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Structure in Schools

Model of BureaucracyMax Weber (1947) Division of Labor

Division of labor leads to specialization and specialization promotes expertise. Impersonal Orientation

Decisions based on facts, not feelings or biases. Hierarchy of Authority - Systems of superiors and subordinates

Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance and coordination. Rules and Regulations

Formalization ensures stability and uniformity of behavior. Career Orientation

Career orientation-promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both Efficiency

Bureaucracy maximizes rational decision-making and administrative efficiency

Critique of Weber’s ModelFunction

Expertise

Rationality

Compliance andCoordinationContinuity and StabilityIncentive

Characteristic

Division of Labor

Impersonal Orientation

Hierarchy of Authority

Rules and Regulations

Career Orientation

Dysfunction

Boredom

Lack of morale

Communication blocksRigidity and goal displacementConflict between achievement and seniority

Functions and Dysfunctions of Rules

Functions Dysfunctions

Explication Reinforce ApathyScreening Goal displacementLegitimate Punishment Create legalismLeeway Indulgency

Informal Organization

Informal organization is the spontaneous development of a social structure and culture within a formal organization--it is a “shadow organization.”

How does the informal organizations develop?

Activities, interactions, and sentiments form the following:

•Informal structure•Division into cliques•Informal norms•Personal relations•Informal communication; the grapevine•Informal leadership

Formal vs. Informal Structure

Formal System Hierarchy Division of Labor Formalization Impersonality “Chain of command”

Informal System Informal structure Division into cliques Informal norms Personal relations “Grapevine”

Other Criticisms of Bureaucracy1. Dual Structure Is the guiding principal of bureaucracy.

Authority based on expertise or based on rules and discipline?

2. Feminist Critique Does bureaucracy perpetuate male values at the expense of female ones?

Hierarchy, impersonality, independence, rationality, competition, centralized VS. Egalitarianism, personalism, dependence, emotionality, cooperation, decentralized

1. Dysfunctional consequences not considered.2. Informal organization neglected.3. Conflict between administration based on

expertise and administration based on disciplined compliance.

4. Feminist Critique

Summary of CriticismsOn Bureaucracy

Brainstorming Activity How do members formally communicate? Informally?

What formal processes drive decision making? List informal “behind the scene” practices. What are dominant sources of formal power in your school? Who has informal power in your school? Why? What are the formal hiring procedures? What is the informal practice? Who sets the formal goals? Informal goals?

Centralization: Enabling and CoerciveWhat is Centralization?Centralization is the locus of control for decision making--the hierarchy.

Two kinds of centralization: Hindering

Structure makes it difficult for teachers to do their work; it hinders professional activity.

Enabling Structure facilitates the work of teachers; it enables teachers to make professional decisions.

Formalization: Enabling and CoerciveWhat is Formalization?Formalization is the formal system of rules, regulations, procedures, and policies.

Two kinds of Formalization: Coercive

A rigid set of procedures that punishes and attempts to force compliance.

EnablingA flexible set of best practices that enables one to deal more effectively with inevitable problems.

Hindering Organization Hindering Hierarchy Coercive Rules &Procedures

Impose top-down communicationView problems as constraintsForce consensusSuspicious of differencesBe cautious and closedFear the unexpectedPunish mistakes

Enabling Organization Enabling Hierarchy Enabling Rules

Use two-way communicationView problems as opportunitiesSeek mutual solutionsSupport differencesPractice opennessEmbrace the unexpectedCorrect mistakes

Enabling and Hindering Structures

Hall on Structure

Types of Rational Organizations -Hall(1962)

Bureaucratic Pattern Hierarchy of Authority Rules for Incumbents Procedural Specifications Impersonality

Professional Pattern Technical Competence Specialization

Formal Structure in Schools

Types of School Structures

Predicted Evolutionary Changes In Structure

Chaotic Organization

AuthoritarianOrganization

ProfessionalOrganization

WeberianOrganization

Stable Environment

Turbulent Environment

Discussion QuestionDiscussion QuestionUse the four types of bureaucracies defined by the Hall to analyze the how to change from one structure to another. •For example, how does one move a school from a Chaotic Structure to a Weberian One? •Can one go directly to a Weberian Structure or does one first go to an Authoritarian Structure before a Weberian one? •Which is the ideal structure for schools? Which is better a Weberian Structure or a Professional Structure? Defend your choice of the ideal?• Is the ideal possible? If so, how would you lead a school toward that end?

Five Basic Parts of Structure

Mintzberg on Structure

Techno-Structure

Strategic Apex

Support Staff

Middle Line

Operating Core

Coordinating mechanisms are the fundamental means organizations use to monitor and control work. These mechanisms are the glue the hold the organization together.

Mutual Adjustment--informal communication Direct Supervision--personal command Standardization of Work--program directions Standardization of Output--specify the product Standardization of Skills--specify training

Control or Coordinating Mechanisms-Mintzberg

Five Combinations and Five Basic Structures (Mintzberg)

Key Part Control Mechanism Organization Type Strategic Apex…….Direct Supervision……Simple Structure Technostructure…. Stand. of Work………..Machine Bur. Operating Core….. Stand. of Skills………...Professional Bur. Middle Line………. Stand. Of Outputs…….Divisional Form Support Staff…….. Mutual Adjustment……Adhocracy

Discussion Question

Apply Mintzberg’s Framework to Schools:

What is the ideal structure for elementary schools?For secondary schools? Which coordinating mechanism(s) are most appropriate for controlling teachers? What is the most important structural part of the school? Discuss the structure that really exits compared to what should exist. Is that possible

Loose CouplingLoose couplings are structural connections among the elements that are tied together loosely and in some cases disconnected. E.g,. The administration of a school as little influence in what is happening in the classroom. Consider universities.

Some schools are tightly coupled and others are loosely coupled.

Bureaucracies tend to be tightly coupled.Professional organizations tend to be more loosely coupled.

Tight coupling promotes limits discretion of teachers.Loose coupling enhances discretion of teachers.

To what extent is you school loosely coupled? Analyze the tight and loose couplings in your school? Does the structure need tightening or loosening?

Professional and Bureaucratic Orientations

Professional Orientation

• Expertise• Objective perspective• Impersonal approach• Service to clients

Bureaucratic Orientation

• Expertise• Objective perspective• Impersonal approach• Service to the organization

Sources of Conflict between Orientations

• Colleague reference group • Hierarchical orientation • Autonomy in decision making • Disciplined compliance• Self-imposed control • Subordinated to the organization

Sources of Compatibility between Orientations

Theory into Practice Applications1. Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school?

What are their formal positions? How much authority do they have and how do they exert it? Give specific examples. Describe the division of labor and specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control? How much autonomy do teachers have to make their own decisions? How would you characterize the formal organization of your school?

2. Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority? Where do they get their influence? What are the important informal norms in your school? How do the formal and informal leaders interact? Do they cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the grapevine. How would you characterize the informal organizations of your school?

Practical Imperatives • Ensure that those with expertise make the important decisions: Knowledge rules.• Substitute professional judgment for rules when possible: Judgment trumps rules.• Initiate enabling structures: They facilitate positive school cultures.• Avoid hindering structures: They frustrate professional judgment and teacher creativity.• Anticipate the negative consequences of rules: Be prepared and flexible.• Review and delete rules each year: The fewer the number of rules, the better.• Know your informal school leaders: Informal leadership is an important complement to

the formal.• Balance formal demands with individual capabilities: Both are critical for success.• Make the workplace interesting and challenging: Create structures that nurture creativity.• Be mindful: Make mindfulness in attitude, organization, and behavior a habit of thought

and action.• Institutionalize structures that work: Change structures that don’t.• Move from bureaucratic to professional control: Teacher judgment should eventually

substitute for administrative control.• Seek harmony between the formal and informal organization: Both are imperative for

effective organization.