Structure and Movement of Wages in the Mughal Empire

7/29/2019 Structure and Movement of Wages in the Mughal Empire

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chapter

Suu nd Movmn of Wgs in MuglEmi, 500-00

Njf Hid

Tis xlos fou insiuionl fos wi wn ino mking

of wg suu in Mugl Emi. Fousing on lionsi

bwn monizion, ns of uny iulion nd wg ymns,

i lso iss isoiogil issus uil o undsnding of ov-

im movmn of mony wgs in sixn nd svnn nuis.

I mus b dmid quniiv d on wgs, is, mony suly

nd inom xmly limid nd fgmny fo wol of mdi-

vl Indi (00-800). I is only fom middl of ninn nuy

(8) on bgins o g unbokn sisil sis on is nd wgs.

Tis xlins so mn subj s ivd in un iso-iogy. Howv, is suffiin vidn - som of i fs - o om-

mn n invsigion ino oss of wg dminion nd ymn

nd o off nw inions fo xising mil.

T Mugl Emi ws vd ou of numb of gionl ss of Indi

oug onquss nd oliil llins of Timuid in, Bbu

(5-50), nd is sussos, nobly is gndson, Akb (55-05).

Akb ws sonsibl lso fo giving s o dminisiv, fisl nd

mony insiuions of Emi. As sul of s ffos, Mugl

Emi xndd o inlud 00 million ou of 5 million ol simd

o v livd in Indi un of svnn nuy. A oin inim, simd Goss Nionl Podu of Emi sood 5 mil-

lion us ( u = .5 gms of fin silv), of wi ss of

imy (giulu nd nilly sos), sondy (vlu ddd by mn-

Bod sims of Indin oulion un of svnn nuy w

offd on bsis of omison (nd bkwd xolion) of lnd-mn io

s i sood in ly wni nuy, nd sims of io bwn i nd

ol vnu. T suls suggs omound nnul gow of 0. n bwn

0 nd 8 in oulion. Moosvi, Economy of the Mughal Empire, . -05.


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najaf haider

ufus) nd iy (svi) sos w , nd n s-

ivly. Agiulu ws gnlly isd by individul sns, som of

wom ossssd lg filds, isd os fo mk nd mloyd wglbous. A lg oion of giulul odu (ofn mouning o

lf is vlu) ws limd by s in lnd vnu (mal) nd ommud

ino s o suo miliy nd ivil uss of Emi. Food

gins nd w mils sold by villg o m is x obligions ful-

filld quimns of ubn soiy nd onomy. T ubn on-

omy ws susind by lg f nd svi so wi gnd good

dl of mloymn owing o low oduiviy nd luxuious lifsyl

of uling lsss. T owns lso bm mjo ns fo suly of

xo goods by s nd lnd o mks of Middl Es, Afi nd

Euo in ws nd Sous Asi, Cin, Jn nd Piliins in

s. Runing sis nd vns usully boug foign unis o

un-oind ml o info iuling mdium nd ommn fs

yls of xng.

No sims vilbl fo siz nd omosiion of wokfo

mloyd in giulul, indusil nd svi sos, bu is suf-

fiin vidn o suggs wg lbou xisd in ll . Almos

qu of ul oulion (wi md u n simd 85 n of

ol) ws vnd fom king u ulivion s sns by i s

sus s mnils nd unoubls in od y ould b id s wglbous.5 In indusil so, wg lbous w iully onn-

d in building onsuion nd mining. Aloug Mugl isns w

ssnilly indndn odus, owning i quimn nd w m-

ils, os wo odud xnsiv f odus ofn wokd s wg

ns in mnufois (karkhanas) sblisd by kings, nobls nd big

mns. T sm mloys lso id wol ng of odiny nd

skilld lbous in miliy nd ivil sblismns in diffn iis.

Moosvi, Indin Eonomi Exin, . 0.

Hbib, Sou Asi, . 80.

Hid, Pious Ml Flows, . 8-.

5 Hbib, Sou Asi, . 80.

Fo mining, s Molnd, India at the Death of Akbar, . -.

Ryudui, Non-Agiulul Poduion, . -8. Fo dild dsiion of

mnufois, s Vm, Karkhanas under the Mughals,passim.


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!

!

!

!

!

"

!

Kabul

Delhi

Agra

Benares

Bombay

Ahmedabad

Punjab

Kashmir[1568]

Oudh

Bihar[1529]

Bengal

[1576]

Rajputana

[1527]

Sind[1573] Malwa

[1562]

Gujarat

[1573]

Kandesh

[1601]

Berar

Lahore

Au Au

! major city

" Capital

Au

Sind

[1573]region and yearof incorporation

gold mining

Ag

Ag silver mining

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire

Map 12.1. The Moghul Empire 1526-1605


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najaf haider

Time, Skill and wage Formation

Pid in ny fom - bnfis, ommodiy o mony - wgs sn iof lbou nsd givn lvl of mk. T fis nd fomos

omonns of wg suu im nd skill. In ny soiy f fom

sviud, iin in oss (oduiv o owis) w lbou is

xndd is nild o iv soming in un. T un my ssum

diffn foms bu is gnlly kond by im kn o onlud

lbou oss. In Mugl Indi, wgs w mosly dmind by king

dy, mon o sson s unis of im.

In diunl onology, dy ws kond fom dwn o dusk. A Du

fo, wo losly obsvd oduion nd xng in Mugl Indi,

od isns nd fsmn wokd fom moning o nig.8

Dsibing duion of im fo wi skilld isns syd in og-

nizd woksos (karkhanas), Fnmn siding in Indi nod y

i vy moning o i siv k-knys, w y mind

mloyd wol dy; nd in vning un o i oms. In i

qui nd gul mnn, i im glids wy. No infomion s om

o lig so f on qunifibl woking ous o lng of dy in diffn

ssons wi fomd bsis fo fixing wgs.

T mon ws i Indin o Islmi lun mon of dys o

Psin sol mon of 0 nd dys.

0

Aoding o on o, monlywgs of svns in Du foy Ag w id on dy of

nw moon. Pls is on gin ou uoiy fo is smn

mos of g lods kond 0 dys o mon fo ying wgs.

Tis ould mn vn oug wgs fll du on fis dy of

mon, y w id on n.

In ounysid, villg offiils nd svns ivd i wgs du-

ing vs yls of vying lng (wi i k nd slk ssons).

Aloug slis of Mugl offiils (mansabdars) w fixd monly,

bulk ws id duing vs ssons. Tis ws bus mjoiy ofman-

sabdars w id, x duing 55-58, wi vnu ssignmns (jagirs),wi quid m o oll ll xs siuld by s (minly

lnd vnu), k moun quivln o i slis nd mi bl-

8 Pls, Remonstrantie, . 0.

Bni, Travels in the Mogul Empire, . 5.

0 Nndm, Siyaqnama, . .

Geleynssen Collection, no. .

Pls, Remonstrantie, . .

Tnnn, Indian Recreations, I, . -.


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12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire n o xqu. A smll numb of mansabdars, silly os

wo ivd low sl is, ws id in s (naqd) dily by xqu

vy mon of y.T ws no i of ying wkly o fonigly wgs in mdivl

Indi. Pi wgs w id, s in min (Tbl .) o in building on-

suion by moun of wok don wiin n gd iod of im.5

In ounysid, os, nns, nd ns ivd i wgs fo

mking ooking unsils, sos nd diss of lvs usd fo dining. Pos

w id by siz of dis, nn by quliy of sos nd

n by l w ll ims w of unifom quliy.

T koning of im fo wg ymns bm omlx wn -

iul skill ws quid o fom i of wok. Tis ws fld in

wg diffnils wiin sm so s wll s bwn diffn sos

ny on im (Tbls . nd .).

Table 12.1. Piece wages Paid in the Mint (c. 1595)

Category o Wage Earners Wages paid in dams or crating 1000 coins o:

Gold

(169 grains/

10.95 grams)

Silver

(178 grains/

11.54 grams)

Copper

(323 grains/

20.93 grams)

Blank-cutter (zarrab) 210.50 53.44 20.00

Silver smelter-assayer (sabbak) 54.00

Weigher (waznkash) 17.50 6.76 0.44

Coiner and hammerer

(sikkachiand patakchi)

14.00 5.38 3.00

Note: The hammerer received 1/6 of the total paid to the coiner

Source: Abul Fazl, Ain i Akbi, I (1872), pp. 16-18.

I is diffiul o om figus in Tbls . nd . fo son

w do no know dily woklod of min isn. Unlss w know

dily ouu of min, siz of wokfo in dmn s wlls numb of sifs, i wgs id in is dmn nno b om-

d wi im wgs id in no.

Soming, owv, n b sid bou ow skills w kn ino oun

by mloys wn fomuling ymns. T ig wgs id o

Hbib, Agrarian System of Mughal India, . -00.

5 Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . 0.

Tnnn, Indian Recreations, I, . -.


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najaf haider

blnk-u w du o dli nu of is job wi dmndd

xiud, s ll blnks d o b u wi ss o n qul siz nd wig

(kamil ul azn). Coin simns svd in musum nd iv ollionsby - dvning mgin fo w nd , nd oln (sniond

dviion fom min sndd) - ig dg of unifomiy in wig,

siz nd s wiin singl sis. In s of ious mls, g

ision nd im w lso quid o wig blnks on fin bln.

Comd o silv wig, woklod of gold wig fo on

ousnd oins ws ig bus gold ws wigd in smll bs.

Similly, job of oin ws o fix nd lign dis (Mugl dis

w no ggd), l blnks bwn m, xmin imssions

fomd on obvs nd vs, nd vn sliing, ov-siking

nd king of dgs of oin. In ddiion, ws quid o ovid

mm nd suvis i of u nd low dis. T o-

ion dmndd mo skill nd sonsibiliy n mm wos job

ws o sik blow wi msud sng insuion of oin.

Tus, no s llown ws md fo mm min nd

ivd s of wgs id o is suio n.

wage Payment in Subsistence and Monetized Economies

Jus s iulion of ommodiis is filid by vilbiliy of n

ffiin mdium of xng, wg ymns oo bom insingly

fqun wi widning us of mony. On wg so is mon-

izd, ngs in uny iulion nd is bgin o iming on wg

movmns nd inom disibuion.

Mdivl Indin soiy is ofn izd by o-xisn of wo

domins of onomi iviis: on of subsisn oduion in villg

w ol of mony is gnlly undsood o b mginl nd xng

ws bsd on soilly sblisd nwok of iol obligions, nd

o of monizd onomy w mk lions of xng -vild. In subsisn-oind onomy, ymns w md o villg

woks nd isns fom ommon ool o on n individul ousold

bsis, oug foms y ook diffiul o idnify, s ws nv

ny foml onulizion of su ymns s wgs. Mny isns ld

vnu-f lnds gnd o m by villg ommuniy in liu of

Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . 8; Vn Dm, Beschryvinge, II, iii, . 08-0; Kaghzat i

Mutafarriqa, folios, 5, 58v-; Bii, Hidayat ul Qaaid, folio (Ivin, . 50).


7/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire svis y fomd.8 I is likly vnu du o s on i-

snl oldings onsiud i wgs. If is w s, s mig

v subsidizd oss of wg-lbou in ounysid by gning v-nu onssions on lnd ld by villg ommuniy fo su uoss.

Mio-lvl s on idnifiion nd omuion of ul wgs

will no only sblis inoms of ul lsss wi g iny

bu imov ou undsnding of villg onomi ognizion (io

sibd o lm of uy nd slf-suffiiny) nd ingul l-

ionsi bwn s, villg ommuniy nd ul lbou mk.

I is qui diffiul o d inoduion of s ymns in villg

soiis. A som oin, svis w indd bd nd obligions w

fixd nd sld in kind o vi disibuion of igs fo us of vil-

lg sous, ing imssion of nul onomy. Su -

is oninud in vying dgs vn f il monizion of

villg onomy. In bsn of dild mio-sudis of diffn

gions of Mugl Emi, on nno ossibly fix onology fo

nsiion fom b o monizd xng nd is im on wg y-

mns. W v, owv, l vidn in sixn nd svnn

nuis, monizd so of Mugl Emi xndd nd s

xns of non-monizd so.

In os gions of Mugl Emi wi fll wiin monizd

so nd w ws g on bwn mk nd ounysid, ymns md o giulul lbous nd villg offiils

w xssd nd disbusd in s. Villg-lvl doumns of sv-

nn nuy sow nis in oun books ling o s ymns

md o offiils nd mony-ng (sarraf). T ii Fn jw-

ll, Jn Bis Tvni, sys villg in Indi my indd b vy

smll if i d no mony-ng (. ). T sn of sarrafsug-

gss villg ommuniy ws dwn ino vox of mony

onomy by svnn nuy nd ws fmili wi onion

of xng s.

The Monetization of the Indian Economy

If w k long-m viw of isoy of -modn Indi, bod

yls of mony movmns n b disnd. T Indus ivilizion (500

-500 BC) d no gul oing nd msus of gin o unis of ious

objs (gold, silv, onlin, g, .) w usd s mony o ondu

8 Hbib,Agrarian System of Mughal India, . 5-58.

Tvni, Travels in India, I, . 0.


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najaf haider

lol nd long-disn xng.0T Vdi Ayns (500-00 BC) gnlly

ound i wl in ows, mls, oss nd slvs, loug is vi-

dn of us of unsmd gold nd silv is of diffn unis (pada)nd onmns (nishka) fo xng.T fis yl bgn wi iul-

ion of silv un-mkd oins ( nuy BC) on v of is of

Buddism nd sond ubn voluion, nd d is ig oin wi

xnsiv us of gold nd o unis in Kusn nd Gu

iods (fis nuy o six nuy). T yl m o n nd following

dlin in xng nwok nd omm und s of Indin

fudlism (500- 000), in wi gold oing illy disd, silv

mony bm nd o uny iuld on mod sl.

T sond yl sd wi gdul ognizion nd xnsion of

mony onomy in ly mdivl Indi (lvn nuy), wi

vivl of ubnizion nd foign d, nd subsqunly inoduion

of mony nd fisl insiuions fom Cnl Asi. T sblismn

of Dli Suln in in nuy boug bou -

ibl ng in oduion nd iulion of mony oug sn-

ddizd muli-mlli uny sysm of gold nd silvtankas, billonjital

odamma (bs ml mixd wi silv) nd opaika. T silv tanka

(.8 gins), nd is fion (lf tanka), ws mloyd in ig vlu

nsions, su s us of oss, slvs, onubins nd xils,

ymn of svns wgs (fixd nnully), ymn of i wgs of skilld fsmn, o mony givn ou in iy. T gold tankas w mind

in limid quniis o b usd fo ig-vlu xngs, gifs nd imil

nd li odings.5

Mos s nsions blow vlu of lf tanka w ondud

in sis of billon oins mind by Dli Sulns wi w known

by gni nm ofjitalodamma (goss wig 5. gins). T is

of ssnil ommodiis, su s gin o gmns nd dily wgs of

lbous nd isns w quod nd id injitals. Fom mid-in

nuy, silv onn of jitalws insingly xssd in uni

0 Hbib, Indus Civilization, . -.

Hbib nd Tku, Vedic Age, . 0, 5; Gu, Coins, . -.

Kosmbi, Indian Numismatics; Codyy,Age of the Kushans; Gu, Coins, . 8-5,

-8.

Sm, Urban Decay in India, . -; Simli, Mony, Mk nd Indin Fudl-

ism, . -.

Dyll, Living without Silver,passim; Gol, Economic Life in Northern India,passim; C-

odyy, Td nd Ubn Cns, . 0-5.

5 Bni, Tarikh i Firozshahi, . 80, 0-; Sijzi, Faaid ul Fuad, . 8; Kud, Siyar ul

Auliya, . 5; Hbib, Non-Agiulul Poduion nd Ubn Eonomy, . 8-88.


9/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire of lows dnominion lldgani(.8 gins), sixy of wi ould b

xngd fo tanka.

In o uny so, vis oin of ly Sulnswigd gins nd ws known by oul dsignion ofpaika wi

is lf lld adhva.T wig of paika ws mn o b quivln o

qu of billonjital. Aloug ws susibl o ngs in

bi-mlli io, i ws minind fo onsidbl iod of im. Rf-

ns o is oin in Psin liu so fw i s i

jitals of low vlus omlly domind domin of y nsions

o uos of isoil woks w f movd fom miliu in wi

o oins w usd on gul bsis.

A olongd innionl isis of silv fom bou middl of

foun nuy nd inbiliy of inlnd onomis of Sul-

n o dw ious mls fom livly i uny gims of

oss boug sond yl o n nd.8 Silv nd gold w ld

by billon nd o oins, wi bm inil mdi of xng

ill middl of sixn nuy. T mos mkbl sign of

downun ws ogssiv dbsmn of silvtanka o oin w

i illy bm o oin wi sk of silv nd nd ds-

ignion tanka i siyah (blk tanka).

In ly sgs of finl yl, uny sysm of Mugl

Emi snd oninuion of billon-o gim of lDli Sulns. A nw i-mlli uny of u mls ws sblisd

in wk of sis of dvlomns wiin nd ousid Indi. T mos

imon xnl dvlomn ws swd nsmission of Euon

silv obind fom mins of Pu nd Mxio (Snis olonis in

Ami) o finn Indin On d. Wi n nnul suly nging

bwn 85 nd mi ons of silv, Mugl Emi bm big-

gs imo of foign bullion ousid Euo in l sixn s wll s

Pu,Dravya Pariksha, . -8; Afif, Tarikh i Firoz Shahi, . ; Bni, Tarikh i Firozshahi,

. 8. T bs wok on numismi vidn mins Wig, Coinage and Metrology ofthe Sultans of Delhi. Fo n mn of billionjital, s Ty,Jitals: A Catalogue and

Account, . 5-.

Pu, Dravya Pariksha, . (Tbl ), 8 (vs 8); Afif, Tarikh i Firuz Shahi, . .

8 Mony isoins of mdivl Euo lgly g o siy of silv in l

Middl Ags, olongd nd inns noug o dsign i iod of bullion fmin.

T s is mos susivly gud in Dy, G Bullion Fmin, . -. Also s

Suffod, Money and its Use in Medieval Europe, . -; Muno, Bullion Flow nd

Mony Conion, . 0. Fo mid- foun nuy isis of silv si in

Egy, s Loz, Miskimin, Udovi, Englnd o Egy, . .

Hid, Innionl Td in Pious Mls, . -5.


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najaf haider

svnn nuy.0 Esims vilbl fo Ming Cin, mjo iin

of foign bullion in Asi, suggs n nnul imo of o mi ons

of silv in sond lf of sixn nuy - lmos on id of simd figus w v fo Mugl Emi.

A sm im Snis-Amin silv ws on is ouwd jou-

ny o Indi, Mugl Emi xndd wswds o mb osl

gions of Guj nd Sind, wi w di iins of foign bullion

no only fom Euo bu lso Jn. In sond lf of svnn

nuy, Bngl mgd s mjo dsinion fo nsmission of -

ious mls by Du (VOC) nd Englis Es Indi Comnis. T

ioil xnsion of Mugl Emi d ondiions fo in-

gion of osl inlnds ino singl nwok of ommodiy xng,

fisl mins nd uny iulion.

T bsoion of xnl nd innl soks of mony mls ws

filid by s nd mk. T Mugl s dod fisl nd

mony oliis wi smlind nd xndd uny iulion

in Emi. A oliy of olling xs nd disbusing slis in s

ws usud o igg yl of mony iulion. In ddiion, sis

of msus ws kn fom 58 o snddizd uny sysm

oug lmn of gionl s wll s old nd sub-sndd oins

wi fsly mind Mugl uny.

T Mugl mins w n imon insumn of uny suly ndonol nd od in mjo ommil nd dminisiv ns

of Emi. T mins wokd on inil of on oing wi

nild suli of mony ml nd dmonizd si o iv

fsly mind oins (in sm ml) on ymn of bssg nd si-

gniog (min gs). T min i of mony ml (numb of

oins dlivd by min) ws lwys ig n is mk i sin

sarrafs (buys fo min um mony-ngs) gd ommission on

sl of unis. In l lf of sixn nuy, min gs

fo oining us ou of fin silv w lil ov 5 n of ol

ouu. T sm oins w sold in mk .5 n ov nd bovi wig in fin silv. T os of siking o ino dams ws lil

ov n of ol ouu, ws is mk i ws 5 n.

Sin bo us nd dams iuld mium wi ws md u

nily of i oss (min gs nd ommissions), i xng s

w dmind by mk. Wnv dmnd fo uny ou-

0 Hid, Pious Ml Flows, . 8-.

Von Gln, Fountain of Fortune,. -0.


11/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire sid is suly, s ook ss o xnd min oduion by uing

down o bolising signiog nd diing sls of mony mls xlu-

sivly o min.Mony-ngs nd mns offd in unifomiy nd o-

sion o s ovd by nwok of monizd xng by ngoi-

ing movmn of s, goods nd svis oss usoms bis nd

bwn diffn sos of onomy oug commenda, mony-ng-

ing (sayrafi), dosi bnking, sondni (avak), bills of xng (hundi),

ommil usuy, nd inlnd nd min insun (bima).T unifom nd

snddizd uny sysm wi mgd f dds of innsiv

dminisiv nd mk ngs ws susind by onsn flow of silv

oug foign d nd is bsoion ino iui of xng.

Table 12.2. Monthly wages Paid to the Servants of the Dutch Factory at Agra: 1637

Category o Employees Wages in Rupees

Washer man 5.0

Groom 4.5

Servant o chie actor, Geleynssen 4.5

Torchbearer 4.0

Servant o actor, Barentsen 3.5

Chariot driver 3.5Gatekeeper 3.5

Peons (each) 3.5

Luggage boy o Geleynssen 2.5

Keeper o the graveyard 2.0

Writer o letters in Persian 0.5

Barber 0.5

Source: National Archives, The Hague (NA),Geleynssen, 123.

W im did monizion, min oduion nd uny iulionv on fom of wg ymns? Wi n ins in mony iul-

ion, i is logil o ssum wgs ook on mony fom on bigg sl

n bfo. Tis nomnon is bon ou by sd fns o mony

wgs in Psin nd Euon sous (Tbls .-., .-. nd .).

Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . -; Kn, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, . 5; Hid, P-

ious Ml Flows, . -, 5.

Hid, Mony Bsis of Bnking, . 58-.


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najaf haider

Mo sifilly, xnsion of monizd wg so ws ii-

d by in ngs wi ook l in n of uny iul-

ion in sixn nuy.An imon s of monizion of Mugl onomy ws

subsiuion of o by silv fom sond lf of sixn n-

uy in vnu nd sly ymns nd in mk nsions. Tis ws

lgly du o vy imos of silv, oliis of s, nd ig

os of oduion of o wi sid uny iulion o s

lying los o mins.5 In su iumsns, i is likly mloys w

nougd o y monly wgs in silv (Tbls . nd .). Numis-

mi vidn suggss ws fll in numb of o mins

s wll s ouu of individul min in svnn nuy.

Howv, o uny did no dis omlly fom mony

sn vn oug n unknown oion of i ws dmonizd nd fionl

silv mony ( ana o / of u) md inods ino domin of

y nsions. Usg of inil o oin of Mugl Emi

(dam) ws ind nd vn xndd in s w wgs nd slis d

o b id in smll mouns (Tbl .). In , n Englismn vlling

fom Su o Ag m wi vn of iss [dams], bound fo Bmo

[Bunu] o y soldis, wi gud of 00 oss fo f of ob-

bing. A fw ys l, s imosd bn on dmonizion

of o oins o disoug xo of w ml o In w ifd ig is.8 In 0s, do in suly of o d

isis of smll ng in diffn s of Mugl Emi (s blow).

T sons fo suvivl of o n only b suld. Bfo

influx of innionl silv ld mony lnds of l

Suln nd ly Mugl Indi, dominn xng mdi onsisd

of billon nd o oins ig lons nd fionl is nd

non-mlli unis (owi slls nd bi lmonds) lows lv-

ls of mk.Wi oming fis of gold (500-550) nd n silv

(550-00), o nd middl lys of xng m o b ouid by

Hbib, A Sysm of Timllism, . -0

5 Fo o mins nd min oduion, s Dyll, Long Tm Tnds fo Co

Coins, . 58-.

Ibid., . 0-.

Joudin,Journal of John Jourdain, . 50.

8 English Factories in India, 1618-21, . , . Fo mo xmls of wg ymns in

o, s nx sion.

Afif, Tarikh i Firoz Shahi, . ; Abdull, Tarikh i Daudi, . 8;Jaunpur Nama, . 08.


13/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire wo ious mls.0 Wn billon oin ws widwn fom iu-

lion ( Mugl mony uoiis insiud si gim of uiy),

g dmnd fo o mony ws d im wn siz of wg-ning oulion ws gowing nd sif ws king l fom

kind o s ymns.

Table 12.3. Monthly wages of Peons and Domestic Servants Expressed in Silver

Year Place Category o Wage Earners Wages (Rupees)

1613 Agra Lowest wage (Imperial Establishment) 3.00

1616 Surat Domestic Servant 2.66

1622 Agra Peon 4.00 *

1623 Surat Domestic Servant 3.00 **

1623 Agra Porter 4.00

1626 Agra Domestic Servant 3.00-4.00

1634 Surat Peon 2.22-3.11

1636 Surat Peon 3.55-4.44 +

1636 Ahmadabad Peon 3.55-4.44 +

1637 Agra Peon 3.00-3.50

1659 Ahmadabad Peon 4.00

1689 Surat Peon 4.00* Rate quoted as high

** with food and clothing

+ Years of famine

Note: For rates quoted in mahmudis, the exchange rate as 1 rupee = 2.25 mahmudis

Sources: Hakins, Early Travels in India, p. 99; Supplementary Calendar, p. 66; English Facto-

ries in India, 1622-23, pp. 94, 222; 1634-36, p. 151; Della Valle, Travels of Pietro Della, I, p. 42;

Pelsaert, Remonstrantie, p. 62; NA Geleynssen de Jongh collection, 123; Factory Records, Mis-

cellaneous, vol. 3, folio 133; Ovington, Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689, p. 229.

0 T fis lf of sixn nuy ws iod of dominn of gold in

Indin On d, nd iv of gold wi flowd oug Rd S boug

o Indin On mks muliud of gold oins (ashrafis, sultanis nd Ymni dinars),

ll modlld on Vnin du wi islf m in lg quniis. Bbos, Book

of Duarte Barbosa, I, . 00-0; Pis, Suma Oriental,I, . , , , -; Mgls-

Godino, L Economie de l Empire Portugais, . -.


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najaf haider

Table 12.4. Daily wages Paid in Copper

Year Place Category o Wage Earners Wages

1572 Jaunpur Labourers and Masons Paid in dams

1626 Agra Skilled Labourers 10-12 dams

1661 Surat Ship Carpenters and Labourers Paid in dams

1663 Surat Stewards Paid in dams

1666 Ahmadabad Labourers Paid in dams

Sources: Jaunpur Nama, p. 108; Pelsaert, Remonstrantie, p. 60; The parana (order) of Raja

Ragunath [1661]; Khan, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, pp. 267, 277-278; English Factories in India,

1661-64, p. 121.

Money of Account, Currency Exchange and wage Payment

Wiin gnl fmwok of monizion, i is imon o idnify

lionsi bwn uny in wi wgs w fixd nd on

in wi ymns w md. I is qui ossibl wgs luld on

dily bsis w i id nd of dys wok in on uny o

w umuld nd id f mon in no. Convsly, monly

wgs sd in silv ould b disbusd on dily bsis in o mony

un of xng if su mony ws lniful. Disggging

uny dnominions would off us n ny oin ino n insing of mony isoy y o iv solly nion, viz. ingul

lionsi bwn uny dnominions, s of xng nd wg

ymns.

In mono-mlli uny sysms, ymns w md nd ouns

w k in mulil unis of singl oin wi v onsn vlus. In

muli-mlli uny onomy, su s of Mugl Indi, unis of

diffing vlus o-xisd nd omd wi on no o v dis

ss of usg in omlx nwok of xng. Su sysm d o

o invibly wi oblm of vlu lion nd xng in mk

w is of uny mls w dmind by suly nd dmnd.On ossibl wy ws o do sbl uny s sndd of vluion

in givn gion, so o im iod nd mk nssy djusmns in

odn wi fluuions in mk.

In od o fili nsiion fom billon nd o gim of

l Dli Sulns o i-mlli sysm, wi silv s domi-

nn ml, Mugl ny d mony of oun lld tanka i


15/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire muradi(o simly tanka) wi d fixd vlu in o. E tanka ws

qul o wo sndd o oins of Mugl Emi, known s dam

(lso lldpaisa) wiging gins. T tanka lso s o v d fixd vlu in billon oins of vious mings wi iuld onu-

nly bfo ging dmonizd. Wil lionsi bwn tanka

nd dam mind fixd ougou sixn nd svnn n-

uis, vn wn inoduion of ligdam of gins (/ of

sndd oin) in 0s nd o disub io (s blow), is sil-

v o gold oninud o fluu wi ngs in mk s of

xng.

Mos wg s nd slis in sixn-nuy doumnion w

quod in tanka. Tis is qui undsndbl sin sm mony ws

usd by Mugl s o is vnu sisis nd bln ss of

inom nd xndiu. Bu is dos no mn slis nd wgs w

id only in o. Mony ws disbusd in diffn lgl nds dnd-

ing on mgniud of ymn. Tis n b bs illusd by looking

lgs so o wi s md ymns. T slis ofmansab-

dars, ou of wi wgs o svns in miliy sblismn w id

(s blow), w oiginlly (5) fixd in singl uny bu id in silv,

gold, nd o:

Wn somon by good foun ns fold of my nd bndingis ondud, y ods issud wiou dly o oss. T slis

fixd in dams wil im of ymn lf is md ou in us

of 8 dams. T s is id in wo qul lvs: on in muhrs vlu of

us, nd o in dams. Wn i of u d 0 dams, by

mos bnvoln sm ws kond in ymn.

Bfo w is issus lvn o woking of ymn sysm su s

is, on ing sould b md l bou o dnominion usd

in bov ssg. All fns o dam oiginlly s

tanka in n ly nsion of mnusi by sm uo, Abul Fzl.In finl df wi Abul Fzl d fo snion o mo,

ll figus givn in tankas w onvd ino dams, sk md si by

fixd io wi xisd bwn mony of oun nd o-

Of ssnil funions of mony msu of vlu, mns of xng nd

mod of umulion mony of oun foms only fis.

Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . .

Abul Fzl,Akbarnama, OIOC, MS Add. , folio ndpassim.


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najaf haider

oin. Tus, i is imon o mmb wv slis nd wgs

w quod in dam in finl df (ublisd x), mdium of

xng mig no nssily v bn o oin.Aloug bov suu of ymn dsignd by fisl uoiis

bodly fld n of uny iulion in vious sos of

onomy in id qu of sixn nuy, i ws unlikly o

v suvivd fluuions in xng s of mony mls in

mk. Wil o omonn of sly suu mind unf-

fd, silv nd gold oions bgn o di. Wn sysm ws

bly dd old, 0 n of ol sly of buus nd i

soldis ws wid ou du o 0 n fll in o vlu of silv

in mk (fom 8 o 0 dams). A n unsifid d duing is s

(5-58), mk vlu of silv u slid o 5 dams, lding

o fu diion of slis nd wgs id ou in ious mls

(Tbl .5).

Table 12.5. The Price of Silver Rupee in Copper dams in Northern India

Year Ofcial Rate (tankas/dams) Market Rate (dams)

1574 24/48 48

1574-82 24/48 35

1582 20/40 40

1595 20/40 45

1606 20/40 102

Source: Data derived from Haider, The Quantity Theory and Mughal Monetary History,

pp. 338-345.

Two ss w kn o dss is siuion. T fis ws o bing down

of onvsion fom o o silv (nd lso gold vi silv) o lign

i wi mk. Fo sm moun oftankas, iins ould now

v mo gold nd silv oins (us nd muhrs). T sond msu ws

o nw of xng s mnn. Tus, in 58, n lbosdul of xng s ws d by finn minis, Todml, in

wi gold nd silv oins of ll ys (su s os wi los wig nd

w ssd disoun) w xssd in o mony of oun

(tanka) fixd . A silv u of full wig ws xngd fo 0

tankas (o 0 dams) nd gold muhrfo 0 tankas (o 80 dams). T silv

of gold oin ws fixd sm lvl s in 5. As sul of is

Ibid.


17/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire msu ls in Mugl vnu ollions nd sly ymns

l o oin (dam) lso bm mony of oun, sin is vlu ws

fixd ad infinitum gins silv nd gold.5 Tis ould xlin wy Abul Fzlnsld ll figus fom on mony of oun ino no.

In od o k offiil xng s onsn, Mugl s

offd ddiionl ymns o is offiils nd i soldis wnv

mk os byond offiil . As is ws umbsom xis

wi k fisl bln s floing wi vy nw dvlomn in

mony mk, i mig wll v bn son bind dision o

fm nw sly figus in us owds nd of sixn nuy.

By now, silv u d bom inil mdium of xng. A

sm im, i ws iing in vlu gins o (Tbl .5), nd

slis nd wgs fixd in o bu id in silv offiil of

xng mn loss fo xqu. In in dmns of fisl

so, i ws ionl fo s o sn link wi i d minind

wi o mony of oun owing o muliliiy of issus duing

iod of nsiion.8

Ousid s so, wgs xssd in on uny nd id ou in

no gv is o simil oblms. W v o fom Su (Guj),

of , in wi Englis fos igligd oblm of ouning

wgs in silv nd ying in o:

T mmody, us lwys in fom im o b 0 nd mo i, is

now, by dnss of o, flln o nd i, wils ovisions no

wi ; nd swds disbusmns fo mos in i,

fwds dud ino mmodis.

5 Toug of 0 dams o u ould b ig o low n mk i,

in ymn of slis is is ognizd. Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . .

Ibid., . , 8. Ibid., . 80-85.

8 Silv did owing o is ug influx bwn 5 nd 58 wn oss of is

bsoion ino xng nwok d bly bgun. T siuion, owv, ngd

f 58, wn ss w kn o moniz silv on lg sl by nlizing

dminision of silv mins nd inging m wi fisl suu. I is lso os-

sibl silv monizion d ug svs of ld o mony ou-

sid is dmnd (wi oo insd in bsolu ms). Tis uious nomnon

ig suly lding o ig xng vlu - sd noi in ll modn ouns

fo sons wi xlind blow (T Pi Rvoluion nd Wg Movmns).

English Factories in India, 1661-64, . .


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najaf haider

H, monly wgs of swds w fixd in silv mahmudis (

gionl oin wi mind in iulion gins ll odds) bu id ou

in o is (dams).50 Wn xng of mahmudifll gins dam (fom 0 o ) du o siy (dnss) of o, mony

wgs id o swds dod in vlu, wil on y mind

sm. Sin is of ovisions usd by swds mind

unffd, i l wgs fll. If mloys id svns old

, ny in i ldg gins wgs would v sown ig ouly

ofmahmudis (n xlnion in nnul l o London).

T isis of o mony d oblms fo wg ns in s

so oo. In Guj, wn sog bm u, sarrafs (mony-

ngs) of Amdbd iuld fiduiy (ion) oin, foing gov-

no o ogniz sulis of o o min nd sk mission fo

f oing of imil issus (boliion of signiog fo on y).5 T

nl dminision dd o qus only f duing wig

of dam by id (5 gins). T duion in oin wig infd

wi diionl tanka-dam (:) xng io insof s ll ymns

siuld in tanka oug o v bn md of insd of

wo dams.5 Tis, owv, ws no s unil wg ns iiond

govnmn gding loss in i inom. A onil of iy of

Amdbd summizd s dvlomns in following ssg wi

onsud fom dminisiv doumns is disosl:

T dminiso of buildings, gdns nd o woksos of Amdbd

Ciy snd o Clsil Cou fomly wgs of lbous

d bn id in o oins (fulus)5 wiging mashas [ gins]. Sin

sidfulus v bn widwn fom iulion, ndfulus of usiious

Almgii sm, wig of wi is fixd mashas [5 gins], v

bom un, woks v dlind o nw oins in l of

old, sying diffn bwn m is of od of 0:5. Wn

inllign of is m d Augus Psn [Emo Aungzb],

n od ws issud o finn minis of ovin , in io of0:5, dily wgs sould b id of on nd lftanka insd

of on tanka. Fom d tanka in Guj is d fulus.5

50 S ibid., 1634-34, . 5; Hid, Mugls nd Mmudis, . -5.

5 Kn, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, . 5

5 Ibid., . 5, , .

5 A gni Pso-Abi m fo o oins.

5 Kn, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, . .


19/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire Mu lik Englis Comny, Mugl s d o so o n uwd

vision of mony wgs (in ms of unis of uny) in is ouns.

I wn s fu o mb imliions of is dision by yingdown mony of oun nd ssigning o tanka low vlu in ms

of mind o wig ( ligdams insd of vy issus).55

In fis wo ss disussd bov, ml onn of uni of

oun mind sbl wil is vlu xssd in ious o bs ml

oing ld s sul of ng in bimlli io. In id s,

ml onn of uni of oun ws ld s sul of ng

in wig of oin o wi i ws ggd. In ll ss, mony

wgs mind onsn wil l wgs dlind unil nomly

ws ddssd i by mking x ymns o nging sysm of

ouning o dding mony o book s.

The Mughal State and the wage Labour Market

T ol of Mugl s in insiuionlizing mony onomy s

ldy bn oind ou. T lvn of is miliy us nd

onsumion n of is uling lis fo wg so is lso woy of

nion. In Mugl miliy sblismn, sonsibiliy fo min-

ining soldis, w-nimls nd svns ws dlgd o nk-old-ing offiils of s (mansabdars) on bsis of guidlins issud by

imil dminision. T offiils ld dul nk (mansab). Ti -

sonl nk (zat) dnod i osiion in dminisiv iy by

numb (5,000 zat, fo insn), nd i obligion o minin soldis nd

w nimls in i sonl oningn (khasa). Ti miliy nk (saar)

dmind numb of vly oos (tabinan) y w xd o

bing o mus (5,000 saars, fo insn). T mansabdars ivd s

slis nd llowns fozatnd saar in odn wi i sonl

nks, ni gouings, numb of vly oos y oilly

minind o boug o mus nd numb nd quliy of oss (bokhasa nd tabinan). Fo insn, soldis sving und Mugl nd Inin

mansabdars w id, in ls qu of sixn nuy, -

mus (baraardi) of 5 us mon. Soldis of Indin man-

sabdars w llowd 0 us mon.5 I ws ou of s slis nd

sonl llowns wgs of lbou fo mloyd in mili-

55 Ibid., . .

5 Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . 5; Hbib, Mnsb Sysm, . .


20/30

najaf haider

Figure 12.1 Construction of the fort at Agra for the Mughal emperor Akbar. This is the first part

(right hand side) of a double-page illustration to the Akbarnama, the history of Akbar and his

empire authored by Abul Fazl. Among the various building activities depicted in the painting

are loading and carrying of stones and mortars on heads and in large baskets fastened to a bam-

boo beam; masons (raj) spreading mortar ith troels; and stone slabs getting transported to the

site in boats from the quarries of Fatehpur Sikri. The construction of the red sand stone structure

commenced in 1565 CE (10th regnal year) and took 8 years to complete. we kno from anothercontemporary ork (Tarikh i Akbari) that 2,000 stonecutters (sangtarash) and 2,000 mortar-

and-lime makers (gilkar o chunakar) orked daily to build the fort (qila), along ith 8,000

labourers (mazdur) ho supplied stone and lime (sang o chuna). The painting as sketched

(tarh) by Miskina and coloured (amal) by Saran, both artists of Akbars atelier. Victoria and

Albert Museum, London. Used by permission.


21/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire y so w id. Abul Fzl s ovidd figus fo wgs id o

svns nding sonl oss nd lns of mansabdars s wll s

oss of i vly oos ( soldis w no mid o klns).

Table 12.6. Monthly wages of the Groom (timardar), 1574-75

Breeds o Horses Wages in Dams

Iranian and Turkish:

Arab 63

Iraqi 63

Mujannas 60

Turki 60

Indian:

Yabu 45

Tazi 45

Jangla 45


Table 12.7. Monthly wages of the Attendants of the Elephants of the Mansabdars:

1574-75Category o Servants Types o Elephants and Wages in Dams

Mast Shergir Sada Manjhola

Driver (mahawat) 120 105 90 75

Assistant I (bhoi) 90 75 60 45

Assistant II (meth) 90 90 60 30


T mansabdars w onnd in iis wi d n ovwlm-ing ooion of s vnu siond fom ounysid, ou of wi

big ubn f nd svi so ws minind. T king nd nobil-

iy ownd nd suvisd mnufois (karkhanas) in wi onmns

of i luxuious lif w fsiond. In ls qu of sixn

nuy, w ,000 karkhanas in iy of Lo lon wi o-

dud swls, n im in wi Akb sowd sil ins.5 Similly,

5 Abul Fzl,Ain i Akbari, I (8), . 0.


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najaf haider

onsuion of ls, inns, monumns, . bsobd ug lbou fo

onsising of bik-lys, son is, son-msons nd os. Infom-

ion on siz of wokfo mloyd in building indusy is quidsuloy bu sd figus odd in onils nd vlogus

suggs i ws by no mns smll. T Mugl Emos onsidbly

nlgd sl of building onsuion, wi, und Dli Sulns,

ws ldy qui signifin. Aoding o on o, Aluddin Klji (-

) mloyd s mny s 0,000 woks nd fsmn fo onsu-

ion of is vious buildings.58 T fis Mugl Emo, Bbu, md

following obsvion in is mmois on lbou fo nggd in build-

ing onsuion duing is im (5-50):

Ano ni ing is unlimid numbs of fsmn nd iions

of vy d. Fo vy lbo nd vy odu is n sblisd gou

wo v bn iing f o ofssing d fo gnions. Fo

insn, in Zafarnama, Mull Sf wis loqunly duing Tmu

Bgs building of son mosqu wo undd sonmsons fom Azbi-

jn, Fs, Hindusn, nd o ls w mloyd on i dily. In Ag lon

w 80 Ag sonmsons wok on my building vy dy. Asid

fom , in Ag, Siki, Byn, Dolu, Gwlio, nd Koil, , sonmsons

w lbouing on my buildings. T simil vs numbs of vy y

of fsmn nd lbos of vy dsiion in Hindusn.

5

T numbs wn u und is sussos. T wokfo nggd by Akb

fo onsuion of Ag Fo omisd ,000 son-us, ,000

mo nd lim-mks, nd 8,000 lbous (mazdur) sulying son nd

lim. I ws od 5,000 mn wokd dily o build Jmi Ms-

jid of Dli nd 0,000 o onsu Tj Ml duing Sjns ign

(8-58).0

T svi so minind by lis of Emi ws qully

lg. By on sim, w ,000 offis nd mn in oyl

sblismn, inluding os, gunns, wmn, lkys, os-ks,ln-ks, smll so, fsss [farrash] o n mn, ooks, lig b-

s, gdns, ks of ll kinds of bs. All s b yd monly ou

of kings sui; wos wgs b fom n o uis. Aoding

58 Bni, Tarikh i Firozshahi, . .

5 Bbu, Baburnama, . 5-5.

0 Qis, Building Construction in Mughal India, . . Fo wgs id o os mloyd

in building indusy, s Tbl ..

Hwkins, Early Travels in India, . .


23/30

12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire o Pls, vy wif in nobls m d 0 o 00 mids in ndn,

wo w id on monly bsis. T figu fo imil m ws

,00 mids fo 00 ldis.T s lso onibud o ion of vibl nvionmn fo

offing mloymn. Aloug oliil infn ws sn (su s

xion of fod lbou), i did no milly ff f-d -

of Mugl s. T w no lgl siions on umulion

( lw of s o onfision of oy of dsd lid only

o indbd nobls), businss mods (inluding usuy), nd movmn

of isns nd ofssionls. Indd, s md o bk mono-

olis of skill-bsd ofssions nsud by s sysm o boos suly

of lbou in individul sos (s blow). T Mugl Emo Aung-

zbs (5-0) dlion monooly ld by gold-wi dws

of Siml s ws illgl is s in oin. W v simony of

Du fo, Glynssn, Mugls followd i dssos

in llowing nd nouging isns nd woks o sl in nwly foundd

iis. T ioil unifiion nd oliil sbiliy offd by Mugl

ul lso d o v filid so nd long-disn migion

of wg ns o s of mloymn.

The Caste System and wage Labour

I mins fo us o ssss lvn of on of mos ousnding soil

insiuions of Indi s sysm fo wg mk. Susind by

kinsi, ndogmy, ommnsliy nd iuls of uiy, s sysm -

d iis wi w diffiul o b. Cs sms o v d

dul im on dminion of wgs. In giulul so, i

ld o lndlss lbous, mosly mnil nd dy o b id, by

xluding m fom lndownsi.5 Wiou sn of is ool of

sous, i would v bn imossibl fo u s sny (i

sns, villg dmn, zamindars, .) o uliv i lg ss minimum os. I is imon o mmb lnd-mn io ws

fvoubl nd ulivbl ws ould b ouid no os sin s

Pls, Remonstrantie, . .

Kn, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, . -.

Molnd, Du Aoun of Mogul Adminisiv Mods, . 5.

5 Hbib, Soil Dis ibuion of Lndd Poy in P-Biis Indi, . 0-0; T

Psn in Indin Hisoy, . 0-5, 0-, -; Cs in Indin Hisoy, .

-5.


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najaf haider

omod is louging fo vnu. T s sysm no only nsud

bundn of lbou bu k giulul wgs o lvl of subsisn.

Fo lndolding villg isoy silizing in oduion of sos, is ws n imon sou of wl umulion.

Sin mmbs of s ould only is i nsl ofssion nd

ould no swi o no sily, ul mnufuing lso ivd ln-

iful suly of isns su s oon ds (naddaf) nd oil sss (teli),

wo mig no v bn bl o find mloymn in i own villgs.

Gdully, sysm gv bi o lss of iinn isns nd lbous

wo wkd i skills fom villg o villg. A onmoy Euon

obsv (-) lf gi dsiion of on su soil gou s-

viing oon xil indusy, gubly mos imon in ou iod

of sudy:

W wn nx o Gibg, fiv lgus fom Md, w m g mny olis

[koli], wi ol of s o ib of gnils wo v no fixd bi-

ion, bu wnd fom villg o villg, nd y ll y v bou wi

m. Ti if businss is o ik nd ln oon, nd wn y v no

mo o do in on villg y go o no.

T dsiion igligs no insing nomnon: mloy-

mn of fmily, womn nd ild lbou. Su lbou ws iully visiblin building nd mining indusis w wg lbou ws nssd n

mss.8 H gin, mloy no only d mu wid ool of sous

(womn woking wi mmbs of i fmily o s fl su o vnu

ou) bu lso low oss. Wgs id o womn w lss n os id o

i ml ouns fo sm y nd moun of wok.

On wy in wi isns nd woks ould v ngoid fo big-

g ol in wg dminion ws oug guild. Bu mgn

of guild sysm in Indi ws wd by s fomion. T s sysm,

loug ing s subsiu, lkd ognizion nd us ns-

sy o boos bgining ow of gou nd sfgud ins of wg ns. Pofssionl ss did v i dmn (chaudharis) bu

y w onnd mo wi s ms, su s siing ny of

ousids o i ofssion. Aloug y mdid bwn mloy

nd wg-ns, i s (x in s of oo

Pls, Remonstrantie, . 0; Bni, Travels in the Mogul Empire, . 5.

Tvno, Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri, . 0.

8 Hbib, Exlo ing Mdivl Gnd Hisoy, . -.


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12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire bodis of mns nd mony-ngs lld mahajan) y did no ly

ny ffiv ol in guling wgs in wy guild mss did in

mdivl Euo.T s sysm lso nougd vs nd in wg so. In

in ofssions, skills nd d ss w jlously gudd nd ns-

mid fom on gnion o no wiin s, oss wi

suld in svion nd innsifiion of skills.0 An xquisily l-

ligd nd illusd mnusi ws ild Mugl ou ov

ind book, snd by Jsuis, on oun of is buy, lgn

nd low oss of oduion. Wnv dmnd fo su xlusiv fs-

mnsi xdd is limid suly, wi ws usully s, wgs w

s vy ig lvl. Tis xlins xodinily ig wgs id o

blnk-u nd ssy in min (Tbl .), sin bo m fom

igly skill-innsiv sub-ss of goldsmis nd silvsmis. Tis lso

xlins siions ld on i migion ou of Mugl Emi

bu no bwn wo imil mins. Wn mony isis oud

Dli in 8, min wokmn w disd fom Guj. T Englis, on

o nd, m wi siff sisn fom lol offiils in i ffos o

i blnk-us nd ssys fo i nwly sblisd min Bomby.

The Price Revolution and wage Movements

Jus s wgs n xssion of vlu of lbou nd skill, is n

xssion of mony vlu of goods. T mk vlu (using ow)

of wgs ivd in mony ould is nd fll wi fluuions in lvl of

is. Ev sin El J. Hmilon o-ld mony-wgs wi is in is

mn of ofi inflion nd il umulion duing Indusil

Rvoluion, sudy of wg movmns s ssumd ddd signifin.

Fo fis im, ls in modn isoiogy, ow of mony o

bing bou mjo ngs in onomi nd soil suu ws susivly

sousd. Howv, W. H. Molnd, in is lssi sudy of Mugl o-nomi ognizion, found no noibl ng in wg lvls nd ook is

Gu, Industrial Structure of Indiaduring Medieval Period, . -5. Fo suggsions

guild-y ognisions of isns nd lbous d onol ov lbou sulis in

olonil ims, s Byly, Rulers, Tonsmen and Bazaars, . -.

0 Kn, Mirat i Ahmadi, I, . -.

Akhbarat i Darbar i Mualla, gnl y of Aungzb [8]; Factory Records, Surat,vol.

, folios 8v, .


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najaf haider

o b sign of sgnion. Ifn Hbib onsidd ossibiliy of mony

wgs lgging bind is, bu fo im mgniud of ofi inflion ws

oo mods o old wid-nging imliions fo onomy.T wo oins wi nd o b isd bfo w viws

of wo mos disinguisd isoins of Mugl onomy. Fis,

Molnds gumn on bsn of wg movmns ws bsd on

misinion of uny dnominions in wi wgs w quod

in sous. Molnd bgn is invsigion of mony, is nd wgs

wi ssumion o id in is vlu gins silv

un of svnn nuy du o is ising dmnd in indusil

so nd dlining sulis fom innl sous. Hbib ivd sm

onlusion bu fom diffn mis. Guidd inilly by quniy

oy of mony, wi ss vlu of mony dnds on is qun-

iy, Hbib gud n influx of silv ino Mugl Emi in

sixn nuy dssd u using ow of o. Hbib

ws wiing im wn, following Hmilons simuling sudy of Sn-

is imos nd i ffs, Euon Pi Rvoluion ws insingly

undsood o b funion of ising quniy of silv.

Tis viw of vlu of silv, ommon o bo Molnd nd Hbib,

sd i nlyss of movmn of mony wgs in wo ss. T

fis ls o xng s of silv nd o oins, i.. io

bwn u nd dam. T sond ls o i inion ofuny dnominions in wi wgs w fixd.

In svnn nuy, mos xng figus fo o u-

ny, ovidd by Euon mns, quod no in dams bu inpaisas

(i), lis quoion fing o un u o b wo

in g 0 is 00, 8 nd fo mony mny ims is nd fll. 5

T doumn suggss mkbl is in vlu of silv gins o-

, nomnon wi dfis logi of quniy oy of mony.

Molnd, wo wokd on s figus wi onviion vlu

of silv fll gins o in svnn nuy, found m inonsis-

Molnd, From Akbar to Aurangzeb,. , 8, -5.

Hbib, Mony Sysm nd Pis, . 8-.

T modn vsion of quniy oy, oul wi moniss, siuls ,

ceteris paribus, n ins in quniy of mony uss ooionl ins in

lvl of ommodiy is. Fo ls smn of modn vsion, s Lus,

Nobl Lu: Mony Nuliy, . -8. T -isoy of quniy

oy is d in Hglnd, The Quantity Theory of Money, . -5. Also s Vil,A

History of Gold and Money, . -5.

5 Factory Records, Miscellaneous, vol. 5, folio ; Supplementary Calendar, . 8.


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12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire n wi offiil s sulid by Abul Fzl (Tbl .5) nd fod uon

d nw dfiniions of o dnominions. H ssumd paisa

(no m usd fo dam) dnod lfdam (adhela of -diionl Indin o sl) nd tanka dam. Fo sy omnsion,

oblm n b -xssd s follows:

Seventeenth-century scale of copper currencies:

tanka = dams opaisas = adhelas

dam opaisa = adhelas

Morelands reading:

tanka = dam = paisas

Subsqun isoins, sing Molnds onviion s wll s is in-

ion of Mugl o unis, d d in mnn in wi

ll fns o tanka ndpaisa in Psin nd Euon sous sood

sivly fo dam nd adhela.T is no signifin vidn, x-

ul o numismi, o mk i nssy o suos nw sl of o-

uny m ino us by nsfing dsignion of on oin o

no. W v ldy sn tanka ws doubl dam, nd o

oin wiging gins (doubl wig of dam) ws indd mind

fo bif iod un of svnn nuy.

8

T doubling of bsolu vlu of dm no only infld o i of silv by

00 n bu dssd ll wgs sd in o uny.

Tus, wil dily wgs of n unskilld lbou doubld bwn .

55 nd (fom dams o paisas), Molnd sw no ng bus

onsidd l figu o b quivln o dams (s ding of

o sl by Molnd). Su misinion of numismi vidn

md vlidiy of ll is lulions of wgs nd is wi usd

fo mo-onomi nlyss.

Molnd,Akbar to Aurangzeb, . 8, 0-; Som Sidligs on Lif in Ag, -,

. 5-5; Pls, Remonstrantie, . (Molnds no). Hodivl, doyn of Indin

numismiss, wiing bou sm im s Molnd, onud wi is in-

ion. S Hodivl, Historical Studies in Mughal Numismatics, . 0, f.n. .

Hbib, T Cuny Sysm of Mugl Emi, . , 8 f.n. , f.n. 8; Mon-

y Sysm nd Pis, . 0 (Tbl 0); Sysm of Timllism, . (Tbl ),

5.

8 Simns of mind tankas dsibd in logus of musum ollions.

A dild iiqu is snd in Hid, Quniy Toy nd Mugl Mony His-

oy, . 8-.


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najaf haider

T d usd by Molnd, nd ddiionl vidn, suggs mony

wgs did ins in Mugl Emi in svnn nuy. Monly

wgs id o n odiny lbou os fom .5 us in 55 o usin nd .5 us in . T wgs of skilld goom lso gisd

n uwd nd bwn wo minl ds (Tbls ., . nd .).

Fu, w v figus of wgs id o min wokmn fo omison nd

ooboion.

T wgs of min wokmn w usully sd in ooion o

moun mind sin y w no ivly mloyd ound y nd

w lld uon o wok only wn min funiond gully. A ll

o ims, i ws usomy fo m o iv subsisn llown,

nly dsignd o k skilld woks und onul obligion, sin

su woks w no sily vilbl vyw nd ll ims.80 T is

vidn of lol dminisos onolling movmn of min woks

nd ofn mloying oion o k m id o iul min.8

Table 12.8. wages of Blank-Cutters for 1,000 Silver Coins

Year Wages (rupees) Mint

1595 1.34 Agra or Lahore

[1676] 4.00 Surat

1694 4.50 Cambay

1694 5.00 Surat

Sources: References cited for footnotes 82-84.

Fom vidn vilbl o us fo l sixn nuy, zarrabs

(blnk-us) w id fo iod wn y w wok. Ts w

givn s 5. dams (. us offiil of xng) fo mining

ousnd silv oins.8 By , wn Englis ndd wokmn fo i

Bomby min wo ould only b uid fom Guj, zarrabs Cm-

by skd fo us mon s di mony nd .5 us ou-

snd silv oins y fd.8T zarrabs Su dmndd ig 80 Factory Records, Surat, , folios v, 58v.

8 Ibid., folios 8v, .

8 Ain i Akbari, I, . , -.

8 Factory Records, Surat, , folio 58v. In n invnoy of oss inud by Du

mns fo oining silv Su (. ), wgs id o zarrabs (sb, di

d oyn kn n on gf) w lisd s us ousnd oins. Vn

Dm, Beschryvinge van de Oostindische Compagnie, III, ii, . 0 (Andix VIII). T d

is infd fom bsn of signiog, bolisd in , in ol os.


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12 structure and movement of wages in the mughal empire of 8 us fo subsisn nd us ousnd of oining oug y

w od o v bn id 5 us fo l Su min.8

T wgs smd o v mo n doubld in invning iod.So f, w v bn lking bou movmn of mony wgs. How-

v, i is l wgs, mony wgs djusd fo i ngs, wi old

g signifin fo n undsnding of inom disibuion, umul-

ion nd onomi nd soil ng. In bsn of n unbokn i

sis fo bsk of ommodiis fo ny gion of Mugl Emi, on

sigfowd mod dod by modn isoins d involvd msu-

ing vlu of silv gins sbl sndd. Sin blif ws widly

ld silv did in vlu (a la quniy oy), o (s wll

s gold) ws onsidd o b sbl sndd gins wi silv is

n b judgd. Consqunly, ngs in bi-mlli ios bm ffiv

indios of gnl movmn of ommodiy is. Howv, w v

sn ow oblmi ny i isoy n b wi is misd on

noions of quniy nd vlu, iully wn dmnd sid of quion

is ignod nd omnsion of uny dnominions is subodind o

mony oy. Fuu ss in is fild would qui omil-

ion of fs d o iv b undsnding of fos woking

bind movmns of is nd wgs nd i imliions fo diffn

sions of oulion.

8 T juobs dmnds [si.] 8 Rs. mon wn is no businss nd .

mill on l y oin: in nksl y v 5 . mill. Factory Records, Surat, , folio

v.


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Documents

Structure and Movement of Wages in the Mughal Empire