bengalensis which depicted positive correlation.

Among the chlorophyll pigments analysed, chlorophyll 'a ' suffered greater

loss in C. fistula and T. indica in all seasons, while the rest of the species the chlorophyll

'b ' undergoes higher losses. The original ratio of chlorophyll 'a ' and chlorophyll 'b'

under normal atmosphere, thus get disturbed and altered. Under pollution stress the

ratio of the chlorophyll 'a ' to chloropyhll 'b' ranges from 1:0.6 to 1:0.77 (Table-36).

The low ratio of chlorophyll 'b' has been found in Azadirachta indica and Ficus

religiosa due to higher loss of chlorophyll 'b' than chlorophyll 'a ' . In Cassia fistula

and Tamarindus indica the ratio of chlorophyll 'b' improves over chlorophyll 'a ' due

to higher loss of the latter. Whereas, in the case of Ficus bengalensis, the position

of chlorophyll 'b ' becomes stronger due to its higher production than chlorophyll

'a ' under coal-smoke pollution.

The ratio of total chlorophyll in the investigated species falls under coal-

smoke pollution with the exception of F. bengalensis in which the ratio increases by

0.3 over the control. The higher loss of chlorophyll 'a ' compared to chlorophyll 'b'

has been interpreted to its high sensitivity to SO^ pollution by earlier workers

(Sunderland, 1967; Malhotra, 1977; Kondoe/a/., 1980; Chaudhary and Sinha, 1982;

Periasamy and Vivekanandan, 1982; Singh and Rao, 1986; Gupta and Ghouse, 1987b,

Khan and Usmani, 1988; Prakash et al, 1989b; Singh, 1989). The greater loss of

chlorophyll 'a ' thr.n 'b' has been interpreted in more than one way (Khan and Usmani,

1988) and it is ascribed to the inactivation of various enzymes associated with the

synthesis and action of chloropyhll 'a ' . Knudson et al, (1977) suggested the

following possibilities for the reduction of chlorophyll a to chloropyhll b ratio due

to the exposure of plants to ozone;

(a) Chlorophyll 'a ' may degrade more rapidly than chlorophyll 'b ' ; and (b)

either the synthesis of chlorophyll 'a ' may be reduced or that of chlorophyll 'b ' may

54

be increased (Godnev and Shabel's Kaya, 1963). Chlorophyll 'b' may be formed from

chlorophyll 'a ' , and chloropyhll 'a ' may undergo rapid degradation as compared to

chlorophyll 'b ' in senescent leaves (Wolf, 1956).

The higher sensitivity of chlorophyll 'a ' to pollution stress hampers the plant

growth considerably as it plays a very important role in the process of photosynthesis

(Malhotra, 1977). Comparatively higher losses of chlorophyll 'b ' is found in the

present study in A. indica and in F. religiose need special mention. Devi and Patel

(1983) has also found higher reduction in chlorophyll 'b' in A. indica as it has been

found in the present study while working on the effect of air pollution emitted by

a fertilizer complex situated in Baroda.

The seasonal relationship in the chlorophyll content of leaves found in the

present study in case of A. indica and T. indica, both happened to be evergreen

species, may be due to the induced early senescence by the pollutants. The higher

loss of chlorophyll pigments in the young leaves of summer as found in Cassiafistula

in the present study may be due to the higher sensitivity of young foliage than the

older ones. What is found in the other species the higher loss of pigments in the

monsoon season appears to be normal as the noxious gases get higher entry into the

leaves in the dense and heavy atmosphere of the season due to the delayed and slow

diffusion and dispersal of these gases in the atmosphere.

55

Table 36. Ratio orPhotosynthetic Pigments.

SPECIES SITE PIGMENTS RATIO

A. mdica P Chi a b 1 0 61 C Chi a b 1 0 70

C. fistula P Chi a b 1 0 71 C Chi a b 1 0 65

T. mdica P Chi a b 1 0 77 c Chi a b 1 0 67

F. rebgiosa p Chi a b 1 0 70 c Chi a b 1 0 76

F. hengalensis p Chi a b 1 0 71 c Chi a b 1 0 67

A. mdica C P Total Chi 1 0 86

C. fistula C P Total Chi 1 0 76

T. mdica C P Total Chi 1 0 73

F religiosa C P Total Chi 1 1 30

F. bengalensis C P Total Chi 1 080

A. mdica p Total Chi Crotenoid 1018 c Total Chi Crotenoid 1 020

Cfistula p Total Chi Crotenoid 1025 c Total Chi Crotenoid 1026

T. mdica p Total Chi Crotenoid 1 0 26 c Total Chi Crotenoid 1 022

F. religiosa p lotalChl Crotenoid 1 023 c Total Chi Crotenoid 1 0 23

F. bengalensis p Total Chi Crotenoid 1 0 22 c Total Chi Crotenoid 1 026

P = Polluted, C = Control, Chi = = Chlorophyll

Table 37. Correlation coefllcient (r) between Sulphur and Photosynthetic Pigments.

SPECIES PIGMENTS SEASONS

Summer Monsoon Winter

A. indica Chi. a Chl.b Carotenoids Total Chi.

-0.8992* -0.9403** -0.3789 -0.7738

-0.9731** -0.9447** -0.9451** -0.9679**

-0.9489** -0.9670** -0.9627** -0,9693**

C. fistula Chi. a Chl.b Carotenoids Total Chi.

-0.7983 -0.8587* -0.8210* -0.8548*

-0.8449* -0.5724 -0.8974* -0.5589

0.9328** -0.7913 -0.6694 -0.9264**

T. indica Chi. a Chl.b Carotenoids Total Chi.

-0.9749** -0.9789** -0.9964** -0.9773**

-0.9904** -0.9788** -0.9533** -0.9913**

-0.9722** -0.8788* -0.9141* -0.9674**

F. religiosa Chi. a Chl.b Carotenoids Total Chi.

-0.7938 -0.9505** -0.9523** -0.3262

-0.4501 -0.9002* -0.9595** -0.9958**

-0.9219** -0.9617** -0.9498** -0.9501**

F. bengaletisis Chi. a Chl.b Carotenoids Total Chi.

0.7273 0.8474* 0.8578* 0.8626

0.8289* 0.1694

-0.2811 0.8785*

0.8737* 0.8036* 0.8579* 0.7118

* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level Chl.= Chlorophyll

CAROTENOIDS

Carotenoids are lipid compounds that are distributed widely in both animals

and plants and range in colour from yellow to purple. Carotenoids are present in

variable concentrations in nearly all higher plants. They absorb light at wave lengths

other than those absorbed by the chlorophylls and thus act as supplementary light

receptors. The major carotenoids found in plant tissues is the orange-yellow pigment

/3-carotene, which is generally accompanied by varying amounts (0 to 35 per cent)

of a carotene (Mackinney, 1935). The probable roles of carotenoids are (1) They

protect against the photooxidation of chlorophylls and (2) They absorb light and

transfer the energy to chlorophyll a (Devlin and Witham, 1986).

The observations recorded in the present study on the carotenoid contents

show heavy losses of carotenoids in the winter foliage of Azadirachta indica,

Tamarindus indica and Ficus religiosa. In a recent study on some tropical trees

exposed to coal-smoke pollution Lone (1993) has also found a similar behaviour of

foliage in respect to carotenoids. He has also found that the loss of carotenoids

amounts to be higher than the total chlorophyll in old leaves of winter as found in

the present study in case of Azadirachta indica and Tamarindus indica. Nouchi et

al. (1973) and Prasad and Rao (1982) have also noted higher losses of carotenoids

in older leaves than in the young ones. The higher loss of carotenoids in the young

foliage of Cassia fistula found in the present study is going in accordance with the

findings of Lone (1993) on Dalbergia sissoo and Syzygium cumini, indicating the

behaviour of carotenoids to be independent of age factor and their behaviour

depending on other factors like genetic constitution of the concerned species.

The ratio (Table-36) of total chlorophyll to carotenoids in the investigated

species varies from 1:0.22 to 1:0.26 in the control and from 1:0.18 to 1:0.26 in the

polluted site. In Tamarindus indica, the ratio of total chlorophyll and carotenoids occurs

at 1:0.22 in control and the ratio of carotenoids increases to 0.26 in polluted samples; in

F. bengalensis it remains the same while in others its ratio decreases to varying degrees.

In T. indica the tremendous decrease (26%) in cholorophyll contents in the polluted

samples boosted the ratio of carotenoids, although the latter also get decreased due to

pollution by 16%. The gain in total cholorphyll and carotenoids under pollution is almost

the same which maintains the ratio to the same extent in F. bengalensis. The higher loss

of carotenoids (33%) in F. religiosa disturbs its ratio under pollution stress to reduce it

to the minimum in this species. Although the loss of carotenoids amounts to 25.74% in

C. fistula, the ratio is not disturbed (0.01%) in this species, as the loss in total chlorophyll

also amounts to a great extent i.e. 22.51% indicating the carotenoids as well as the

chlorophyll to be highly sensitive in this species to coal-smoke pollution. No work in this

line to study the ratio of carotenoids to chlorophyll under pollution appears to have been

undertaken so far, as there is no report in the literature.

57

CARBOHYDRATE

The carbohydrates are important to the plant in several ways. First, they represent

a means for the storage of the energy, second, they are important constituents of the

supporting tissues that enable the plant to achieve erect habit, third, they provide the

carbon skeletons for the organic compounds that make up the plant (Devlin and Witham,

1986).

Plant grovk'th and development represent a complex series of co-ordinated

events which are ultimately dependent upon the organic reserves accumulated in the

seed (Cotyledons) while, the subsequent growth depends upon the translocation of

carbohydrate in excess of their maintenance needs. The productivity of mature

leaves, therefore represent an asset to the total carbon economy of a plant while

developing leaves, flowers and fruits represent liabilities requiring an input of carbon.

In most cases, the productivity of mature leaves is more than sufficient to meet these

demands of carbon for growth and development. Exposure to gaseous pollutants can

however, alter the balance of a plant's carbon economy so that growth can be retarded

and yield reduced. In the case of chronic exposures, reductions in growth and yield

can occur without accompanying visible symptoms of injury.

In the present study the carbohydrate content in the leaves of the investigated

species has been found to be higher in the older leaves of monsoon and winter seasons

than in the young summer foliage in all the species both in the control as well as in

the polluted samples. In Ficus bengalensis under pollution stress there has been a

significant increase in the carbohydrate content in all seasons. This increase in

carbohydrate content appears to have been directly related to the increase in the

chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of this species under pollution stress.

In case of 71 indica, there is a fall in the level of carbohydrate in leaves, bark

and wood under pollution stress, as there has been a significant reduction in the

amount of chlorophyll and that of carotenoids in this species consequential to coal-

smoke pollution. However in the rest of the species, there has been an increase in

the carbohydrate level under pollution, although there has been a deep fall in the level

of coloured pigments in the leaves in all seasons. There are several reports on SO^

influenced reduction in the carbohydrate contents in different plant species viz.

Ulmus americana (Constantinidou andKozlowski, 1979); Triiicum aestivum (Prasad,

1980); Pinus sirobus (Percy and Riding, 1981); Glycine max and Triiicum aestivum

(Prasad and Rao, 1982); Avena sativa (Chand and Kumar, 1987); Syzygium cumini

(Vijayan and Bedi, 1988); Lycopersicon esculentum and Hordeum vulgare (Prakash

et al, 1989a, b) and Polyalthia longifoUa (Singh, 1989). Hovsêver the increase in

carbohydrate contents recorded in the foliage of various investigated species in

different seasons at the polluted site in the present study may be due to the lesser

utilization of carbohydrate due to reduced growth activity of the plants as well as

inhibition of other metabolic processes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Lone

(1993) has also recorded the increase in carbohydrate level in different seasons of

some fruit trees as well as in certain timber trees growing under the stress of coal-

smoke pollution, though there has been significant reductions in total chlorophyll and

carotenoids in these species. The accumulation of carbohydrate in the foliage under

SOj enriched condition may be also due to the inhibition in its translocation from the

leaves (Noyes, 1980), probably because of the phloem loading due to SO^ pollution

(Koziol, 1984).

The data obtained on correlation coefficient between total chlorophyll and

carbohydrate content (Table-38) indicate that the correlation is positive in case of

F. hengalensis and T. indica irrespective of seasonal variation. In case o f ^ . indica

the correlation between chlorophyll and carbohydrate content is negative as these

two aspects run against each other. That is to say that the carbohydrate content in

leaves records an increase against the fall of chlorophyll level. In the rest of the

59

species, there is a positive correlation between carbohydrate content and chlorophyll

level in the young leaves of summer but not in the older leaves of monsoon and winter

seasons.

The correlation coefficient worked out between carotenoid contents and

carbohydrate also shows the same trend as it has been found between chlorophyll

and carbohydrate (Table-18).

The correlation between sulphur content in the leaves and carbohydrate is

summarized in Table-39. In A. indica and F/ci/5 spp., the correlation shows perfectly

positive in all the seasons. However, in C. fistula the level of carbodydrate in summer

foliage is negatively correlated with sulphur (r=-0.85), and the rest of the seasons

records positive correlation. In T. indica, the correlation between sulphur and

carbodydrate is negative in all the seasons, running opposite to each other. The 'r '

value ranges from 0.65 to 0.83 in this species.

The concentration of carbohydrates in bark and wood in the present study

reveals that there has been an increase in the level of carbohydates in the bark samples

of A. indica, C. fistula dinAF. under pollution stress, but the wood samples

of these spp. records considerable loss in all seasons. However, in T. indica and F.

bengalensis considerable loss in carbohydrate occurs in bark tissues under pollution

stress. In the wood samples of T. indica there has been a significant loss in

carbohydrate while in the wood ofF. bengalensis there has been a considerable gain

in carbohydrate level. The increase in carbohydrate recorded in the bark sample of

A. indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa under pollution stress in the present study is in

confirmity with the earlier report of Lone (1993) on Mangifera indica, Psidium

guajava and Tectona grandis. The loss of storage products like carbohydrate in

wood and bark under pollution stress is not uncommon in literature. Patel and Devi

(1986) observed reduced levels of starch in the bark and wood samples of Syzygium

cumini and Mangifera indica populations growing in the polluted atmosphere around

60

a fertilizer complex. The loss of carbohydrate observed in the bark samples of T.

indica and F. bengalemis and in the wood samples of all the species except in F.

bengalensis in the present study is in agreement with the above report. Similarly the

significant increase in carbohydrate content in the wood samples recorded in F.

bengalensis in all the seasons in the present study is also in agreement with earlier

report of Lone (1993) in some tropical trees {Syzygium cumini. Eucalyptus

citriodora and Tectona grandis).

In the present study, the maximum increase of carbohydrate under polluted

condition occurs in the monsoon samples of A. indica (32.07%) and the least records

in the monsoon samples of C. fistula and F. religiosa (9%). Likewise, the decrease

in carbohydrate touches the maximum in the winter samples of T. indica (25.99%)

and the minimum in the monsoon samples of T. indica and F. bengalensis (6%).

In the present study, the maximum concentration of carbohydrate in the

polluted as well as in normal atmosphere has been recorded in wood compared to leaf

and bark. The loss in carbohydrate experiences the maximum in the monsoon wood

samples of T. indica (35.03%) in the polluted condition, and the least in its summer

samples (6.08%). Similarly, the increased accumulation of carbohydrate under

pollution stress records the highest in the late winter samples of bengalensis

(10.77%) and the least in its monsoon samples (3.99%).

The correlation worked out on sulphur versus carbohydrate content in the

bark and wood shows that, the correlation is positive in the bark samples oiA. indica,

C. fistula and F. religiosa, in all the seasons except in the summer samples of C. fistula

in which there occurs a perfect negative correlation (r=-0.93). In the rest of the

species, bark records negative correlation with sulphur. In wood, all the investigated

species exhibit negative correlation against sulphur irrespective of seasons, with the

exception ofF. bengalensis in which there occurs a non significant positive correlation.

The deciduous C. fistula is the only species to show significant negative correlation

of carbohydrate with sulphur in wood (r=-0.82 to -0.90). The rest of the species

records non-significant correlation (Table-39).

61

Table 38. Correlation coefllcient (r) between Chlorophyll and Carbohydrate.

SPECIES SEASONS


LEAF

A. indica -0.7787 -0.8065* -0.8454* Cfistula 0.8583* -0.5762 -0.8777* T. indica 0.9022* 0.7491 0.6597 F. religiosa 0.9434** -0.9336** -0.9084* F. bengalemis 0.8275* 0.9096* 0.7897

BARK

A. indica -0.9106* -0.9734** -0.9849** C. fistula 0.8389* -0.5971 -0.9496** T. indica 0.9797** 0.9343** 0.9842** F. religiosa -0.9624** -0.8607* -0.9561** F. bengalemis -0.8700* -0.8195* -0.7556

WOOD

A. indica 0.9348** 0.9366** 0.9620** C. fistula 0.8857* 0.7397 0.9095* T. indica 0.9449** 0.9952** 0.9884** F. religiosa 0.8629* 0.9347** 0.9533** F. betigalensis 0.9090* 0.8313* 0.7479

* Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level

Table 39. Correlation coefllcient (r) between Sulphur and Carbohydrate.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF

A. indica C. fistula T. indica F. religiosa F. bengalensis

0.728] -0.8567* -0.8386* 0.9569** 0.8815*

0.8441* 0.5025

-0.7113 0.9347** 0.9646**

0.8041 0.8762*

-0.6594 0.9005* 0.9759**

BARK


0.7868 -0.9313** -0.8923* 0.8657*

-0.7269

0.1797 0.4257

-0.8579* 0.8832*

-0.2051

0.6567 0.8588*

-0.8070 0.3493

-0.3831

WOOD


-0.6092 -0.9071* -0.0854 -0.4668 0.1398

-0.4458 -0.8846* -0.3926 -0.2780 0 1880

-0.5903 -0.8274* -0.2048 -0.3023 0.1769


P R O T E I N

The proteins are the most vital components of the living systems and their

most significant influence resides in the fact that many are functionally active as

enzymes which are vital for the rapid rates of biochemical reactions. Proteins also

act as natural hydrogen ion buffers and structural components of the cells. The

literature pertaining to the impact of SO^ on the protein contents of the plants is well

documented. In a recent communication Roa and Dubey (1990 a, b) reported

significantly reduced protein contents in the foliage of several plant species viz.

Azadirachia indica, Calotropisprocera. Cassia siamea, Dalbergia sissoo, Ipoemea

fistulosa, Mangifera indica, Syzygium cumini and Zizyphus mauritiana growing in

field conditions around an industrial area. In an earlier detailed investigation on

certain tropical tree species. Beg and Farooq (1988) observed that SO^ concentrations

which produced no visible injury, decrease the protein contents in Ficus rumphi,

Holoptelea integrifolia, Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava and Syzygium cumini.

However, no change was observed in the Pithecolobium dulce while Ficus bengalensis

shows elevated protein contents.

The present investigation on five tropical trees, the protein level in leaves

increased in four out of the five species. The only species in which a decrease in

protein level takes place, is Tamarindus indica. There are several reports in the past

that recorded reduction in protein content in plants under the stress of SO^ pollution

(Fischer, 1971; Godzik and Linskens, 1974; Mudd, 1975; Constantinidou and

Kozlowski, 1979;MalhotraandSarkar, 1979; Grill a/. 1980; Prasad, 1980; Robe and

Kreeb; 1980, Percy and Riding, 1981; Agrawal, 1982; Singh e/a/. 1985;Krishnamurthy

etal. 1986; Vijayan and Bedi, 1988; Rao and Dubey, 1990 b). The reports showing the

increase in protein content under pollution stress is also not uncommon in literature

(Godzik and Linskens, 1974; Prasad and Rao, 1982; Saxe, 1983; Murray, 1984; Rao

andDubey, 1990a; Lone, 1993). There is a high concentration ofprotein in the leaves

of Azadirachta indica to the extent of57.86% in the young leaves of summer season. In

Cassia fistula too similar trend of high concentration in the young leaves and a reduced

level of the same in the older leaves has been recorded in the present study. This

increased concentration reflects the enhanced synthesis of protein in the young leaves of

these two species which may act as combating mechanism against pollution hazard

(Crakerand Starbuck, 1972; Jager er a/., 1985).

In Ficus bengalemis on the other hand, it has been found that an initial fall in the

protein content in the young summer foliage followed by a sharp increase (94.07%) in

monsoon. In F. reJigiosa the highest amount of protein content has been observed in

winter foliage (47.08%). The fall in the concentration of protein in young leaves under

pollution stress may be due to the changes in amino acid concentration in SO^ treated

plants, leading to the protein reduction (Godzik and Linskens, 1974) due to the

inactivationofenzymes responsible for the protein synthesis (Cecil and Wake, 1962).

Malhotra and Khan (1984) are of the view that the decrease in the protein contents could

be attributed to the break down of existing proteins and to the reduced de novo synthesis.

The reduction in protein contents of SO^ treated plants might also result from decreased

photosynthetic activity (Sij and Swanson, 1974; Constantinidou and Kozlowski, 1979).

The correlation coefficient worked out on leaf sulphur concentration and protein

content shows that the correlation becomes positive in the foliage of all the species in

different seasons except in T. indica and in the summer samples oiF. bengalensis in

which correlation records negative. However, the correlation is not significant in T.

/>ji//ca because the ' r 'value falls in the range of-0.38 to-0.45. Similarly, the positive

correlation recorded in different seasons in the rest of the species also shows non-

significance with sulphur in all seasons except in the winter samples of the foliage ofF.

bengalensis which records a significant correlation (Table-40).

The observations on the protein content of the newly formed bark and wood

63

samples in the present study show that the protein concentration is significantly high

in the bark and wood samples of indica in the SO^ enriched atmosphere, while the

bark and wood samples of C. fistula and F. bengalensis have recorded considerable

loss in their protein content under pollution stress. However, in F. religiosa bark

shows considerable loss in protein content, but an opposite condition prevails in the

case of wood. In A. indica and T.indica both bark and wood have accumulated

appreciable amount of protein in varying degrees under the stress of coal-smoke

poJJution (Table 17-18).

The correlation of protein worked out against sulphur concentration in wood

and bark shows that the ' r ' value is negative in C. fistula and F. bengalensis, while

in F. religiosa, the ' r ' value in the bark is negative, but it becomes positive in the wood

samples. However, in the rest of the species the ' r ' value shows positive in all

seasons. In bark the significant correlation occurs in the monsoon samples of T.

indica and in the monsoon samples of F. bengalensis, while in wood the significant

correlation found only in the monsoon samples of C. fistula (Table-40).

64

Table 40. Correlation coeflicient(r) between Sulphur and Protein.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF


0.8014 0.7082

-0.3913 0.7795

-0.5479

0.7602 0.2941

-0.4548 0.5518 0.7558

0.5159 0.5699

-0.3846 0.7903 0.8860*

BARK


0.4979 -0.4520 0.9507**

-0.5827 -0.5249

0.3929 -0.4556 0.8352*

-0.3861 -0.8764*

0.1446 -0.7294 0.7758

-0.4560 -0.4560

WOOD


0.4984 -0.5493 0.2794 0.3112

-0.0865

0.5326 -0.8321* 0.2115 0.6242 -0.1440

0.5739 -0.7044 0.4332 0.1081

-0.1008


NITROGEN

Nitrogen is one of the essential nutrients for the plants and perhaps nitrogen' s most

recoginsed role in plants is its presence in the structure of protein molecules. In addition,

nitrogen is found in such important molecules as purines, pyrimidines, porphyrins and

coenzymes. Purines and pyrimidines are found in the nucleic acids, RNA and DNA

essential for protein synthesis and transfer of genetic material (Devlin and Witham, 1986).

The porphyrin structure is found in such metabolically important compounds such as the

chlorophyll pigments and cytochromes, essential in photosynthesis and respiration.

Coenzymes are essential to the function of many enzymes. In addition to its absorption

generally in the form of NOj", nitrogen is also taken up as N H / . Once inside the plant,

nitrogen is reduced and incorporated into diverse organic compounds (Beevers and

Hageman, 1969). Its deficiency may result in stunted growth and yellowing of leaves on

account of loss of chlorophyll.

It is an established fact that the foliar level of different inorganic elements are

affected by (i) uptake from the soil and atmosphere (2) translocation to and from

other tissues within plant (3) loss by leaching or volatalization (Van den Driessche,

1974; Miller, 1984; Johnson et ai, 1985). Further, uptake, accumulation and

distribution of various mineral nutrients in the plant body are influenced by several

factors such as climate, season, time of the day, age of the tree and foliage, type of

the tree species and soil conditions (Bazilevic and Rodin, 1964; Ovington; 1908,

Evans, 1979).

The nutritional effect of NO^ on the plants in nitrogen deficient conditions has

been reported by several workers in the past (Troiano and Leone, 1977; Troiano,

1978; Yoneyama et al., 1980; Srivastava and Ormrod, 1984; Okano and Totsuka,

1986; Rowland et al., 1987; Wingsle et ai, 1987; Sabaratnam et al., 1988;

Ramasubramanian ^/o/., 1993). In the present study (Table-19) the nitrogen content

increases in the foliage of all the investigated species except in Tamarindus indica in

which the nitrogen content falls significantly in all the seasons under pollution stress. The

increase in nitrogen contents in plants has also been reported after fumigation with NH^

(Draaijers et al, 1989; Bobbink et al., 1990; Dueck and Elderson, 1992) or after

exposing with acid mist containing major sulphur or nitrogen pollutants (Kimball et al.,

1988; Jacobson et al., 1989). It is an established fact that plant leaves can absorb

different kinds of gaseous air pollutants, including NO^ through their stomata (Spedding,

1969; Rich e/a/., 1970; Porter e/a/., 1972; Okano e/a/., 1989; Pearson e/or/., 1993).

Further, it is also possible that plants may absorb and fix NO^ from the atmosphere and

thus increase their nitrogen contents. Since NO^ is also one of the by products of coal-

burning, its presence in the ambient atmosphere at the test site is unavoidable. The

retarded growth activity of the plants in the polluted atmosphere coupled with lesser

metabolic activities might have left nitrogen in the plant body ut\utilized and thus get

accumulated. However, the lower concentration of NO^ absorbed by the plants can be

easily metabolized and detoxified if relevant enzymes are active (Rogers et al, 1979;

Yoneyama and Sasakawa, 1979; Rowland e/a/., 1987).

The observations recorded in the present study on the seasonal variation of

nitrogen accumulation shows that, in F. hengalensis and F. religiosa there has been

an increased percentage of accumulation of nitrogen in the winter foliage, while the

same condition has been recorded in monsoon in A. indica and in summer in C. fistula.

The increased per cent of nitrogen recorded in the winter samples of the Ficus spp.

is in agreement with the earlier report of Lone (1993) in some fruit trees from the

same site. He interpreted that , as an adaptation developed by the plants so as to

translocate most of it towards the newly emerging leaves which may need higher

nitrogen supply during stressed condition. Sacher (1957) and Das (1968) have also

reported that minerals are transferred to green or living parts when the leaves began

to dry. However, the increased percentage of nitrogen accumulation recorded in other

66

seasons in the present study in two species viz. A indica and C. fistula may be due

to the greater entry and absorption of NO^ from the atmosphere due to the active

growth of leaves in the respective seasons. Several other workers in the past

(Malkonen, 1974; Evans, 1979; Garsede/a/., 1981) have also observed an increase

in nitrogen concentration in young leaves which decreased with the increasing age of

the leaves.

The decrease in nitrogen content in plants under pollution stress is not also

uncommon. In the present study the significant loss in the nitrogen percentage

recorded in Tamarindus indica in all seasons under pollution stress goes in agreement

with the earlier reports in some conifers (Malcom and Garforth, 1977; Garsed et al,

1981) and in some annual crops (Pandey and Rao, 1978; De santo etal., 1979; Mishra,

1980; Elkiey and Ormrod, 1981; Agrawal, 1982; Sharma and Rao, 1985; Prakash et

al, 1989a) in some broad leaved trees like Diospyros melanoxylon, Lagerstroemia

parviflora and Zizyphus nummularia under field conditions around a coal fired power

plant (Pandey, 1983). Zech etal. (1990/91) have also observed decreased values for

'N ' contents in declining populations growing in an SO^ polluted area

of Ne-bavarian mountain.

The correlation coefficient worked out between leaf sulphur concentration

and nitrogen content given in Table-41 shows a positive relationship between

sulphur and nitrogen concentrations in the leaves of all the investigated species

except Tamarindus indica in which both aspects runs opposite because of the

reduced nitrogen content in the foliage under pollution stress. Among them, summer

samples of T. indica and Ficus spp. as well as the monsoon samples of C. fistula and

F. religiosa and the winter samples of A. indica records non significant correlation

with sulphur.

The observations recorded on the nitrogen contents in bark and wood samples

summarized in Table 20-21, show that in^^. indica and T. indica there has been an

67

seasons in the present study in two species viz. A indica and C. fistula may be due

to the greater entry and absorption of NO^ from the atmosphere due to the active

growth of leaves in the respective seasons. Several other workers in the past

(Malkonen, 1974; Evans, 1979; Garsed etal, 1981) have also observed an increase

in nitrogen concentration in young leaves which decreased with the increasing age of

the leaves.

The decrease in nitrogen content in plants under pollution stress is not also

uncommon. In the present study the significant loss in the nitrogen percentage

recorded in Tamarindus indica in all seasons under pollution stress goes in agreement

with the earlier reports in some conifers (Malcom and Garforth, 1977; Garsed et al,

1981) and in some annual crops (Pandey and Rao, 1978; De santo et al., 1979; Mishra,

1980; Elkiey and Ormrod, 1981; Agrawal, 1982; Sharma and Rao, 1985; Prakash e/

al., 1989a) in some broad leaved trees Wke Diospyros melanoxylon, Lagerstroemia

parviflora and Zizyphus nummularia under field conditions around a coal fired power

plant (Pandey, 1983). Zech etal. (1990/91) have also observed decreased values for

'N ' contents in decVmingFagussylvatica populations growing in an SO^ polluted area

of Ne-bavarian mountain.

The correlation coefficient worked out between leaf sulphur concentration

and nitrogen content given in Table-41 shows a positive relationship between

sulphur and nitrogen concentrations in the leaves of all the investigated species

except Tamarindtts indica in which both aspects runs opposite because of the

reduced nitrogen content in the foliage under pollution stress. Among them, summer

samples of T. indica and Ficus spp. as well as the monsoon samples of C. fistula and

F. religiosa and the winter samples of A. indica records non significant correlation

with sulphur.

The observations recorded on the nitrogen contents in bark and wood samples

summarized in Table 20-21, show that in^. indica and T. indica there has been an

67

increase in the amount of nitrogen in the bark and wood samples in all the seasons

under pollutiion stress In 7. mc//ca the concentration of nitrogen in the bark samples

of control and polluted, as well as its per cent variation in all the seasons record higher

than the wood. However, in C. fistula and F. bengalensis there has been a fall in the

level of nitrogen in the polluted bark and wood samples of all seasons. While in F.

religiosa bark showed considerable loss but an opposite condition prevails in wood

in all seasons under SO^ enriched condition.

The correlation worked out between concentration of sulphur in bark and

wood against their nitrogen concentration shows that the correlation is positive in

the bark and wood samples of A. indica and T. /W/ca under pollution stress. The 'r '

value in the bark sample of J. indica is quite high and it ranges from 0.90 to 0. 98.

In A. indica 'r ' value becomes non-significant in the bark. Similarly, in the wood

samples both^. indica and T. /W/ca record poor correlation. The negative correlation

recorded in the bark and wood samples of C. fistula and F. bengalensis is non-

significant, but in C. fistula the summer and monsoon samples of the bark records

perfect negative correlation (r = - 0.92) with sulphur. Likewise, the nitrogen content

of wood samples of C. fistula also has shown significant correlation in its monsoon

samples with sulphur. However, in F. religiosa, the bark has recorded significant

negative correlation in summer and monsoon but an opposite condition prevails in

wood. (Table-41).

6 8

Table 41. Correlation coefTlcient (r) between Sulphur and Nitrogen.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF

A. indica Cfistula T. indica F. religiosa F. bengalensis

0.9379** 0.9043* -0.7217 0.7972

-0.5231

0.9753** 0.7167

-0.8850* 0.2512 0.9066*

0.180] 0.9432**

-0.9799** 0.8381* 0.9362**

BARK


0.6153 -0.9201** 0.9097*

-0.8757* -0.6594

0.7896 -0.3542 0.9825**

-0.8656* -0.3914

0.6013 -0.9225** 0.9801** -0.7967 -0.3736

WOOD


0.5841 -0.5668 0.4364 0.1785

-0.5817

0.5084 -0.8258* 0.4716 0.2056

-0.2368

0.6136 -0.7105 0.2781 0.0347

-0.4655


PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus is found in the plants as a constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids,

the coenzyme NAD and NADP and most important as a component of ATP and other high

energy compounds. Heavy concentrations of phosphorus are found in the meristematic

regions of the actively growing parts, where it is used in the synthesis of nucleo-proteins

and is also involved through ATP in the activation of amino acids for the protein synthesis.

As a constituent of nucleoproteins, it is concerned with cell division and transfer of

hereditary characters through chromosomes. As a component of phospholipids e.g.,

lecithin, phosphorus is believed to be present in the cell membranes (Devlin and Witham,

1986) Hydrogen ion (H+) carried NAD and NADP play a vital role in Kreb's cycle,

glycolysis and pentose cycle. Further, phosphate participation is directly in the

photochemical events of photosynthesis through ortho - phosphate and nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide phosphate required for the reduction of "assimilatory power"

(Devlin and Witham, 1986). Such essential physiological processes as respiration,

nitrogen metabolism, Carbohydrate metabolism and fatty acid synthesis are all dependent

on the action of these coenzymes. Phosphorus also increases disease resistance in plants,

presumably through normal cell development resulting in vigorous growth (Tamhane et

al., 1970). Phosphorus deficiency causes decrease in the rate of protein synthesis and

results in the accumulation of carbohydrate and soluble nitrogenous compounds (Hewitt,

1963). It also causes premature leaf fall and restricted root and shoot growth.

Phosphorus is present in the soil in two general forms, organic and inorganic. It is

the inorganic form of phosphorus which is available to the plants. However, phosphorus

bound in organic compounds is eventually liberated from it through decomposition and is

released in the inorganic form that is readily taken up by the plants. Further, phosphorus

is absorbed by roots both as monovalent (H^PO/) and divalent (HPO^~) anions. The

quantity of either ion present in the soil is dependent upon pH of the soil solution. The

lower pH favours H^PO^ and higher pH, HPO^ ions (Devlin and Witham, 1986).

The observations (Table-22) regarding the concentration of phosphorus in the

foliage of different investigated species in the present study shows that in Ficus spp.

there has been an increase in the level of phosphorus under pollution stress. The

concentration of phosphorus has been the maximum in the young foliage of both

polluted and normal sets. While, in C. fistula and T. indica the concentration of

phosphorus has shown increase over the control in the young foliage, but there has

been a fall in the other seasons. However, in A. indica the winter foliage records an

increase over the control, but an opposite trend prevails in the other seasons. The

increased accumulation in phosphorus contents in the foliage under SO^ pollution

may be due to the lower rate of metabolic activity as well as the reduced growth

performance of the plants. Saxe (1983) has reported in Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv.

processor an increased concentration of phosphorus after being exposed to higher

concentration of 250 îgm ' SO^ for 4-5 weeks. Similarly, Zech et al., (1985) have

observed increased phosphorus content in the needles of Picea abies in SO^ polluted

areas of Ne-Bavaria. The increasing trend in phosphorus concentration in polluted

plants indicates that there is no rapid transfer of minerals from leaves to other parts

such as flowers and fruits because of the reduced fruiting and flowering under

pollution stress.

The severe losses of phosphorus contents recorded in different seasons in the

rest of the species coincide with the earlier reports of many workers in different plant

forms like, in Triticum aestivum (Pandey and Rao, 1978; Prasad, 1980) Arachis

hypogea (Mishra, 1980); Pinus sativa (Garsed et ah, 1981); Cicer arietinum, Oryza

sativa, Panicum miliaceum, Vicia faha (Agrawal, 1982); Diospyros melanoxylon,

Lagerstroemia parviflora and Zizyphus nummularia (Pandey, 1983); Festuca

arundinaceae (Flagler and Youngner, 1985); Fagus sylvatica (Zech, 1990/91). The

decreased phosphorus concentrations in the plants growing under SO^ pollution in

70

the present study may be due to the inhibition in certain important enzymatic

activities'involved in 'P' metabolism. Further, it is expected that plants under stress

physiological conditions are likely to lose much energy to combat the hazards. It,

therefore, opens a challenge to the pollution problem indicating the possibility of

management of pollution stress through manipulation of T ' balance in the involved

system. Moreover, the nutrient supplying capacity of the soil with respect to P'

seems to be less (Table-4) as also reported earlier by Agrawal et al, (1985). Fried

and Broeshart (1967) put forth their hypothesis, that SO^ induced acidity may cause

greater solubility and mobility of soil constituents particularly P ' which may leach

from the rooting zone and become unavailable for plant growth.

The data further reveal that in all the investigated species in the present study

the maximum concentration of phosphorus has been observed in summer (A. indica

and Ficus spp.) or monsoon (T. indica) irrespective of treatments, with the exception

of C. fistula in which polluted leaf samples have shown the peak in summer but the

control sets recorded the same in monsoon. The decrease in concentration of

phosphorus after their peak values is perhaps due to the transfer of this mineral from

the leaves to other growing parts. Sacher (1957) and Das (1968) have also reported

that minerals are transferred to green or living parts when the leaves began to dry.

Guha and Mitchell (1966) observed seasonal variation in the concentration of

elements in leaves of deciduous trees and showed that the concentrations of elements

quantitatively decrease before leaf fall.

The correlation coefficient (Table-42) worked out in relation to leaf sulphur

concentration and the amount of phosphorus in different seasons shows that in Ficus

spp. there is a positive relationship in all the seasons and the ' r ' value ranges from 0.47

to 0.87 inF. bengalensis. In F. religiosa it shows non-significant correlation in all the

seasons. In C. fistula and T. indica, the phosphorus content of summer foliage shows

perfect positive correlation with sulphur (r = 0.93 and 0.88), but in the rest of the

71

seasons a strong negative correlation prevails

Interestingly in A. indica the concentration of phosphorus in summer and

monsoon foliage records non-significant negative correlation with sulphur (r=-0.62

and -0.75) while in the winter the correlation turns to significantly positive with sulphur

(r=0.84).

The observations (Table 23-24) regarding the concentration of phosphorous

in wood and bark show that the higher amount of phosphorus in the wood samples

of all the investigated species than bark. In C. fistula and T.indica there has been a

fall in the level of phosphorus from summer to winter in the bark and wood samples.

In A. indica an increase over the control under pollution stress has been recorded in

the bark and wtfbd, irrespective of seasons. Interestingly, F. religiosa records

increased amount of phosphorous in the bark, under SO^ pollution, but an opposite

condition prevails in the wood in all the seasons. Similarly, in F. bengalensis bark

sample records considerable depletion, while there has been a gain in the wood

samples under pollution stress.

The correlation coefficient worked out between sulphur concentration of bark

and wood and phosphorus contents in foliage reveals that the correlation is negative

in the bark and wood samples of C. fistula and T. indica in all the seasons. In C. fistula

' r ' value ranges from -0.80 to -0.89 in the bark and from -0.51 to -0.90 in wood, while

in T. indica 'r ' value shows non-significance in bark and wood. In A. indica correlation

coefficient o f 'P ' is non-significantly positive in relation to sulphur in bark as v. ell as in

wood. In Ficus species the trend is slightly different, the bark samples ofF. bengalensis

shows negative relationship with non-significant ' r ' value, but the wood shows non-

significant positive relationship with sulphur. However, inF. religiosahsirk records

positive correlation, while in the wood there has been a non significant negative

correlation.

72

Table 42. Correlation coeflicient (r) between Sulphur and Phosphorus.

SPECIES SEASONS


LEAF

A. indica -0.6289 -0.7568 0.8493* C. fistula 0.9321** -0.2774 -0.8768* T. indica 0.8886* -0.6785 -0.9792** F. religiosa 0.8478* 0.7244 0.4749 F. bengalensis 0.2386 0.5111 0.2311

BARK

A. indica 0.6254 0.5681 0.6486 Cfistula -0.8971* -0.8678* -0.8062 T. indica -0.5194 -0.3848 -0.7622 F. religiosa 0.6982 0.7213 0.5349 F. bengalensis -0.6281 -0.4000 -0.2290

WOOD

A. indica 0.6934 0.4188 0.4804 Cfistula -0.5136 -0.9338** -0.9063* T. ifidica -0.3936 -0.4096 -0.1454 F. religiosa -0.2631 -0.2096 -0.1123 F. bengalensis 0.0308 0.1067 0.0743


POTASSIUM

The potassium is required in large amounts for plants and, unlike nitrogen and

phosphorus, it does not form a stable structural part of any molecule in a plant cell.

The highest concentrations of potassium are found in the meristematic regions of the

plants. Potassium is essential for the activation of the enzymes and is involved in

the synthesis of certain peptide bonds in carbohydrate metabolism. It also enhances

the incorporation of amino acids into proteins (Webster, 1956). The enzymes that

require K as an activator include fructokinase, pyruvic acid kinase and transacetylase

(Nason and Mc Elroy, 1963). K is essential for some vital metabolic processes

including glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation and adenine synthesis (Evans and

Sorger, 1966). It is actively involved in the translocation of solutes moving across

the sieve plates by electro-osmosis (Salisbury and Ross, 1986). Its role is inevitable

in the physiological processes like photosynthesis, chlorophyll development and the

wâter balance of the leaves. The best known function of the K is its role in stomatal

opening and closing (Fischer and Hsiao, 1968; Humble and Hsiao, 1969). Its

deficiency causes necrosis, rosette or bushy habit of growth and weakening of stems

and decreases the resistance against pathogens.

Potassium is present in the soil in a non exchangeable (fixed) form, exchangeable

form, and in a soluble form, which always remain in equilibrium and a change in the

concentration of any one of the constituents will cause a shift towards stabilization.

For example, depletion of the soluble K in the soil by the plant and soil micro-

organisms will cause the slow release of fixed K. This situation is desirable because

absorbed and fixed K which is not readily leached from the soil can be available to

the plants.

The data regarding the concentration of potassium in the foliage of different

investigated species under pollution stress is summarized in Table-25. The depletion

in the level of potassium recorded in Ficus spp. in the present study, in different seasons

under pollution stress goes in confirmity with the earlier report of Lone (1993) in

some trees \\\it Mangifera indica. Eucalyptus citriodora, and Dalbergia sissoo from

the same site. Prasad (1980) Agrawal (1982) Zech etai, (1985) have also reported

reduced potassium content in some plants under pollution stress. The increase in

potassium content recorded in T. indica in the present study under SO^ pollution is in

agreement with the earlier reports of Saxe (1983) who found a similar increase in

potassium content in the plants exposed to SO^ pollution. However an initial increase

(43.90%) of potassium recorded in the young foliage of deciduous C. fistula may be due

to the increased accumulation ofK in this active growth stage to avoid pollution hazard,

while the significant loss (20.87%) in K content recorded under pollution stress in the

monsoon samples of A. indica maybe due to the increased depletion of potassium in this

season to combat pollution hazard due to the heavy and dense atmosphere of monsoon.

In the normal atmosphere the concentration of potassium has been recorded to the

maximum in the young foliage ofF. religiosa and the minimum in the young foliage of C.

fistula.

In the present study, the depletion of K recorded in the foliage of polluted

populations has been the highest in the winter foliage of F. bengalensis (23.75%),

and the lowest occurs in its summer foliage. It shows the utilization of more

potassium in winter to combat pollution hazard due to increased pollution and its

low disi>ersion at the site. While in summer, the young foliage accumulates more

potassium due to its transportation from older parts to newly growing regions, and

thus keeps the depletion of potassium low. In contrast to this, the maximum

percentage increase of potassium has been observed in the winter (57.78%) samples

of T. indica under pollution stress, and the lowest occurs in its young summer foliage

(0.82%). This may be due to its defence mechanism by accumulating more potassium

in this season to withstand severe stress condition. However, in the summer foliage

74

the potassium might have been utilized for other physiological processes due to its

active growth stage which probably leads to its lesser accumulation.

The correlation worked out between leaf sulphur status and potassium

concentration is summarized inTable-43. It reveals that in F;cw5 spp. the correlation

becomes negative under pollution stress because of the enhanced depletion of

potassium. Ini^. bengalemis ' r ' value falls in the range of-0.36 to -0.65, while inF.

religiosa it varies from -0.56 to -0.93. In T. indica the correlation records positive in all

the seasons, and the 'r ' value ranges from 0.22 to 0.90. In C. fistula, the summer foliage

shows perfect positive correlation with sulphur (r= 0.96), while the rest of the seasons

record negative correlation, and it becomes perfectly negative with sulphur in the

winter foliage (r=-0.91). However in A. indica only the monsoon season shows

negative correlation (r=-0.55), while it is positive in the rest of the seasons.

The observations regarding the concentration of potassium in the bark and

wood samples under polluted and normal atmosphere is abridged in Table 26-27. As

seen in leaf, the bark samples ofFicus spp. show depletion in the level of potassium

under pollution stress. While in their wood, only summer and winter samples o fF .

religiosa, and summer samples ofF. iewga/ew^/j records depletion. In A. indicah&rk

records significant depletion in the level of potassium, while the wood records an

opposite trend. In the case of C. fistula bark and wood records increased accumulation

of potassium under pollution stress except in its monsoon samples of the bark. In

T.indica the trend is slightly disturbed by recording increased amount of potassium

in bark as well as in the summer samples of the wood. Lone (1993) has reported losses

of potassium content in the bark and wood samples of Mangifera indica, Psidium

guajava, Syzygium cumini, and Eucalyptus citriodora under SO^ pollution, while he

found a significant increase of potassium content in the bark and wood samples of

Tectona grandis. However, Dalbergia sissoo recorded increase of potassium in bark

and a non-significant loss in wood in his study.

75

In general the concentration of potassium in bark shows higher than in wood

in the normal atmosphere. The depletion of 'K' content in the bark has been the

highest in the winter samples of A. indica (36.25%) and the least in the monsoon

samples of F. bengalemis (6.46%). Similarly, the increase in potassium content

under pollution records the highest in the summer samples of decidous C. fistula

(43.86%) and the least in the summer samples of T. indica (6.50%).

In wood, the maximum depletion of potassium occurs in the winter samples

of T. indica (45.51%) and the least (19.36%) in its monsoon samples. Likewise, the

increase in potassium content in wood under pollution stress occurs to the maximum

in the monsoon samples otF.religiosa (68%) and the least in the monsoon samples

of C. fistula {A.mVo).

The correlation coefficient (r) worked out between sulphur and potassium

contents in the bark and wood samples of different investigated species is given in

Table-43. The correlation becomes completely negative in all the seasons in the bark

samples of A. indica and Ficus spp. under pollution stress. While in C. fistula and

T. indica a positive correlation prevails in all the seasons with sulphur, except in the

monsoon samples of the bark of C. fistula in which the correlation is significantly

negative (r=-0.88).

In wood, A indica, C. fistula and F. bengalensis show positive correlation with

sulphur, but the correlation is non-significant in F. bengalenesis in all the seasons. In

the wood samples of T. indica and F. religiosa the trend of correlation is slightly

disturbed. The correlation becomes perfectly positive (r = 0.95) in the summer

samples of T. indica, while the other seasons record negative correlation. In F.

religiosa, the correlation is positive in monsoon, while the other seasons show

negative correlation.

76

Table 43. Correlation coefficient (r) between Sulphur and Potassium.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF


0.7633 0.9670** 0.2255

-0.6409 -0.3601

-0.5511 -0.3074 0.8624*

-0.5625 -0.6223

0.6009 -0.9130* 0.9004*

-0.9336** -0.6589

BARK


-0.0467 0.9491** 0.4787

-0.7984 -0.6547

-0.5325 -0.8818* 0.6792

-0.4575 -0.9036*

-0.6062 0.4921 0.8275*

-0.3828 -0.7238

WOOD


0.2142 0.3401 0.9596** 0.0957

-0.2639

0.3413 0.3296

-0.3614 0.0893 0.3719

0.5673 0.2786

-0.2002 0.1268

-0 3989


- j o a

"1 .cs^-

S O D I U M

The sodium content ofthe earth crust is 2.8%, compared with 2.6% ofK. Most

higher plants have developed high selectivity in the uptake of K" as compared to that

of Na" , and it is particularly obvious in transport to the shoot. Plant species are

characterised as natrophilic or natrophobic depending on their growth response to

sodium and their capacity for long distance transport of sodium to the shoots. The

role of Na" in the mineral nutrition of higher plants has to be considered from two

main view points; its essentiality and/or the extent to which it can replace K" functions

in plants (Marshner, 1986)

Growth stimulation by Na^ is caused mainly by its effect on cell expansion

and on the water balance of the plant. The superiority of Na" can be demonstrated

by the expansion of sugar beet leaf segments in vivo (Marshner and Possingham,

1975) as well as in intact sugar beet plants, where leaf area, thickness, and succulence

are distinctly greater when a high proportion ofK"^ is replaced by Na" (Milford etal.,

1977). Sodium increases not only leaf area but also the number of stomata per unit

leaf area. Sodium also improves water balance of plants when the water supply is

limited. This occurs via stomatal regulation. In brief, sodium is indeed an essential

element at least for some plants, especially plants having C^ pathway. But its role

in tree species (having Cj pathway) is not known (Brownell, 1991). Literature

regarding the response of sodium under pollution stress is also very meagre.

In the present study the increased accumulation of Na" recorded in the foliage

oi Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula and Tamarindus indica in different seasons

under pollution stress may be due to the presence of sodium salt in the ambient

atmosphere due to coal burning. Sodium sa^ is one of the by products of the

combustion of high sulphur fuel oils in thermal power plants, so its presence in the

ambient atmosphere is unavoidable (Richter et al, 1984). While a considerable

reduction in the level of Na" , recorded in the Ficus spp. under pollution stress, may

be attributed to the immediate translocation of Na" from the leaves to the other plant

parts. Westing, 1969; Mac Robbie, 1971; Bukovac and Wittver, 1957 demonstrated

this phenomenon by means of autoradiographs of bean leaves sprayed with Na".

Furthermore, the morphological character such as epicuticular waxes, cuticle, cell

wall and plasma membrane have been proposed as barriers to the absorption of solids

in general, through leaves (Logan, 1975; Hadley, 1980; Simini, 1984).

The Figure-37 on seasonal variation of Na" indicates that all the investigated

species recorded the peak amount of Na" in monsoon foliage which later recedes in

winter. This may be due to the dense and humid atmosphere of monsoon which might

have caused greater uptake of Na+ from ambient atmosphere. Swain, 1973; Logan,

1975; Simini and Leone, 1982 are of the opinion that relative humidity is an extremely

important factor with respect to sodium chloride uptake by plants. The decrease in

concentration of minerals after their peak values is perhaps due to the transfer of

minerals from the leaves to other growing parts such as flowers and fruits. Sacher

(1957) and Das (1968) have also reported that minerals are transferred to the green

or living parts when the leaves began to dry. Guha and Mitchell (1966) observed

seasonal variation in the concentration of elements in the leaves of deciduous trees

and showed that the concentration of some elements quantitatively decrease before

leaf fall. Lai and Ambasht (1982) have also observed that the decrease in the amount

of sodium in Psidium guajava in older leaves under cement dust pollution, but the

rate of decrease in polluted leaves was much slower.

The per cent variation (Fig. 40) shows that in^^. indica, C. fistula and T. indica

it becomes positive under polluted condition. The highest variation recorded in the

winter foliage of C. fistula (48%) and the lowest in the winter foliage of A. indica (6%).

Similarly, the negative variation recorded under pollution stress in the rest of the

species attains the maximum in the monsoon foliage o fF, bengalensis (31 %) and the

78

least occurs in the winter foliage of F. religiosa (16.16%).

The observations (Table 29-3 0) recorded on the Na" contents of bark and wood

in the present study show that in A. indica, C. fistula and F. bengalemis the

concentrations of Na" in bark show more than in leaves and wood in polluted

atmosphere. This is the clear evidence for translocation of sodium from leaves to

other plant parts as it has been discussed earlier in this chapter. In polluted

atmosphere indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa recorded increased amount of Na"

in bark, while the wood records considerable loss of Na"* in this species. In T. indica

bark recorded a non-significant loss in the amount of sodium and at the same there

has been a non-significant gain in wood. F. bengalensis is the only species in the present

study which shows loss of Na" in leaves, bark as well as in wood under pollution stress.

Since, the sodium has not been considered as an essential element for Cj species, the

sodium involved biochemical processes in this species are not known at present. The

increase in the amount of sodium recorded in bark happens to be the maximum in the

monsoon season of C. fistula (82.05%) and the minimum in the monsoon samples of

A. indica (15.3%%). Similarly, the loss ofNa^ under pollution stress being the highest

in the winter samples ofF. bengalensis (45.45%) and the lowest in the winter samples

of the bark of T. indica (20%). In wood the loss of sodium under pollution stress occurs

to the maximum in the winter samples oi C. fistula (44%) and the minimum in the

winter samples ofF. religiosa {MVo).

The correlation (Table-44) worked out between leaf sulphur statu'' and

sodium shows that the correlation is completely positive in different seasons in C.

fistula, but it is significant only in winter samples (<0.05%). Similarly, F. religiosa

records negative correlation in all the seasons with sulphur and its summer and

monsoon samples only show significant correlation (<0.05%). The rest of the species

records negative and positive correlation in different seasons, and it comes to the

level of significance only in the summer foliage ofT.indica (<0.05%).

79

In bark (Table-44), A. indica, C. fistula and F. rehgiosa show positive

correlation with sulphur C. fistula shows significant correlation in all the seasons,

while the rest of i c species records non-significant correlation except in the winter

samples of F. religwsa However, T. indica and F. bengalensis show negative

correlation with sulphur except in the winter samples oiF. bengalensis in which the

correlation records positive The significant correlation (<0 05%) occurs only in the

monsoon samples of T. indica

Likewise, in wood (Table-44)y4. indicannA C./w/w/a record negative correlation

with sulphur, which has been found significant only in the monsoon samples of

C.fistula (<0.05%), while the rest of the species record non significant positive and

negative correlation in different seasons.

The correlation (Table-45) worked out between potassium and sodium in

leaves shows that the correlation is positive in F. religwsa in all the seasons. While

the rest of the species records positive and negative correlation in different seasons

depending on the extent to which it replaces K" functions. But none of the correlation

in leaves with potassium has shown statistical significance.

In bark (Table-45), A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa show negative

correlation with potassium. But it goes to the level of significance only in the winter

samples o{A. indica and T. indica and in the monsoon samples o f F . religiosa The

positive correlation recorded with potassium in the rest of the species is non-

significant in different seasons

In wood (Table-45), indica, C.fistula, T. indica and F. bengalensis shovii

negative correlation with potassium except in the summer samples of T.indica and

F. bengalensis But it shows significant correlation only in the winter samples of C.

fistula and in the monsoon samples of T. indica and F. bengalensis In F. religiosa,

the correlation shows a non-significant positive in summer and winter samples, and

a non-significant negative correlation in monsoon

80

Table 44. Correlation coefllcient(r) between Sulphur and Sodium.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF

A. indica C. fistula T. indica F.religiosa F. bengalensis

0.6747 0.3147 0.8563* -0.8896* -0.7907

-0.7406 0.6761 0.7804

-0.8281* 0.5988

0.4159 0.8846*

-0.2218 -0.4151 -0.6479

BARK

A. indica Cflstula T. indica F. religiosa F. bengalensis

0.6331 0.8833*

-0.8067 0.6559

-0.5921

0.5919 0.8937*

-0.8309* 0.7900

-0.7413

0.6142 0.9083* 0.8100 0.8514* 0.4938

WOOD


-0.6075 -0.3333 0.2918

-0.4607 0.0105

-0.5438 -0.8747* 0.5051 0.0855 0.0552

-0.6585 -0.7370 -0.5012 0.1313 0.2474


Table 45. Correlation coefficient (r) between Potassium and Sodium.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF


-0.7115 0.5042 0.2704 0.3333 0.5339

-0.5585 -0.4889 0.4378

-0.1106 -0.6943

0.4562 -0.7911 -0.2506 0.5198 0.6940

BARK


-0.5943 0.6282

-0.5937 -0.6869 0.5536

-0.4367 0.6581

-0.7018 -0.8868* 0.7701

-0.8768* 0.4492

-0.8627* -0.7786 0.7118

WOOD


-0.7044 -0.4130 0.6435 0.6428 0.2331

-0.3508 -0.4086 -0.8142* -0.6089 -0.8193*

-0.7387 -0.8340* -0.3894 0.5242

-0.7638


C A L C I U M

Calcium is the major exchange cation offertile soils. It is absorbed as divalent

. However, the major portion of calcium in the soil is found in a non-exchangeable

form, chemically bound in primary minerals such as anorthite (Ca Al SiÔg). Calcite

(CaCOj) is present in soils of semi arid and arid regions, and insoluble calcium

phosphate salts occur in alkaline soils. Some of these calcium salts are available to

the plant, depending on the solubility and the degree of alkalinity of the medium

(Devlin and Witham, 1986).

One well-known role played by calcium in the plant is that if forms a

constituent of cell walls in the form of calcium pectate which forms the middle

lamella, composed primarily of calcium and magnesium pectates. Calcium is thought

to be important in the formation of cell membranes and lipid structures. Most calcium

in plants is in central vacuoles and bound in cell walls to pectate polysaccharides

(Kinzel, 1989). Calcium in small amounts is necessary for mitosis. In this respect,

Hewitt (1963) has suggested that calcium may be involved in chromatin or mitotic

spindle organization. Abnormal mitosis may develop due to calcium deficiency on

chromosome structure and stability. Calcium may also be an activator for the enzyme

arginine kinase, adenosine triphosphate, adenyl kinase, and potato apyrase (Mazia,

1954).

The easily observed symptoms of calcium deficiency are striking. Meristematic

regions found at stem, leaf, and root tips are greatly affected and eventually die, thus

terminating growth in these organs. Malformation or distortion of the younger leaves

is also characteristic of calcium deficient plants, a hooking of the leaf tip being the

most easily detected symptom. Deficiency symptoms appear first in the younger

leaves and in the growing apices, probably as a consequence of the immobility of

calcium in the plant (Kirkby and Pilbeam, 1984).

The observations (Table-31) recorded on the calcium content in the foliage

of different investigated species in the present study show that there has been an

increase in the level ofcalcium in the foliage ofi4. indica and T. /W/ca under pollution

stress. Several workers in the past have also reported increase in calcium content in

the foliage of different plant species under pollution stress (Materna, 1961; Malkonen,

1974; Garsed et al., 1981; Amundson et al, 1990/91). However, the decrease in

calcium content under pollution stress recorded in the foliage of C. fistula and Ficus

spp. in the present study in different seasons goes in agreement with the earlier report

of Zech et al, (1985) in some forest tress of SO^ polluted areas of Ne-Bavaria and

Jacobson et al., (1989) in Picea rubens (Red spruce) when exposed to acid mist

containing major sulphur and nitrogen pollutants. Wookey and Ineson (1991) found

calcium depletion in Pinus sylvestris during the open air fumigation with SO^.

Schatzle et al, (1990) have also reported a decreasing trend in calcium content in the

needles of Fir (Abies alba) and Spruce {Picea abies) due to SO^ treatment. In the

normal atmosphere the concentration of calcium has been found to the maximum in

the monsoon samples of F. religiosa and the minimum in the monsoon samples of

A. indica. The enhanced depletion of calcium under pollution stress occurs in the

winter foliage ofF. bengalensis {\9.OIV^,) and the least occurs in the summer foliage

of F. religiosa (4.20%). Similarly, the increase in calcium content in foliage under

polluted condition has been the maximum in the winter foliage of T. indica (10.40%)

and the least in its summer foliage (7.79%).

The correlation (Table-46) worked out between leaf sulphur content and

calcium concentration shows that indica and T. indica have a positive relationship

with sulphur in the calcium content of their foliage under pollution stress. The 'r '

value falls in the range ofO.86 to 0.93 '\r\A. indica, 0.78 to 0.93 in T. /W/ca in different

seasons. However, in the rest of the species worked out, the ' r' value shows negative

correlation with sulphur in the different seasons.

8 2

The observations (Table 32-33) on bark and wood show that the different

investigated species posses higher capacity to accumulate much more calcium in their

bark than in leaves and wood in normal as well as polluted conditions. In C. fistula,

bark and wood accumulate significantly elevated amount of calcium under pollution

stress, while in^^. indica, T. Jndica and F. religiosa hiirV. samples record increased

accumulation of calcium, but the wood shows a negative trend in all the three. In F.

bengalensis bark and wood accumulate significantly high amount of calcium, except

in winter samples of wood, in which there has been a fall. In general, increased calcium

accumulation takes place in the bark samples of different investigated species and

it has been the maximum in the monsoon samples of J. m<i;ca (18 .38%) and the least

in the older barks of F. bengalensis (2.28%). Similarly, in the wood samples, the

maximum increase has been recorded in the winter samples of C. fistula and the least

in the summer samples ofF. bengalensis (3.36%). The depletion in calcium content

recorded over the control has been the maximum in the winter samples of C. fistula

(28.78%) and the minimum in the winter samples of F. religiosa (3.03%).

The correlation coefficient (Table-46) worked out between sulphur

concentration and the level of calcium in the bark and wood shows that the correlation

is positve in the bark samples of all the species, except F. religiosa in which the

samples of monsoon and winter seasons record negative correlation. The correlation

is significant in the summer and winter samples of C. fistula and in the winter samples

of T. indica and F. religiosa. The wood samples of A. indica, T. indica and F.

religiosa show negative relationship with sulphur in their calcium concentration,

while in C. fistula and F. bengalensis a positive correlation with sulphur exists except

in the winter samples of the wood of F. bengalensis, where the correlation is negative.

83

Table 46. Correlation coefHcient (r) between Sulphur and Calcium.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

LEAF


0.8631* -0.8894* 0.9356**

-0.7718 -0.8176*

0.9311 -0.9305 0.8997

-0.9512 -0.9554

0.9211 -0.9512 0.7868

-0.9223 -0.8516

BARK


0.8091 0.9166* 0.3361 0.0883 0.7108

0.7344 0.6032 0.7396

-0.1859 0.3347

0.7244 0.9143* 0.8544*

-0.8285* 0.4752

WOOD


-0.5897 0.8654*

-0.3306 0.2686

-0.3844

0.6629 0.8572* 0.3429 0.2220

-0.2586

-0.7426 0.7936

-0.5201 -0.2143 -0.0185


ASCORBIC ACID

Ascorbic acid otherwise known as vitamin C is an antiscorbutic. It is a water

soluble and heat-labile vitamin. According to Keller and Schwager (1977), continued

exposure of plants to SO^ reduces ascorbic acid contents long before the appearance of

visible injury symptoms. Since ascorbic acid acts as a strong reductant and it is

responsible for photoreduction of protochlorophyllid, its decrease may lead to several

physiological complications in plants (Rudolph and Bukatsch, 1966). The reduction in

level of ascorbic acid in pollutant exposed plants has been ascribed to enzyme toxicity and

sulphonation of S-H groups (M^pson, 1958). Ballantyne (1973) has shown that

exposure to SO^ alters the ratio of oxidized to reduced sulphydryl groups in plants.

Hogler and Herman (1973) and Young and Loewus (1975) suggested that in the presence

of SOj, the ascorbic acid might be reduced or converted into Dehydro ascorbate (DHA),

or oxalic acid/or into other convertible carbohydrates. Chaudhary and Rao (1977)

related pollution tolerance of plants with their ascorbic acid levels and concluded that the

higher the level of ascorbic acid the greater the tolerance.

In the present study all the investigated species recorded decreased level of

ascorbic acid in their foliage under pollution stress irrespective of seasons (Table-

34). Rao and Dubey (1990a) found similar observations in Cassia siamea, Dalbergia

sissoo, Calotropisprocera and Ipomeafistulosa, growing at different low levels of

ambient air pollution in Ujjain (India). Sharma and Rao (1985) observed increase in

ascorbic acid in SO^, HF and SO^+HF fumigated plants at initial stage, followed by

decrease at 55 day plant age. Kamalakar (1992) has reported reduced ascorbic acid

content in some tropical species under automobile pollution. Sharma and Prakash

(1991) observed significant reduction in ascorbic acid in leaves upto 48.95% in 1334

kg m ' SOj in 60 days old plants ofLycopersicon esculentum. Varshney and Varshney

(1984) also reported the effects of SO^ on ascorbic acid content oiBrassica nigra,

Phaseolusradiatus and Zea mays. The latter is relatively SO^ resistant and possesses

a comparatively high amount of ascorbic acid. The ascorbic acid contents ofB. nigra

and P. radiatus, which are relatively SO^ sensitive species, decreased markedly

within one week following SO^ fumigation. This reduction is due to the oxidizing

property of the sulphur dioxide. Sulphur dioxide readily diffuses into mesophyll

cells of leaves and produces oxy-radicals. These oxy-radicals reduce ascorbic acid

to dehydro ascorbic acid. The decrease in amount of ascorbic acid makes the plant

more sensitive to SO^.

In the present investigation, in normal as well as SO^ enriched conditions the

highest concentrations of ascorbic acid occurs in the foliage of deciduous Cassia

fistula. This higher concentration of ascorbic acid in their foliage makes the plant

more resistant to SO^ pollution. While in Ficus spp. the level of ascorbic acid in

normal as well as polluted atmosphere has been recorded low, this resulted in greater

reduction of this premier vitamin under SO^ enriched condition in this species. This

has been directly correlated with increased fixation of sulphate-sulphur in these two

species. In T. indica the level of ascorbic acid slightly improves than in Ficus spp.

in both the sets in different seasons. It records a more or less 38% reduction of

ascorbic acid in different seasons. A. indica in the present study records elevated

amounts of ascorbic acid in various seasons, in treated as well as control populations.

As seen in C. fistula, this species also shows tolerance to SO^ pollution due to its

increased level of ascorbic acid. The reduction varies 21.36% to 31.27% in this

species in different seasons. The conclusion of Chaudhary and Rao (1977), the higher

the level of ascorbic acid the greater the tolerance in plants.

However, in the present investigation the high reductions of ascorbic acid

occur in the young foliage of summer season in all the investigated species under

pollution stress. This may be due to the easy sorption of SO^ in the young foliage.

The increased concentration of ascorbic acid recorded in winter season, in the foliage

85

of control and polluted populations of all the species studied, may be due to the

increased SO^ pollution coupled with increased water stress at the sites due to cold

and dry climate, which might have resulted increased production of ascorbic acid.

Hunter et al., (1950) are able to demonstrate an appreciable enhancement of

ascorbic acid content in the upper leaves ofBrassica rapa plants grown under low soil

water potential. Other workers have also reported increased ascorbic acid

concentration in plants during a period of severe water stress (Solomon, 1955;

Novitskaya, 1958). Similarly, Farkes and Rajhathy (1955) found an enhanced

concentration of ascorbic acid in tomato plants grown under dry conditions.

The correlation (TabIe-47) worked out on sulphur versus ascorbic acid

production in the foliage of different investigated species in the present study show

that, there is a negative relationship between sulphur and ascorbic acid in different

seasons. In C. fistula and F. religiosa the correlation records perfectly negative

(p<0.01% level) in all the seasons. While in the rest of the species the negative

correlation coefficient (r) shows p<0.01% to p<0.05% level significance in various

seasons.

86

Table 47. Correlation coefTicient (r) between Sulphur and Ascorbic Acid in the foliage.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

A. indica

C. fistula

T. indica

F. religiosa

F. bengalensis

-0.8544*

-0.9894**

-0.8889*

-0.9441**

-0.9056*

-0.9353**

-0.9788**

-0.8941*

-0.9635**

-0.9196**

-0.8962*

-0.9903**

-0.9908**

-0.9562**

-0.9249**

•Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level

PROLINE

Proline is a basic amino acid found in high percentage in basic proteins. Free

proline in plants is said to play a role under stress conditions. Though the molecular

mechanism has not yet been established for the increased level of proline, one of the

hypothesis refers to breakdown of protein, into amino acids and conversion to

proline for storage (Sadasivam and Manikam, 1992). An increase in free proline

content occurs in plants subjected to the action of such harmful factors as dryness,

salinity or air pollution, which disturb their water balance. Investigations carried out

by many workers reveal that the accumulation of free proline may be utilized as

sensitive biochemical indicator of water stress in plants, whether under influence of

drought (Bode et al., 1985), salinity (Buhl and Stewart, 1983) or toxic gases

(Karolewski, 1985). In a polluted environment, plants are frequently exposed to the

simultaneous action of many factors which promote water stress.

In the present study (See table-35) there has been an increased production of

free proline in the foliage of C.//5/w/a, T. indica&nAFicussiip. under pollution stress,

irrespective of seasons. Several workers in the past have recorded increased

accumulation of free proline in different forms of plants under varied stress

conditions, which disturbs their water balance (Boggeseâ/., 1976; Karolewski, 1984

a, b, 1989; Bode et al., 1985; Kamalakar, 1992). In the present study the highest

percentage (67.80%) of proline production over the control has been recorded in the

young foliage of the polluted samples of C. fistula in the summer season. Norby and

Kozlowaski (1981) have reported increased production of free proline in SO^ polluted

plants under high temperature. They interpreted it may be due to the greater SO^

uptake in high temperature. In high temperature the diffusive conductivity of the

foliage also increase. The more rapid penetration of SO^ into the leaves, together

with an increase of temperature, was also reported by Heck and Dunning (1978).

However, in the present study the concentration of free proline has been the maximum in

the winter samples in all the species, irrespective of treatments. The mechanism of free

proline accumulation, caused by the action of low temperature may be similar to that

which operates on exposure to SO^ (Karolewski, 1989). Increase in the content of this

imino acid under the influence of SO^ and low temperature has also been observed by

Tesche (1979) in Norway Spruce. The action of SO^ on plant causes the release of large

quantities of toxic ammonia (Godzik and Linskens, 1974) and its reaction with a -

ketoglutaric acid, together with the formation of the intermediate glutamate (Jager and

Pahlich, 1972), is generally believed to be the pathway of proline synthesis, and of the

formation of amino acids in plants following SO^ action (Malhotra and Sarkar, 1979).

This constitutes a defence mechanism against the toxic action of this gas. The significant

reduction in the proline content recorded in the foliage of A. indica'xn all the seasons may

be directly related to the increased synthesisofprotein under pollution stress. The break

down of protein into amino acids and conversion to proline for storage under stress

conditions forms one of the explanation for increased proline. However, C. fistula and

Ficus spp. exhibit increased protein as well as proline in their foliage in different seasons

under pollution stress. In the normal and polluted conditions the concentration of proline

has been the maximum in the winter samples of A. indica and the least in the monsoon

samples of F. bengalensis. This makes the role of proline more clear, that in winter

the plant populations are experiencing more stress because of cold and dry climate

and thus producing more proline, while in monsoon the plants are receiving sufficient

amount of water because of rain and thus there is least chance for water stress which

does not warrant high level of free proline. Karolewski (1989) has found that the

simultaneous action of more than one factor had a greater influence on proline

production than any single factor alone. Further, he interprets that the defence

mechanism of the plant is manifested by an increase in the level of this imino acid

and it appears to play a detoxification role, with the possibility of its later utilization

in regeneration process

8 8

The correlation coefTicient (Table-48) worked out between leaf sulphur content

and proline production shows that the correlation is positive in all the species except in

A. indica. C. fistula And T. m<//ca record significant correlation in all the seasons. In

Ficus spp., the winter season of F. religiosa as well as summer and monsoon seasons

of F. bengalensis shows significant positive correlation with sulphur. However, in A.

indica all the seasons record perfect negative correlation with sulphur (r=-0.89 to -0.95).

The correlation (TabIe-48) worked out between leaf protein concentration and

proline show that in A. indica and T. indica there has been a negative correlation

between protein and proline in all the seasons. In the rest of the species the

correlation records positive relationship with protein except in the summer samples

of the foliage of F. bengalensis. However, none of the correlation show statistical

significance with protein with the exception of the summer samples of A. indica in

which correlation goes to the level of significance (p<0.05%).

89

Table 48. Correlation coeflicient (r) between Sulphur, Proline and Protein in the foliage.

SPECIES

Summer

SEASONS

Monsoon Winter

Sulphur and Proline

A. indica Cfistula T. indica F. religiosa F. bengalensis

-0.9184** 0.9502** 0.8312* 0.6194 0.7933

0.9509** 0.8339* 0.8972* 0.8265* 0.8677*

-0.9472** 0.9531** 0.8459* 0.9645** 0.5570

Protein and Proline


-0.8916* 0.7714

-Q3122 0.2662

-0.1133

-0.7314 0.2451

-0.4869 0.4717 0.7430

-0.2428 0.6763

-0.1568 0.7449 0.4972

•Significant at 5% level ** Significant at 1% level

07 S'LL'LCrE'D STT.CI'ES

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF THE

SELECTED SPECIES

The overall assessment of the different parameters taken into account in the

present study indicates that Azadirachta indica possesses high level of free proline

in the leaves and a moderate level of ascorbic acid showing that this species is

comparatively more tolerant to coal-smoke pollution among the investigated forms.

This is supported by high protein synthesis, high level of nitrogen and also high

amount of sulphur accumulation in leaves. The high level of protein synthesis and

nitrogen rich condition obviously shov^ the species is performing well under sulphur

enriched environment. The high percentage of sulphur accumulation under pollution

stress indicates the capability of the species to convert the harmful form of sulphur

in its oxide form which is a harmless inorganic sulphur compound suitable for

storage. A similar analysis of Cassia fistula and its performance under coal smoke

pollution stress shows this is another species which could withstand high load of

pollution by having high amount of ascorbic acid and a high amount of free proline.

Here also high protein synthesis, high level of nitrogen and rich amount of carbohy-

drate corroborate the assumption that Cassia fistula is another suitable form with

high degree of tolerance to coal smoke pollution. In this species as in A. indica, the

sulphur accumulation is high. Tamarindus indica on the other hand, loses coloured

pigments, carbohydrates, proteins, nitrogen and phosphorus to a significant level but

accumulates free proline to a considerable extent and to a moderate level of ascorbic

acid indicating its ability for survival under coal smoke stress. The broad leaved

Ficus bengalensis, the true tropical form, performs well under coal-smoke pollution,

although it has poor level of free proline and ascorbic acid. Undoubtedly this species

has the high capability to fix large amount of sulphur and at the same time showing

significant increase in carbohydrate synthesis owing to enhanced chlorophyll level

and rich amount of protein, nitrogen and phosphorus. This is the only species which

accumulate rich amount of calcium and potassium. The other Ficus species viz. Ficus

religiosa also performs well but to a lesser extent as compared to Ficus bengalensis,

although it fixes the highest amount of sulphur under coal-smoke pollution.

91

C0ih^LUSI09i

CONCLUSION

The overall assessment of the different biochemical parameters taken into

account to study the effect of coal smoke pollution in the present investigation on A.

indica, C. fistula, T. indica, F. beugalensis md F. religiosa, unreels the following:-

a. The different species respond differently to coal-smoke pollution depending

on its own genetic constitution and in the climatic condition as well as the part

or organ of the concerned plant and, therefore, it becomes inevitable for the

investigator to study the individual speices as well as the different parts of an

individual plant before anything could be said definite about the behaviour of

the species as a whole.

b. The coal-smoke pollution causes an increase in the sulphur content in leaves,

bark and wood of all the species irrespective of the seasonal conditions

prevailing in the ambient atmosphere.

c. The coal-smoke pollution causes severe destruction of coloured pigments in

the foliage of all the investigated species wdth the single exception of F.

bengalensis in which the pigment strategy has been fotmd to be highly

productive. Chlorophyll-b undergoes a greater loss in A. indica and F.

religiosa, while in the rest chlorophyll-a suffers high percentage of loss.

d. The amount of carbohydrate loss or gain under pollution load is more

pronounced in wood and bark than in the foliage except in F. bengalemis in which

the maximum loss of carbohydrate has been found in leaves.

e. Protein synthesis gets enhanced in the foliage of all the investigated species

under ambient pollution load except in T. indica. The bark and wood show

different trends. The magnitude of the variation depends on the seasonal

conditions, part of the plant as well as the genetic constitution of the species

concerned.

f. The nitrogen accumulation under coal smoke pollution follows the same trend

as in protein, in the foliage, bark and wood of all the investigated species.

g. The phosphorus concentration undergoes a declining trend under coal smoke

pollution in the various parts of T. indica, whereas in the rest of the species,

the pattern varies in different parts depending on the growth pattern of the

concerned species.

h. The coal-smoke pollution causes severe depletion of potassium in Ficus spp.,

while in others, it elevates the amount in foliage. In the bark and wood it

causes increase or decrease depending on seasonal conditions.

i. The sodium content shows altered rhythms in the foliage, bark and wood of

all species studied under the stress of coal-smoke pollution. The degree of

uptake or accumulation depends on the inherent behaviour of the species as

well as the status of potassium.

j. In the normal as well as polluted atmosphere, the concentration of calcium

shows its peak in the bark samples of all the species investigated. The amount

of calcium shows marginal variation in the leaves, bark and wood of all the

species under pollution stress, depending on the species as well as the

meteorological condition predominating in and around the sites of study.

k. Pollution causes a severe reduction in ascorbic acid content in the foliage of

all the species in different seasons. High concentration of ascorbic acid in the

foliage has been found in A. indica and C. fistula, both under normal as well

as under the pollution load, compared to other species investigated.

1. The ambient pollution load leads to the enhanced production of free proline

in the foliage of all the species studied in various seasons, except \nA. indica

which records a decreasing trend.

9 3

SUMMARY

The effect of air pollutants emerging out of coal-burning at the Thermal Power

Plant Complex, Kasimpur, Aligarh, has been studied on the biochemical responses of

some perennial broad-leaved forms of tropical origin namely, Azadirachia indica

(Meliaceae), Cassiafistula (Caesalpiniaceae), 7a/nar/wt/tt5'/W/ca(Caesalpiniaceae),

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae) and Ficus hengalensis (Moraceae). The data were

collected on the level of sulphur, photosynthetic pigments, carbohydrate, protein,

nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, ascorbic acid and proline in the

foliage, newly formed bark and sap wood samples.

Sulphur

The sulphate-sulphur content shows highly significant accumulation of sulphur

in foliage under pollution stress. The peak amount of sulphur occurs in the monsoon

foliage in all the species with the exception of Cassia fistula. The magnitude of

sulphate-sulphur accumulation depends on the season as well as the inherent behaviour

of the species concerned. The accumulation of sulphate-sulphur in decreasing order

in the foliage falls as, Ficus religiosa < Ficus hengalensis < Cassia fistula,

Azadirachia indica < Tamarindus indica. Similarly in bark, significant amount of

sulphur accumulates except in T. indica. The highest percentage of sulphur accumu-

lation in bark takes place inF. hengalensis and the least in A. indica. In wood, also

significant amount of accumulation of sulphate-sulphur takes place under coal-smoke

pollution.

Chlorophyll and Carotenoids

The photosynthetic pigments show severe losses in their amount in all the

investigated species, except inF. in which they increase. Chlorophyll 'a '

suffers greater loss in C. fistula and T. indica, while in the rest chlorophyll 'b'

undergoes greater loss under coal-smoke pollution. The peak amount of photo-

synthetic pigments has been found in the monsoon foliage in all the species irrespec-

tive of pollution level. The ratio of chlorophyll 'a ' to chlorophyll 'b' ranges from

1:0.61 to 1:0.77 under pollution. The carotenoid contents also shows decreasing trend

under pollution. The ratio of carotenoids to chlorophyll varies from 1:0.22 to 1:0.26

in the control and from 1:0.18 to 1:0.26 in polluted populations. The correlation of

photosynthetic pigments with sulphur shows negative relationship in all the species

except in F. hengalensis, where the correlation turns out to be positive.

Carbohydrate

Under coal-smoke pollution, all the species have recorded increase in carbo-

hydrate in the foliage, except in T. indica. In A. indica, C. fistula mAF. hengalensis

there has been a steady increase of carbohydrate from younger to older foliage. The

increase in carbohydrate under pollution stress has been the maximum in the foliage

ofF. hengalensis, followed by^ . indica, C. fistula andF. religiosa. The amount of

loss or gain under coal-smoke pollution has been more pronounced in wood than in

bark and the foliage. In bark, all the species have recorded gradual increase in

carbohydrate from summer to winter except in C. fistula. The bark samples of A.

indica, C. fistula and F. religiosa record increased amount of carbohydrate under

pollution. The concentration of carbohydrate is higher in wood than in the foliage and

bark in the normal as well as polluted atmosphere. All the species have recorded

decreased level of carbohydrate in wood under coal-smoke pollution except in F.

hengalensis. The correlation of carbohydrate with sulphur shows, negative as well

as positive relationship in different species in various season, in the foliage, bark and

wood. Similarly, the correlation with photosynthetic pigments shows varied pattern

in different species.

95

Protein

The protein content shows increasing trend under coal-smoke pollution in all

the investigated species except in T. indica. However, the significant interaction has

been found only in F. bengalensis. The concentration of protein showed varied trend

in different species in various season. In bark, the decreased level of protein has been

recorded under pollution stress in C. fistula and F/cwJspp.. The seasonal variation

in bark has been found to be non-significant in A. indica, C. fistula and Ficus spp..

In wood, A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa record increase in the amount of protein,

while the rest show decreased level of protein under coal-smoke pollution. The

highest increase in protein level in wood under pollution occurs in the winter samples

of A. indica while the loss attains the maximum in the summer samples of F.

bengalensis. The correlation of protein with sulphur in the foliage shows mostly

positive relationship, with varying level of significance. In bark and wood it shows

negative as well as positive relationship in different species.

Nitrogen

The nitrogen content in the foliage follow the same trend as described in case

of protein under coal-smoke pollution. The investigated species have recorded

increased accumulation of nitrogen in the foliage under pollution except in T. indica.

In A. indica and F. religiosa there has been a decrease in nitrogen content from

younger to older foliage. The accumulation of nitrogen under pollution stress in

decreasing order falls as, A. indica, F. bengalensis, F. religiosa and C. fistula. In

bark, significant accumulation of nitrogen under coal-smoke pollution has been

recorded in A. indica and T. indica, while in the rest nitrogen level decreased

compared to control. In wood, A. indica, T. indica and F. religiosa indicate increased

nitrogen content under coal-smoke pollution, while the rest of the species show

decreased amount under similar condition. The seasonal trend in nitrogen accumula-

96

tion also varies in different species in wood. The correlation of nitrogen content with

sulphur in the foliage shows positive relationship in all the species with the exception

of T. indica in which the correlation is negative. In bark and wood, A. indica and T.

indica show positive correlation in different season, while in the rest of the species,

the pattern of correlation varies.

Phosphorus

The phosphorus content show increasing trend under coal-smoke pollution in

the foliage oiFicus spp., while in the rest there has been a significant loss. T. indica

did not show any change statistically under coal-smoke pollution. In all the species

studied the peak level of phosphorus is recorded in summer except in T. indica which

has got a monsoon peak. This vital element experiences severe depletion in the bark

samples of C.//\s/M/a, T. indica, andF. while the rest of the species show

gain in their phosphorus content under pollution. The concentration of phosphorus

increases from summer to winter in the samples of bark in all species except in A.

indica and F. bengalensis. The sap wood samples show higher concentration of

phosphorus than in the bark A. indica and F. bengalensis show significant increase

in the phosphorus content in wood under coal-smoke pollution, while the rest record

significant loss. The correlation of phosphorus with sulphur content in the foliage

shows positive as well as negative relationship in different species. The trend has

been almost similar in bark and wood.

Potassium

The potassium content in the foliage of Ficus spp. experiences significant

depletion under coal-smoke pollution, while in T. indica X \ \ Q X Q has been a significant

accumulation. The rest of the species show non-significant variation. In the polluted

atmosphere T. indica has shown the maximum ability to accumalate potassium in

97

foliage and the minimum is shown by A. indica. In C. fistula and Ficus spp. the

maximum per cent variation in potassium under coal-smoke pollution has been

observed in winter. In bark the concentration of potassium shows higher than in wood.

A. indica and Ficus spp. show significant depletion in the level of potassium in bark

under coal-smoke pollution, while T. indica has shown increase as in the case of

leaves. A. indica and F. bengalensis record the peak amount of potassium in the

monsoon samples irrespective of treatments. C. fistula shows a unique behaviour by

recording positive variation in potassium in summer and winter, and a significant

negative variation in monsoon. In wood the investigated species show increased as

well as decreased level of potassium content under coal-smoke pollution. The

maximum depletion in potassium content in wood under coal-smoke has been shown

by the monsoon samples of F. religiosa, and the maximum gain is recorded in the

summer samples of T. indica. The correlation of potassium with sulphur shows

positive as well as negative relationship in the leaves, bark and wood samples of

different species.

Sodium

iiic loiiage of A. indica, C. fistula and i. indica recuius cîgnincant increase

in sodium content under coal-smoke pollution, while in the rest of the species there

has been a significant loss. The peak amount of sodium accumulation has been

recorded in the monsoon foliage of all the specie", but the interseasonal variation

happens to be non-significant in^. indica andF. religiosa. The maximum accumula-

tion of sodium occurs in the winter foliage of C. fistula over the control, and the

maximum loss is experienced in the monsoon foliage of F. bengalensis. The sodium

. content in bark shows different pattern under pollution. Iny4. indica and F. religiosa

the peak concentration of sodium is record in winter, while in the rest the same

happens in other seasons. The maximum gain in sodium in bark under coal-smoke

98

pollution occurs in the monsoon samples of C. fistula and the maximum loss occurs

in the winter samples of F. bengalensis. All the species show decreased level of

sodium in wood under pollution except T. indica. The maximum loss occurs in the

winter samples of C. fistula. The correlation of sodium with sulphur shows negative

and positive relationship in different species. The correlation of sodium with

potassium depicts non-significant correlation in the foliage, but bark and wood show

varied trend.

Calcium

The calcium level in the foliage shows reduction under coal-smoke pollution

in C. fistula and Ficus spp., while in the rest of the species it increases. In Ficus spp.

the peak level of calcium in the foliage occurs in monsoon, while in the rest the same

is record in other seasons. In A. indica and T. indica it records a non-significant fall

in calcium concentration from summer to winter. The per cent variation noted in C.

fistula and F. bengalensis shows significance under pollution stress, while it has

been non-significant in the other species. The bark shows the maximum ability to

accumulate calcium compared to the foliage and wood in normal as well as polluted

atmosphere. The level of calcium increases in the bark samples of all the species

under coal-smoke pollution, except in F. religiosa. The level of calcium shows

gradual increase from summer to winter in all the species. In wood, C. fistula and F.

bengalensis show increasing amount under pollution, while the rest show declining

trend. The significant variation of calcium in wood under pollution occurs only in T.

indica. The correlation of calcium with sulphur shows positive relationship in A.

indica and T. indica in the foliage, while the rest show negative relationship. In bark,

all the species show positive relationship with sulphur except in F. religiosa, while

wood shows a different trend.

99

Ascorbic acid

The ascorbic acid content shows a decreasing trend under pollution in all the

species. The concentration of ascorbic acid in the foliage increases with the age of

the leaves. The level of ascorbic acid remains statistically same in C. fistula under

coal-smoke pollution. In A. indica, T. indica znA Ficus spp. as higher loss of ascorbic

acid occurs in summer foliage, the degree of loss in ascorbic acid under coal-smoke

pollution in decreasing order falls as, F. religiosa < F. bengalensis < T. indica <

A. indica < C. fistula. The correlation of ascorbic acid with sulphur shows significant

negative correlation in all the species in different seasons.

Proline

The content increases under coal-smoke pollution in all the species except in

A. indica. The peak level of free proline records in the winter foliage of all the species

after a sharp fall in monsoon, irrespective of treatments. The per cent variation shows

maximum and minimum in different seasons. The accumulation of free proline in

increasing order under pollution falls as, F. bengalensis > F. religiosa > T. indica

> C. fistula.

The correlation of proline with sulphur shows positive relationship in all the

species except in A. indica in which it is negative. The correlation of proline and

protein shows negative as well as positive correlation in different seasons. Only the

summer samples of A. indica shows significant correlation with protein.

The overall assessment of the parameters undertaken in the present study has

revealed that all the investigated species are good enough for plantation as they show

high tolerance and reasonally good performance under coal-smoke pollution. It is

hoped that planting this broad leaved species particularly Ficus spp. and Cassia

fistula in large number at the pollution source may help to maintain the hygenic

atmosphere. Azadirachta indica a versatile tree of Indian origin is another perennial

form which could survive, clean and maintain greeneny in the pollution enriched

atmosphere.

100

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125

A P P E N D I X

The reagents for various biochemical determinations were prepared accord-

ing to the following procedure.

1. Reagents for Nitrogen estimation

1.1 Nessler's Reagent:-

10 g of potassium iodide was dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water. To this was

added a solution ofmercuric chloride (6 gin 100 ml of water) in smalHots and with

shaking till a slight permanent precipitate was formed. To this was addedSO ml of 9

N potassium hydroxide solution and then diluted to 200 ml with distilled water. The

solution was kept overnight and the clear solution decanted for use.

2. Reagents for Phosphorus estimation

2.1. Molybdate Reagent:-

6.25 g of ammonium molybdate was dissolved in 75 ml of ION H^SO^. To this

solution 175 ml of distilled water was added in order to get 250 ml of the above

reagent.

2.2. Amino naphthol sulphonic acid:-

0.5 gof 1, 2, 4, Amino-naphthol-sulphonic acid was dissolved in 195 ml Of

15% sodium bisulphite solution to which 5 ml of 20% sodium sulphite solution was

added. The above solution was stored in a dark coloured bottle.

3. Reagents for Protein estimation

3.1. Reagent A:-

2% Sodium carbonate was mixed with O.IN sodium hydroxide solution.

3.2. Reagent B:-

0.5% Copper sulphate (CuSO^.SHÔ) was added to 1% potassium sodium

tartrate.

3.3. Reagent C (Alkaline Copper sulphate solution):-

It was prepared by mixing 50 ml of reagent 'A' and 1 ml of reagent 'B' prior

to use.

3.4. Reagent D (Folin-Ciocalteau reagent):-

100 g sodium tungstate (Na2Wo0^.2HjO) and 25 g sodium molybdate

(Na2Mo0^.2HjO) was dissolved in 700 ml distilled water in which 50 ml of 85%

phosphoric acid and 100 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid was mixed. The flask

was connected with a reflux condenser and boiled gently on a heating mantlefor 10

h. At the end of the boiling period, 150 glithium sulphate, 50 ml distilled water and

3-4 drops of liquid bromine was added to this flask. The reflux condenser was

removed and the solution in the flask was boiled for 15 minutes in order to remove

excess bromine, cooled and diluted to 1 liter. The strength of this acidic solution (1

N) was tested by treating it with 1 N sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as an

indicator.

4. Reagent for Calcium and Sodium estimation

4.1 TAM solution (Tri acid mixture)

It is a mixture of three acids like nitric acid, sulphuric acid and per chloric acid

in the ratio of 10:5:4.

II

Documents

STUDIES ON THE BIOCHEMICAL RESPONSES OF SOME …S'ET-'ltP . GEOGRAPHICAL SET-U OPF THE STUDY ARE A The Aligarh distric liet s in the North-West of Uttar Pradesh a, Northern state