Stratigraphic and geochronologic contexts ofmammoth ......Stratigraphic and geochronologic contexts ofmammoth (Mammuthus) and other Pleistocene fauna, Upper Missouri Basin (northern

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Quaternary International 142–143 (2006) 87–106

Stratigraphic and geochronologic contexts of mammoth(Mammuthus) and other Pleistocene fauna, Upper Missouri Basin

(northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountains), U.S.A.

Christopher L. Hill

Department of Anthropology, Boise State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, Idaho 83725-1950, USA

Available online 10 May 2005

Abstract

Mammoth fossils and other Pleistocene vertebrates from the Upper Missouri Basin, in the northern Plains and Rocky Mountains

of the western interior of North America, have been dated to the late Pleistocene and are associated with Wisconsinan deposits.

Mammoth remains have also been found in older stratigraphic contexts. For example, Mammuthus columbi and other fossils from

the Doeden Locality are in pre-Wisconsinan terrace gravels along the Yellowstone River; the deposits are likely Illinoian or

Sangamonian. Faunas that appear to be associated with the Wisconsinan interstadial, before the Last Glacial Maximum, are found

in intermountain valleys and mountain settings (the Merrell Locality, Blacktail Cave, Natural Trap Cave) and on the Plains in both

glaciated and unglaciated regions (Box Creek, Wibaux gravel pit). Localities containing faunas dated to the time interval from about

the Last Glacial Maximum to the end of the Younger Dryas chronozone (late Wisconsinan) include the youngest fossil-bearing

strata at Merrell, Blacktail Cave, Natural Trap Cave; deposits at Sheep Rock Spring, Indian Creek, MacHaffie, False Cougar Cave,

Shield Trap Cave; and mammoths found at Sun River, Glendive, Colby, and the Deer Creek drainage.

r 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Fossil remains of mammoth (Mammuthus) have beenrecovered from a variety of stratigraphic and chron-ologic contexts in the Upper Missouri River Basin.Situated in the western interior of North America(Fig. 1), the Upper Missouri region consists of thewatersheds of the Missouri and Yellowstone Riversupstream from their confluence (Fig. 2). Mammothfossils have been found in both unglaciated andglaciated areas of the Northern Great Plains as well asin valley deposits within the Rocky Mountains. Deposi-tional environments associated with the stratigraphiccontexts include paludal-lacustrine and swamp-bogsettings, caves and rockshelters, alluvial deposits andfluvial terraces, uplands associated with eolian deposi-tion and paleosols, and debris flows. Where strati-graphic and chronologic indicators are available, they

e front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights

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seem to show that the mammoth remains date to themiddle and late Pleistocene.

2. Mammoth localities

An inventory of mammoth remains recovered fromthe Upper Missouri River Basin is presented in Table 1.The fossil localities containing mammoth remains andother Pleistocene fauna can be organized by geographicarea, principally by regional drainage basins. Theseregions include the headwaters of the Missouri River,the glacial Lake Great Falls Basin, the Missouri Riversystem east of Great Falls, and the drainage of theYellowstone River (Fig. 2).

2.1. Missouri headwaters: Three Rivers Basin

The stream systems of the Gallatin, Madison, andJefferson Rivers form the Three Rivers Basin in the

reserved.

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Fig. 1. Location of the Upper Missouri River basin, in the interior of western North America. Note also location of continental glaciers after the

Last Glacial Maximum.

C.L. Hill / Quaternary International 142– 143 (2006) 87–10688

vicinity of Dillon, Montana (Fig. 2). Fluvial deposits inthe Gallatin Valley (between Dillon and Livingstone,Fig. 2) contain remains of Mammuthus (Fig. 3). Fossilsof M. columbi have also been collected from AlderGulch (Hay, 1924; Hayden, 1872) (Fig. 2). Other latePleistocene fauna, including Miracinonyx ð¼ AcinonyxÞ,Camelops, Bison, and Ovis have been collected from theSheep Rock Spring locality (Fig. 2) (Wilson and Davis,1994, 2002). Fragments of Mammuthus have beenreported from the Horse Prairie area (Bonnichsen etal., 1987, 1990, 1992; Turner et al., 1987, 1988). ARancholabrean faunal assemblage containing mammothfossils has been recovered from the Merrell Locality(Fig. 2), in Centennial Valley, from swamp (Fig. 4),paludal-lacustrine, fluvial, and debris flow (Figs. 5, 6)environments (Dundas, 1990, 1992; Albanese et al.,1995; Hill et al., 1995; Hill and Albanese, 1996; Dundaset al., 1996; Hill, 1999a, b). The mammalian faunaincludes Mammuthus, Equus, Camelops, Odocoileus,

Antilocapra, Bison, Ursus, Homotherium serum, Canis

latrans, C. lupus, Spermophilis, Castor canadensis, andOndatra zibethicus (cf. Dundas et al., 1996).

2.2. Glacial Lake Great Falls Basin

Glacial Lake Great Falls was formed when theLaurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) blocked the drainage of theMissouri River (Calhoun, 1906; Alden, 1932; Montagne,1972; Hill, 2000; Feathers and Hill, 2003) (Fig. 7).Luminescence measurements of laminated lacustrinesilts and overlying sands adjacent to Holter Lake (Hilland Valppu, 1997) indicate the youngest stage of glacialLake Great Falls has an age of around 15,000–13,000 OSL BP (UW355 and UW356, Feathers and Hill,2003). This would imply that a lobe of the LIS extendedto and blocked the Missouri River during the later partof the Wisconsin Episode (Karrow et al., 2000; Hill andFeathers, 2002; Feathers and Hill, 2003).

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Fig. 2. Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, showing locations of some localities mentioned in text.

C.L. Hill / Quaternary International 142– 143 (2006) 87–106 89

Localities containing Pleistocene mammalian remainsare present in the glacial Lake Great Falls Basin (Figs. 2,7). The stratigraphy along Indian Creek (Fig. 2)contains both the late Pleistocene Glacier Peak andmiddle Holocene Mount Mazama tephras along withfaunal remains and a series of artifact assemblages(Albanese and Frison, 1995). Fauna overlying theGlacier Peak tephra (ca. 11,125 14C BP) associated witha date of about 10,980 14C BP (Table 2) include Bison,Ovis, Marmota, and Sylvilagus (Davis and Baumler,2000). A separate terminal Pleistocene assemblagecontains Bison, Marmota flaviventris, Sylvilagus, Cy-

nomys ludovicianus, and Microtus (Davis and Baumler,2000). In this same general region, remains of Mam-

muthus and Mammut americana have been recoveredfrom the Diamond City-Confederate Gulch area, andMammuthus has been found near Helena (Figs. 2, 7) andclose by at Spokane Creek and Spokane Bar (Douglass,1908; Freudenberg, 1922; Hay, 1924, 1927; Madden,1981). A mammoth tooth from Spokane Bar is regardedas possibly the northernmost record for Mammuthus

imperator (cf. Hay, 1927; Madden, 1981: p. 206).However, M. imperator has been reported north of theMissouri Basin in Alberta at Bindloss, Empress, andMedicine Hat (Harington and Shackleton, 1978). TheBindloss specimen is now attributed to M. columbi (Hillsand Harington, 2003). Also near Helena, Bison has beenrecovered from Upper Holter Lake (Melton and Davis,1999). The nearby MacHaffie site (Fig. 7) contains aFolsom artifact component associated with a bone

collagen age on Bison of 10,390 14C BP (Beta-159167,Davis et al. 2002; Table 2).

Blacktail Cave, situated near the South Fork of theDearborn River (Figs. 2, 7), contains a stratigraphicsequence with radiocarbon ages ranging from about37,000–10,000 14C BP (Hill, 1996, 2000, 2001; Table 2).A phalanx from a bear (Ursidae) recovered from talusbeneath a travertine, near the top of the stratigraphicsequence, was dated to 10,930780 14C BP (GX-21559).Sediments containing higher amounts of fine clastics,overlain by travertine, contained an artiodactyl dated to10,2707115 14C BP (GX-21556) and a bovid dated to11,240780 14C BP (GX-21557). An Equus phalanxrecovered slightly above a deposit of sands andgravels dates to 27,2007370 14C BP (GX-21558). Thelowest sediments in the sequence consist of muds andclays interpreted as having been deposited in a cavepool, indicating higher groundwater levels around37,4007790 14C BP (Beta-106101), based on collagenfrom Marmota flaviventris. Faunal remains from thesedeposits have been reported in Davis et al. (1996) andhave also been reappraised independently by Dundasand Hill (Hill, 2001). Large-to-medium-sized mammalsinclude Bootherium/Symbos (Symbos cavifrons inMelton, 1979; Bootherium bombifrons in Davis et al.,1996), Bison occidentalis (Melton and Davis, 1999),Equus cf. conversidens, Odocoileus, Antilocapra, Ursidae,Canis lupus, C. latrans, Vulpes, Gulo gulo and Taxidea

taxus. The presence of Mammuthus and Arctodus atBlacktail Cave reported by Davis et al. (1996) cannot be

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Table 1

List of major mammoth and other Pleistocene vertebrate localities in the Upper Missouri River Basin

1. Missouri Headwaters (Three Rivers Basin, Southwest Montana)

Merrell Locality, Centennial Valley (Dundas, 1992; Dundas et al., 1996; Melton and Davis, 1999)

Horse Prairie (Bonnichsen et al., 1987, 1990, 1992; Turner et al., 1987, 1988)

Alder Gulch-Virginia City Mammoth (Hayden, 1872; Hay, 1924)

Gallatin Valley (JTL, Belgrade) Mammoth (this paper)

Sheep Rock Spring (Wilson and Davis, 1994, 2002; Melton and Davis, 1999)

2. Glacial Lake Great Falls Basin (Northwest Montana, East of Continental Divide)

Indian Creek (Melton and Davis, 1999)

Townsend Valley-Helena Area (Douglass, 1908)

Diamond City (Hay, 1924)

Washburn (Helena) Mammoth (G. Langeford in Hay, 1924)

Steitz (Helena) Proboscidean (Hay, 1924)

Spokane Bar (Sponambar, Helena) Mammoth (Freudenberg, 1922; Hay, 1924, 1927; Madden, 1981)

Spokane Creek Proboscidean (Hay, 1927)

Upper Holter Lake (Melton and Davis, 1999)

MacHaffie (Melton and Davis, 1999)

Blacktail Cave (Melton, 1979; Graham et al., 1987; Davis et al., 1996; Hill, 1996, 2000, 2001; Melton and Davis, 1999)

Coulee near Sun River (1954, Neal-Lemke-Maughn studies) Mammoth (Maughn, 1955, U.S.G.S. archives; E. Lewis, 1955, U.S.G.S. archives)

Coulee near Sun River (1965, Neal-Mudge-Mudge studies) Mammoth (Marsters et al., 1969; U.S.G.S. archives)

Vaughn-Congres Pit Mammoth (R.W. Lemke, U.S.G.S. archives)

Lewis and Clark County-Yale (vertebrate paleontology catalog, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University)

Valier Mammoth (R.A. Wood in Hay, 1924)

Missouri River (Hay, 1914; Dudley, 1988)

3. Central and Eastern Montana, Missouri Basin

Havre Mammoth (Hay, 1924)

Havre Gravel Pit (Beck-Ankerland Garage) (Fullerton and Colton, 1986; U.S.G.S. archives)

Simonsen Ranch (Saco-Hinsdale) Mammoth (Davis, 1975, 1986)

Tiger Butte Mammoth (fossil locality 5, Jensen and Varnes, 1964)

Wiota Gravels-Frazer Mammoth/Equus (Jensen and Varnes, 1964)

West Nashua Equus (Jensen and Varnes, 1964)

Glasgow Equus (Jensen and Varnes, 1964)

Fort Peck Gravels Bison (Rasmussen, 1974)

Red Water Creek (Axtell) Mammoth (Hay, 1924)

Outlook Musk Ox (Neas, 1990)

Box Creek Locality (this paper)

Lisk Creek Bison (Melton and Davis, 1999)

4. Yellowstone Drainage

Anzick-Wilsall (Taylor, 1969; Laren and Bonnichsen, 1974; Jones and Bonnichsen, 1994; Stafford, 1999; Owsley and Hunt, 2001)

False Cougar Cave (Bonnichsen, 1985; Bonnichsen et al., 1986; Graham et al., 1987)

Shield Trap (Bonnichsen et al., 1986; Graham et al., 1987)

Pryor Creek Mastodon (Hay, 1924)

Rosebud Mammoth (Winchell, 1882; Hay, 1924)

Tongue River-Ashland Mammoth (Hay, 1924)

Tongue River-Bass Mammoth (Bass, 1932)

Tongue River Bison (Melton and Davis, 1999)

Powder River-Kimball/Hockets (Hay, 1924)

Mill Iron Local Fauna (Walker and Frison, 1996)

Wibaux Gravel Pit Proboscidean (Hill, 2003)

South Fork Deer Creek Mammoth, near Lindsay (Davis and Wilson, 1985; Davis, 1986; Hill and Davis 1998; Huber and Hill, 2003)

Richey Area Mammoth (Madden, 1981)

Doeden Gravel Pit (Hill, 1998; Melton and Davis, 1999; Wilson and Hill, 2000, 2002)

Payes Musk Ox (McDonald and Ray, 1989)

Glendive-Crisafulli Gravel Pit (Hill, 2003)

Glendive-Canal Mammoth (Hay, 1924)

Natural Trap Cave (Chomko and Gilbert, 1987)

Colby Mammoth (Frison and Todd, 1986, 2001)


confirmed. Smaller mammal taxa include Cynomys,Marmota flaviventris, M. caligata, Thomomys, Castor

canadensis, Spermophilus, Microtus, Neotoma, N. cf.cinera, Phenacomys albipes and Lepus.

Research connected with studies by the United StatesGeological Survey (U.S.G.S.) during the 1950s and1960s in the Sun River area along the eastern front ofthe Rocky Mountains in Montana (Table 1, Figs. 2, 6),

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Fig. 4. Merrell Locality mammoth (Mammuthus columbi). Mammoth

tooth found along the interface of stratum A and stratum B (swamp

deposits).

Fig. 3. Gallatin Valley mammoth.


led to the documentation of three localities containingthe remains of Mammuthus (Figs. 7–9). Two localitiesare situated in a coulee west of Augusta, while the otherlocality is a gravel pit west of Vaughn (Marsters et al.,1969) (Fig. 7). One of the mammoths (attributed toMammuthus columbi) found west of Augusta wasembedded in organic-rich deposits dated to about11,500 14C BP (W-1753; Table 2). Other proboscideanremains mostly attributable to Mammuthus from this

region are in the collections of the museum in Shelby,Montana, and the Peabody Museum of Natural Historyat Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Hay(1914, 1924) also records remains of Mammuthus fromnear Valier (Fig. 7), and along the Missouri River(designated M. columbi jeffersonii in Dudley, 1988). Inthe Marias River Valley near Elwell (Figs. 2, 6) afragment of bone, recovered near a tephra and aboveLaurentide till, with an age of 11,170 14C BP (Beta-159200, Table 2) constrains the Late Pleistocenedeglaciation chronology for this region.

2.3. Northern Montana, East of the Great Falls Basin

East of Great Falls in northern Montana (Fig. 2), thedrainage of the Missouri River contains Pleistocenedeposits with fossils of mammoth and other Pleistocenefauna. Within the Milk River drainage, there are severalgravel pits in the vicinity of Frazer (Fig. 2) withPleistocene fauna (Pecora et al., 1957; Fullerton andColton, 1986). These finds are often associated withPleistocene terrace gravels (Pecora et al., 1957). Mam-

muthus, Equus, and Camelops have been recovered inalluvial deposits underlying a middle Pleistocene till atHavre (Fullerton and Colton, 1986) (Fig. 2). Remains ofMammuthus were recovered from possible glacial out-wash gravels in the region between Havre and Frazer(Davis, 1975, 1986).

Fossil of Mammuthus and Equus found in the Wiotagravels near Frazer (Fig. 2) at Tiger Butte are attributedto ‘‘Mammuthus boreus Hay (Mammuthus primigenius

Blumenbach– Parelephas jeffersoni Osborne)’’ (Jensenand Varnes, 1964). Remains of Mammuthus and Equus

from south of Frazer were found in gravel overlain by atill (Jensen and Varnes, 1964). A faunal assemblage

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Fig. 6. Close-up of debris flow deposit containing mammoth teeth and

bones, Merrell Locality.

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic context of mammoth tooth in debris flow (stratum D) at the Merrell Locality.


containing Mammuthus has also been recovered fromnear Box Creek (Figs. 2, 10). The metric attributes of themammoth tooth indicate an affiliation with M. columbi

(based on M6(M3) with plates ½number of lamellae� ¼18 þ ½number of plates abraded bywear ¼ 14þ� and la-mellar frequency ¼ 7 � 9, Fig. 10), while tusk fragmentsprovide an age of 33,2807320 14C BP (Beta-155639) and32,6607620 14C BP (SR-6023; Table 2). A possibleBison latifrons has been radiocarbon dated to19,930770 14C BP (Melton and Davis, 1999; Table 2)from this region, and there are other reports ofMammuthus (Hay, 1924) and Ovibos moschatus (Neas,1990).

2.4. Yellowstone River Basin

The Yellowstone River Basin extends over the south-ern part of the Upper Missouri River drainage includingnorthern Wyoming and southern and eastern Montana(Figs. 1, 2). Pleistocene faunal localities are known from:(1) north of Livingston; (2) the Pryor Mountain regionsouth of Billings; (3) valleys of northward flowingtributaries such as the Big Horn, Tongue, and PowderRivers and Beaver Creek; (4) drainages of southeast-ward flowing streams such as South Fork Deer Creek,close to Lindsay; and, (5) terrace deposits along theYellowstone River valley itself, such as around MilesCity and Glendive (Fig. 2). Several occurrences ofMammuthus have been reported from the Livingstonarea (Fig. 2), including the possible foreshafts manu-factured from mammoth bone associated with Clovisartifacts at the Anzick site (Taylor, 1969; Lahrenand Bonnichsen, 1974; Jones and Bonnichsen, 1994;Stafford, 1999; Owsley and Hunt, 2001).

In the Pryor Mountains, south of Billings (Fig. 2),Pleistocene mammals have been recovered from FalseCougar Cave and Shield Trap Cave (Bonnichsen, 1985;Bonnichsen et al., 1986; Graham et al., 1987). Thelowest stratum at False Cougar Cave is interpreted as acut-and-fill sequence of fluvial deposits (Bonnichsen etal., 1986) and contains late Pleistocene small mammalremains. There are two radiocarbon dates from withinan overlying deposit of 14,5907300 and 10,5307140 14C BP (Table 2). Shield Trap Cave contains alate Pleistocene or early Holocene faunal assemblage,based on a radiocarbon age of about 9230 14C BP(Bonnichsen et al., 1986; Graham et al., 1987). Also inthis region of the Pryor Mountains and the Big HornMountains, Natural Trap Cave (Fig. 2) contains asignificant Pleistocene fauna, including Mammuthus,Camelops, Equus, Bootherium ð¼ SymbosÞ, Arctodus,

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Fig. 7. Glacial Lake Great Falls and localities mentioned in text.


Miracinonyx ð¼ AcinonyxÞ and Panthera (Chomko andGilbert, 1987). There are seven radiocarbon datesranging from 21,370 to 10,930 14C BP (Table 2) indicat-ing the assemblage reflects Last Glacial Maximum andlate-glacial biotic communities.

South of the Pryor Mountains and east of the BigHorn River (Fig. 2), mammoth (Mammuthus columbi)remains have been found in association with Clovisartifacts at the Colby site (Frison and Todd, 1986,2001). An age of 11,2007220 14C BP (collagen, RL-392)and an age of 10,8647141 14C BP (apatite, SMU-254)

are associated with this locality, which also contains alate Pleistocene mammalian faunal assemblage withLepus, Equus conversidens, Antilocapra americana,Camelops, and Bison (Walker and Frison, 1996).

The valleys of streams south of the Yellowstone Rivercontain evidence for the presence of Mammuthus andBison within the Tongue River valley (Winchell, 1882;Hay, 1924; Bass, 1932; Melton and Davis, 1999), thePowder River valley (Hay, 1924), the Beaver Creekvalley near Wibaux (Hill, 2003), and within the LittleMissouri River drainage (Fig. 2) (Frison, 1996). A molar

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Table 2

Selected Late Pleistocene radiocarbon ages associated with mammoth fossils and other fauna from the Upper Missouri Basin

Locality Age Laboratory number Material Reference

Pre-Late Wisconsinan

Merrell Locality 49,35071,500 Beta-116519 Collagen alkali Hill (1999b)

Merrell Locality 441,940 Beta-83614 Humates Dundas et al. (1996)

Merrell Locality 36,5207710 Beta-74032 Organic sediment Hill (1999b)

Merrell Locality 433,990 Beta-36206 Bone collagen Dundas (1992)

Merrell Locality 32,4707270 Beta-111325 Bone collagen Hill (1999b)

Merrell Locality 25,0307510 Beta-36205 Bone collagen Dundas (1992)

Blacktail Cave 37,4007790 Beta-106101 Collagen Hill (2001)

Blacktail Cave 27,2007370 GX-21558 Collagen Hill (2001)

Beaver Creek 26,0007120 SR-6086 XAD-gelatin, KOH-collagen Hill (2003)

Box Creek 33,6607620 SR-6023 XAD-gelatin, KOH-collagen This paper

Box Creek 33,2807320 Beta-155639 Collagen This paper

Approximately Last Glacial Maximum

Merrell Locality 21,5307100 Beta-118755 Collagen, alkali Hill (1999b)

Merrell Locality 19,290790 Beta-77826 Collagen, alkali Albanese et al. (1995)

Glendive Mammoth 20,470780 Beta-155642 Collagen extraction with alkali Hill (2003)

Lisk Creek 19,930790 Beta-122116 Collagen Melton and Davis (1999)

Natural Trap Cave 21,370+830–920 Dicarb-1686 Collagen Chomko and Gilbert (1987)

Natural Trap Cave 20,2507275 Dicarb-1687 Collagen Chomko and Gilbert (1987)

Natural Trap Cave 17,8707230 Dicarb-1686 Collagen Chomko and Gilbert (1987)


Late Glacial to Younger Dryas

Sheep Rock 10,220740 Beta-164532 Charred material This paper

Sheep Rock 10,100740 Beta-164530 Charred material This paper

Indian Creek 11,1257130 Beta-4951 Plant remains with Glacial Peak tephra Davis and Grieser (1992)

Indian Creek 10,9807110 Beta-4619 Charcoal Davis and Grieser (1992)


Indian Creek 10,410760 Beta-98679 Collagen Davis and Baumler (2000)


MacHaffie 10,390740 Beta-159167 Collagen Davis et al. (2002)

MacHaffie 10,090750 Beta-159058 Organics Davis et al. (2002)




Sun River 11,5007300 W-1753 Organic sediment Marsters et al. (1969)

Marias River 11,170750 Beta-159200 Collagen, alkali This paper

Anzick 11,550760 Stafford Labs Gelatin Owsley and Hunt (2001)

Anzick 10,940790 AA-2981 Glycine Stafford (1994)

Anzick 10,8207100 AA-2979 Glutamic acid Stafford (1994)

Anzick 10,7107100 AA-2980 Hydrocyproline Stafford (1994)

Anzick 10,5007400 AA-313B Gelatin Stafford (1994)

Anzick 10,3707130 AA-2982 Alanine Stafford (1994)

Anzick 10,2407120 AA-2978 Aspartic acid Stafford (1994)

False Cougar Cave 14,5907300 Beta-5752 Charcoal Bonnichsen et al. (1986)

False Cougar Cave 10,5307140 SI-5289 Charcoal Bonnichsen et al. (1986)


Natural Trap Cave 12,7777900 Collagen Rushkin in Chomko and Gilbert (1987)

Natural Trap Cave 10,9307300 Collagen Rushkin in Chomko and Gilbert (1987)

Colby Mammoth 11,2007220 RL-392 Collagen Frison and Todd (1986)

Colby Mammoth 10,8647141 SMU-254 Apatite Frison and Todd (1986)

Colby Mammoth 8,7197392 SMU-278 Collagen Frison and Todd (1986)

Mill Iron 11,5707170 NZA-625 Charcoal Frison (1996)


Mill Iron 11,3607130 Beta-20111 Charcoal Frison (1996)






Mill Iron 10,770785 AA-3669 Charcoal Frison (1996)

Deer Creek Mammoth 12,330750 SR-5576 XAD-gelatin, KOH-collagen Hill (2003)


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Table 2 (continued )

Locality Age Laboratory number Material Reference

Deer Creek Mammoth 12,0057350 S-1918 Collagen Davis and Wilson (1985)

Deer Creek Mammoth 11,500780 Beta-10231 Collagen Hill and Davis (1998)

Deer Creek Mammoth 11,0607225 I-9220 Collagen Davis and Wilson (1985)

Deer Creek Mammoth 10,7807290 WSU-652 Collagen Davis and Wilson (1985)

Deer Creek Mammoth 95707135 I-7028 Collagen Davis and Wilson (1985)

Stratigraphic Ages

Sheep Rock 9910770 Beta-77827 Charred material This paper

Sheep Rock 9070760 Beta-164531 Organic sediment This paper

Sheep Rock 5510760 Beta-164532 Organic sediment This paper

Elkhorn Mountains 6550740 Beta-155641 Plant material near tephra This paper

OTL Ridge 11,415735 SR-6089 Humic acids Hill (2003)

OTL Ridge 9330780 Beta-155708 Organic sediment Hill (2003)

OTL Ridge 9540790 Beta-155709 Organic sediment Hill (2003)

Fig. 8. Mammoth mandible from the Sun River area (U.S.G.S. archives).


discovered in the vicinity of the Powder River wasidentified as Mammuthus imperator (Hay, 1924). TheMill Iron Site (Fig. 2) local fauna is associated withdates ranging from about 11,570 to 10,760 14C BP(Frison, 1996; Walker and Frison, 1996; Table 2). Thedeposits at Mill Iron are in an upland setting within theHumbolt Creek drainage (Albanese, 1996). The butte isformed by a sedimentary sequence with more than 2 mof Quaternary deposits overlying bedrock. Bones andartifacts overlie fluvial and colluvial deposits and liebelow colluvial and eolian sediments (Albanese, 1996).Bison bison cf. antiquus represents the only extinct taxon,other than a proboscidean rib fragment assigned to cf.Mammuthus (Walker and Frison, 1996). The ribfragment at Mill Iron appears to have been modifiedinto an artifact. Other taxa in the fauna are: cf. Rana,Pituophus melanoleucus, Spermophilus cf. tridecemlinea-

tus (considered to be intrusive), Thomomys talpoides

(also possibly intrusive), Reithrodontomys cf. megalotis,

Peromyscus cf. maniculatus, Microtus longicaudus andM. ochrogaster (Walker and Frison, 1996). The presenceof Microtus longicaudus (which has not been reportedfrom the extant, present-day fauna) suggests thepossibility of an expanded montane habitat, possiblyan open parkland environment, in the region during thelast glacial-interglacial transition.

Stream valleys north of the Yellowstone River alsocontain Pleistocene fossils. These include isolatedMammuthus remains (Madden, 1981), as well as thenearly complete M. columbi skeleton (Fig. 11) found inthe upland northeast of Lindsay (Fig. 2), in the SouthFork Deer Creek drainage (Davis and Wilson, 1985; Hilland Davis, 1998; Huber and Hill, 2003). There is a set ofradiocarbon dates for the remains of this mammothranging from about 12,330 to 9,490 14C BP (Table 2),including a radiocarbon age on collagen of 11,500780 14C BP (Beta-102031, Hill and Davis, 1998) and anage of 12,330750 14C BP (SR-5576) on XAD-gelatin

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Fig. 10. Occlusial surface of Box Creek mammoth.

Fig. 9. Occlusial surfaces of mammoth molars from Sun River area

(U.S.G.S. archives).

Fig. 11. Lower jaw and molars of mammoth discovered in the uplands

of the South Fork of Deer Creek.

Fig. 12. Loess deposits at OTL ridge with paleosols radiocarbon dated

to the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary.


(Hill, 2003). The mammoth fossils were recovered ineolian silts under several buried paleosols. The siltscontain a pollen spectra reflecting the presence of botharboreal and nonarboreal vegetation (Huber and Hill,

2003). The presence of Pinus, Betula, and Salix andopen-ground herbaceous plants suggest that the mam-moth habitat in this region consisted of an openconiferous/deciduous parkland. The geomorphic andstratigraphic context in the uplands around Lindsay hassome similarities with localities to the southeast, at OTLRidge (Figs. 2 and 12) and to the east, in the Pick City-Riverdale area (Fig. 2). At OTL (Fig. 12) similar uplandeolian silts contain paleosols. The lowermost paleosolsdate to about the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary (Hill,

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Fig. 14. Mammoth-bearing Glendive gravels overlain by silts.


2003) and can be correlated to exposures of the AggieBrown Member of the Oahe Formation around PickCity-Riverdale (Fig. 2) and other regional late-Pleistocene upland eolian–paleosol sequences (Artz,1995; Clayton et al., 1976; Rawling et al., 2003).

Along the Yellowstone River (Fig. 2), Pleistocenefossils are found in gravel pits. Most of the pits arerelated to Pleistocene (fluvial) terraces. A pre-Wisconsi-nan (Sangamonian?/Illinoian?) faunal assemblage hasbeen collected from the terrace gravels north ofMiles City (Wilson and Hill, 2000, 2002; Hill, 1998)(Fig. 2). Besides Mammuthus columbi (Fig. 13) thefaunal assemblage includes Megalonyx jeffersonii,Paramylodon ð¼ GlossotheriumÞ harlani, Mammut

americanus, Equus, Arctodus simus, Camelops, andBootherium ð¼ SymbosÞ. West of Miles City, probosci-dean (cf. Mammuthus) fossils have been collected fromthe Paragon gravel pit, while fossils referred toBootherium ð¼ SymbosÞ have been found in gravels eastof the town (McDonald and Ray, 1989). Several finds ofMammuthus have been reported from the gravel pits atGlendive (Fig. 2). At the Crisafulli pit, the gravelscontaining Mammuthus are overlain by silts (Fig. 14);this sequence forms the 12–15 m terrace along theYellowstone River at Glendive (Hill, 2003). Collagen

Fig. 13. Mammoth skull from Doeden gravels.

from a mammoth tooth from the Glendive gravelsprovided an age of 20,470780 14C BP (Beta-155642)(Hill, 2003). Gravels deposited along Beaver Creek, atributary of the Yellowstone River near Wibaux (Fig. 2)contain proboscidean remains (including fragments oftusks) that have been dated to 26,0007120 14C BP(XAD-gelatin, SR-6086) (Hill, 2003).

3. Geologic context

3.1. Paludal– lacustrine, swamp-bog settings

At the Merrell Locality (Fig. 2), swamp-bog andpaludal–lacustrine deposits (designated as stratum B,Albanese et al., 1995; Hill, 1999b) contain mammothremains. Radiocarbon dates associated with thesesediments range in age from 442,000 to 32,000 14C BP(Hill, 1999b; Table 2) (Figs. 15, 16). Thus the faunafrom these deposits appears to date to the middleWisconsinan (the pre-Last Glacial Maximum intersta-dial, isotope stage 3).

In the vicinity of the Sun River, west of Augusta(Fig. 7), Mammuthus remains are found in dark organic-rich muds and clays. These swamp and paludal depositsdate to about 11,500 14CBP (Table 2) and are overlainby a 6m thick sedimentary sequence chiefly formed ofalluvium and colluvium (Fig. 17, 18). The sedimentscontaining the mammoth fossils were deposited after themelting of the Sun River lobe Pinedale (WisconsinEpisode sensu lato) alpine-valley glacier. Remains of M.

primigenius have been found in similar contexts east ofthe Upper Missouri Basin in late Wisconsinan pondsediments overlain by buried soils (Harington andAshworth, 1986).

ARTICLE IN PRESSC.L. Hill / Quaternary International 142– 143 (2006) 87–10698

3.2. Caves or rockshelters

The major cave localities containing Pleistocenefaunal remains are False Cougar Cave, Shield TrapCave, and Natural Trap Cave in the Pryor Mountain-

Fig. 15. Stratigraphic sequence at the Merrell Locality.

Fig. 16. Chronologic interpretation of the strat

Big Horn Mountain region (Fig. 2), and BlacktailCave in the South Fork Dearborn River drainage(Fig. 7). False Cougar Cave contains late Wisconsinanfaunal assemblages with dates of around 15,000 to10,500 14C BP (Bonnichsen et al., 1986; Graham et al.,1987; Table 2), while the Natural Trap Cave andBlacktail Cave faunal assemblages range in age fromabout 10,000 14C BP to before the Last Glacial Max-imum (Hill, 1996, 2000, 2001; Chomko and Gilbert,1987). Mammoth bone tools were recovered along withother Clovis artifacts from talus deposits possiblyassociated with a small collapsed rockshelter north ofLivingstone (Fig. 2) (Lahren and Bonnichsen, 1974;Owsley and Hunt, 2001). The Clovis assemblage hasbeen dated from about 11,500 to 10,500 14C BP (Staf-ford, 1999; Owsley and Hunt, 2001; Table 2).

3.3. Alluvial deposits and fluvial terraces

In the headwaters region of the Missouri Riveralluvial gravels, sands and silts at the Merrell Locality(Fig. 2) have been designated as stratum C (Albaneseet al., 1995; Hill, 1999b) (Figs. 15, 16). Fragmentaryremains of Mammuthus have been found in thesedeposits, which appear to be associated with theinterstadial before the Last Glacial Maximum. Alluvialdeposits containing Mammuthus fossils are known fromAlder Gulch and the Gallatin Valley east of Dillon(Fig. 2), as well as the Helena area (Fig. 7) (e.g.,Spokane Bar).

igraphic sequence at the Merrell Locality.

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Fig. 17. Sedimentologic context associated with mammoth remains in the glacial Lake Great Falls basin and Sun River area.

Fig. 18. Stratigraphic, geomorphic, and chronologic summary of mammoth-bearing deposits in the lower Yellowstone River Valley.


Alluvial deposits within the Missouri River valley inthe vicinity of Havre (Fig. 2) have yielded Pleistocenefauna (Pecora et al., 1957; Fullerton and Colton, 1986).Alluvium overlain by the Havre till contains Mam-

muthus columbi, Equus exelsus, E. conversidens caloba-

tus, and Camelops minidokae (identifications by C.B.Schultz, L.G. Tanner and C.S. Churcher in Fullertonand Colton, 1986). No published information is avail-

able on what attributes were used to assign theMammuthus remains to species level. The fauna maybe Irvingtonian as the overlying Havre till has beenassigned a pre-Illinoian age of greater than 546,000 BP(Fullerton and Colton, 1986). Along the Missouri Rivernear Frazer remains of Mammuthus primigenius andEquus have been found in fluvial gravels overlain by till(ground moraine deposits) and sands and silts of the

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Fig. 19. Stratigraphic context of mammoth-bearing debris flow deposits (stratum D) at the Merrell Locality (see also Figs. 5 and 20).


Kintyre Formation (Jensen and Varnes, 1964) (Fig. 2).The till and Kintyre Formation were assigned to the‘‘Tazwell’’, or possibly the ‘‘Cary’’ glacial advance(Jensen in Howard, 1960; both are within the Wood-fordian and thus generally correlated with the lateWisconsin Episode, cf. Jensen and Varnes, 1964; Lemkeet al., 1965; Fullerton and Colton, 1986; Karrow et al.,2000). The underlying alluvial deposits were assigned tothe Wiota gravels. The Wiota gravels at Tiger Butte nearFrazer (Fig. 2) also contain Mammuthus (Jensen andVarnes, 1964). The Wiota gravels have been correlatedwith the Cartwright gravel (Howard, 1960) and theSouth Saskatchewan gravel (McConnell, 1886).

Fluvial terrace gravels along the Yellowstone Rivercontain Pleistocene fauna (Figs. 2, 18). The largeststudied collection is from terrace sediments north ofMiles City (Wilson and Hill, 2000, 2002). The faunalassemblage probably is Sangamonian or older, based onthe geomorphic position of the terrace deposits. Samplesfrom a Mammuthus columbi skull (Fig. 13) from thislocality contain intact proteins potentially useful forphylogenetic studies (Hill and Schweitzer, 1999;Schweitzer et al., 2002). Other Pleistocene fauna likelyto be associated with Yellowstone River terrace depositsinclude Bootherium ð¼ SymbosÞ collected from a gravelpit east of Miles City (Payes collection, McDonald andRay, 1989), and proboscidean (cf. Mammuthus) fromthe Paragon gravel pit west of Miles City, as well as theBLM gravel pit at Miles City. Collagen of Mammuthus

recovered from terrace gravels (ca. 12–15 m above thepresent river) beneath silts at Glendive has beenradiocarbon dated to 20,470780 14C BP (Beta-155642),providing a maximum age for the gravels (Figs. 14 and18). Other remains of mammoth from Glendive havebeen assigned to Elephas ð¼ MammuthusÞ columbi (Hay,1914) (Figs. 19 and 20).

Deposits along the tributaries to the YellowstoneRiver in Montana also contain Pleistocene fossils(Winchell, 1882; Hay, 1924; Bass, 1932, Melton andDavis, 1999). In at least some instances these can bereliably attributed to alluvial contexts. For instance, ajaw from an immature mammoth was collected from asand bar on Powder River, presumably redepositedfrom nearby alluvial sediments. The specimen is in theRange Riders Museum, in Miles City (Fig. 2). Anotherspecimen referred to Elephas ð¼ MammuthusÞ columbi

was reported from a sand bar along the Powder River(Hay, 1924). Mammoth teeth found in gravels about6–9 m above the present floodplain of the Tongue River(Fig. 2) (Bass, 1932) were identified as Elephas cf.E. columbi by J.W. Gidley (Bass, 1932). Other fossilsrecovered in a small arroyo, in gravel beds, and in thepresent floodplain of the Tongue River appear to havebeen redeposited from older sediments (Bass, 1932). Hay(1924) also reports remains of Elephas ð¼ MammuthusÞ

columbi from along the Tongue River. Ungulate boneshave been recovered from the ‘‘older alluvium’’ in theTongue River basin (Heinrichs, 1988). Uranium-trendages for paleosols within the alluvium range fromaround 100,000 to 30,000 BP and have been correlatedwith the Pleistocene Arvada and Ucross Formations andthe Holocene Kaycee Formation (Leopold and Miller,1954; Fullerton in Heinrichs, 1988). Tusk fragments(proboscidea) have been collected from fluvial gravelsalong Beaver Creek in the vicinity of Wibaux (Hill,2003).

3.4. Upland settings

A nearly complete skeleton of a Mammuthus columbi

was recovered within upland silts underlying severalburied soils near the divide separating the South Fork

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Fig. 20. Plan view showing spatial distribution of rocks and vertebrate remains from debris flow at the Merrell Locality. The left-hand side of the

diagram shows location of faunal remains and rocks, while the right-hand side shows the bones with the rocks removed.


Deer Creek drainage and Sevenmile Creek (designatedthe Lindsay mammoth in Wilson and Davis, 1994; seealso Hill and Davis, 1998; Huber and Hill, 2003; Hill,2003). Radiocarbon ages of 11,500780 14C BP (Beta-102031) and 12,330750 14C BP (SR-5576) appear todemonstrate that the silts containing the mammoth arepossibly eolian deposits that can be correlated with theAggie Brown Member of the Oahe Formation (Hill,2003). The overlying paleosols reflect intervals ofstabilization which elsewhere have been related tomoist-cool late Pleistocene and early Holocene climates,and increasingly arid middle Holocene (‘‘Altithermal’’)conditions (Rawling et al., 2003). The soils that formedunder moist-cool climates may be the local equivalent ofthe regional Leonard Paleosol and Brady buried soil(Clayton et al., 1976; Reider, 1990; Kuehen, 1993;Albanese and Frison, 1995; Artz, 1995; Root, 2000;

William, 2000). This wetter-cooler climatic interval alsomay be locally present in upland stratigraphic sequencessouth of Glendive (at OTL Ridge, Figs. 12 and 18). Eastof the Upper Missouri Basin, remains of M. primigenius

have been found in pond deposits under the AggieBrown Member (Harington and Ashworth, 1986).

4. Chronology of mammoth localities

The chronological position of some deposits contain-ing Pleistocene faunal assemblages from the UpperMissouri River Basin can be inferred using stratigraphicrelationships and chronometric dating. Remains ofMammuthus, Equus, and Camelops occur in alluviumbelow pre-Illinoian till in the Milk River area (Fullertonand Colton, 1986). The Doeden gravels are possibly


Illinoian or Sangamonian in age, based on K-Ar, U-series and radiocarbon dating of regional stratigraphicsequences and geomorphic features. Based on radio-carbon ages, middle Wisconsinan (pre-Last GlacialMaximum) deposits are present at the Merrell localityand also in the lower deposits at Blacktail Cave andNatural Trap Cave (Table 2). The gravels containingMammuthus and Equus along the Missouri south ofFrazer are possibly middle Wisconsinan, if the overlyingtill is ‘‘Woodfordian’’ or late Wisconsinan in age. Themammoth recovered from Box Creek (south of FortPeck) also dates to the interstadial before the LastGlacial Maximum (ca. 33,200 14C BP).

Faunal remains that can be attributed to the earlypart of the late Wisconsinan or Last Glacial Maximum(‘‘classic Woodfordian’’) include the assemblage from adebris flow at the Merrell locality (ca. 25,000–19,000 14C BP, from Centennial Valley), the mammothin the gravels at Glendive (ca. 20,500 14C BP), the LiskCreek bison (ca. 19,000 14C BP), and fossils fromNatural Trap Cave (Fig. 2). Localities containing faunaswith radiocarbon ages indicating they are associatedwith the late Wisconsinan (Last Glacial Maximum toYounger Dryas) include False Cougar Cave, BlacktailCave, the Sun River mammoth, the Deer Creekmammoth from near Lindsay, Indian Creek, SheepRock Springs, MacHaffie, the Colby mammoth, MillIron, Anzick and Shield Trap Cave. Extinct Rancho-labrean elements are present in most of these later sites,although some of the localities contain some stratawithout time-diagnostic taxa. Age assignment thus maybe based on relative stratigraphy, time-diagnostic faunalelements, geochronometric measurements (radiocarbon,luminescence) or a combination of these criteria.

5. Summary and discussion

Fossil vertebrate localities from the Upper MissouriBasin provide information on the paleobiotic characterof the Rocky Mountains and western interior Plainsprimarily from the late Pleistocene (the Wisconsinan).Some fossils appear to date to the middle Pleistocene.The localities contain evidence for a variety of largeextinct herbivores and some carnivores. The list ofextinct animals includes mammoths, ground sloths(both Jefferson’s and Harlan’s), American mastodon,horse, camel, bison, muskox, dire wolf, Americancheetah, scimitar cat, and giant short-faced bear.Smaller mammals have also been documented, fromboth cave and open-air settings. Faunas that haveexamined can usually be attributed to the Rancholab-rean. Fossils probably dating to the Sangamonian orIllinoian have been collected from high terrace depositsalong the Yellowstone River. Most of the localities withPleistocene mammal remains are associated with the

Rancholabrean; they are found in middle and lateWisconsin Episode stratigraphic and geomorphic con-texts.

The Upper Missouri Basin presently is characterizedby a diverse set of biophysical contexts, ranging fromwooded mountains to grassland plains and ripariansettings. Geomorphic features and sedimentary se-quences in the region are largely the product of changingenvironmental conditions in the Rocky Mountains andNorth American Great Plains during the Pleistocene. Inparticular, landscape evolution can be linked to chan-ging climates associated with glacial and interglacialconditions. For example, the expansion of the south-west margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet into theMissouri Basin is documented by the presence notonly of moraine sediments (glacial till, diamictons) butalso proglacial lacustrine, outwash, fluvial and eoliandeposits.

Besides the physical contexts, it may be useful toevaluate whether the available data, specifically theinformation from larger Pleistocene mammals, can beused to discern any biogeographic (spatial) or temporalecological patterns associated with regional environ-mental change (glacial or interglacial conditions).Aspects of the Pleistocene mammal record in the UpperMissouri Basin can be used to infer the physical andbiologic environments (habitats and biomes) over timewithin both glaciated and non-glaciated areas. Thebiotic patterns from the non-glaciated contexts of theUpper Missouri can be compared to the deglaciatedareas within the drainage, as well as with adjacent ice-margin and deglaciated contexts, for example the SouthSaskatchewan River area to the north, in southernCanada.

Three fossil species of mammoth have been reportedin the region. The most common identified species isMammuthus columbi, while there are some potentialexamples of M. imperator and M. primigenius. Tempo-rally, M. columbi appears to have been in the regionfrom the middle Pleistocene (under the Havre till, and inpossible Illinoian or Sangamonian gravels above theYellowstone River at Doeden) through the end of theWisconsinan. Within the Wisconsinan there are exam-ples of M. columbi attributed to before the Last GlacialMaximum (Merrell, Box Creek) as well as the late-glacial interval (Sun River west of Augusta, Deer Creeknear Lindsay, Colby). A similar temporal pattern mayexist in the glaciated region immediately adjacent to theUpper Missouri Basin in Alberta and Saskatchewan,Canada, where M. columbi has been reported from theinterglacial Sangamonian or middle Wisconsinan ageEcho Lake gravels at Fort Qu’ Appelle near Saskatoon,the pre-Illinoian (‘‘late Yarmouthian’’) and Sangamo-nian interglacial deposits at Medicine Hat, and the latePleistocene (12,0007200 14CBP, S-246) near Kyle(Harington and Shackleton, 1978; Stalker and Churcher,

ARTICLE IN PRESSC.L. Hill / Quaternary International 142– 143 (2006) 87–106 103

1982; Wilson, 1996). The presence of M. columbi maybe an indicator of interglacial conditions in glaciatedregions, and non-glacial conditions (settings away fromareas immediately affected by glaciers and their mar-gins) during either glacial or interglacial times, andbiomes possibly linked to grasslands with areas ofshrubs, scattered trees and parklands. Mid-Wisconsinan(non-glacial) and late Wisconsinan (late- or post-glacial)radiocarbon ages on Mammuthus indicate a temporalgap associated with the Last Glacial Maximum insouthern glaciated Alberta (Burns, 1996).

Other proboscidean remains that can be tentativelyidentified to species level include the possible Mam-

muthus primigenius found at Tiger Butte, M. imperator

fossils from Spokane Bar in the glacial Lake Great Fallsarea and along the Powder River, and Mammut

americanum from the Doeden gravels above the Yellow-stone River. The mammoth from Tiger Butte may dateto before the last major glacial advance, and thus islikely older than Last Glacial Maximum. North of theMissouri Basin in the South Saskatchewan drainage,M. primigenius has been recovered in early and lateWisconsinan deposits at Medicine Hat, probable lateWisconsinan deposits at Chestermere Lake near Cal-gary, and sand and gravels forming a fluvial terrace atEmpress (Harington and Shackleton, 1978; Stalker andChurcher, 1982; Wilson, 1996). The two potentialexamples of M. imperator from the intermountainsetting associated with glacial Lake Great Falls andthe plains setting of the Powder River can be comparedto the presence of M. imperator in the late Wisconsinandeposits at Medicine Hat (Stalker and Churcher, 1982),and Empress (Wilson, 1996) (the Bindloss specimen,now identified as Mammuthus columbi, has a radio-carbon age of about 10,930 14C BP, Hills and Harington,2003). Mammuthus primigenius and M. columbi mayhave been present in the North American Great Plainsat the same time, with M. primigenius adapted toconditions associated with deglaciated tundra-like ortransitional terrain and M. columbi present in non-glaciated, grassland and parkland landscapes or wheremore ‘‘interglacial’’ conditions prevailed. The onespecimen that may be attributed to M. primigenius inthe Upper Missouri Basin was found in glaciatedterrain, and can perhaps be linked to colder conditionsassociated with tundra or tundra-boreal forest marginsduring the Wisconsinan.

Ecologically, the possible presence of Mammuthus

primigenius in the glaciated region at Tiger Butte may bean indication that open ground tundra or tundra-borealforest margin conditions existed in the region prior tothe Last Glacial Maximum, as has been inferred basedon the Wisconsinan-age finds to the north fromChestermere Lake, Empress, and Medicine Hat (Har-ington and Shackleton, 1978). Remains of M. primigen-

ius could imply localized tundra openings in steppe,

parkland or forested areas, as indicated by fossils foundin late Wisconsinan pond sediments or proglaciallake strandlines (cf. Harington and Ashworth, 1986).Warmer conditions possibly associated with interglacialconditions (either Sangamonian) or transitional glacial–interglacial conditions (at the end of the Pleistocene)may be indicated by M. columbi fossils from Merrell,Doeden, Box Creek, Sun River, Colby, and Deer Creek(Lindsay) in the Missouri Basin and Fort Qu ‘Appelle(Echo Lake Gravels), Medicine Hat, Bindloss, and Kyleto the north. In contrast to the tundra-like or tundra-boreal forest margin habitats possibly implied byM. primigenius, the biotic landscapes associated withM. columbi may have been cool grasslands with scat-tered trees or parkland settings. Mammut americanum inthe Doeden gravels could indicate pre-Wisconsinanage wooded settings along the Yellowstone River.

The contexts associated with other larger mammaltaxa may provide additional information on potentialtemporal and spatial patterns for the region. Thepresence of widespread areas containing some relativelyopen landscapes appears to be indicated by the presenceof Equus, Bootherium/Symbos, Bison, Camelops, andMiracinonyx in both the intermountain areas and theplains. Ovibos is present in the same glaciated northernregion that contains Mammuthus primigenius. Mega-

lonyx and Paramylodon found at Doeden may be anindicator of habitats linked to Mammut. Thus, there issome fossil vertebrate data that may be suggestive of thepresence of tundra-like or tundra-boreal forest marginin the area that was glaciated by the Laurentide IceSheet, wide-spread cool grasslands and parklands in theunglaciated plains and intermountain valleys, andwooded riparian settings, indicating a diverse array ofhabitats and biomes within the Pleistocene UpperMissouri River Basin.

Acknowledgements

I am especially grateful to John Storer for providingthe opportunity to contribute this paper that is based ona presentation from the Third International MammothConference in Dawson City, Yukon Territory. TagRittel kindly permitted the studies at Blacktail Cave,undertaken in collaboration with excavations directedby Les Davis and field supervised by Dave Batten. Thefossils from the Doeden collection from Miles City weredonated to Montana State University by KathyDoeden. Mike Wilson provided valuable informationconnected with his studies of the Doeden local fauna.Information on and permission to study the mammothteeth collected from the terrace gravels at Glendive wasprovided by F. Crisafulli. The Box Creek faunalassemblage was collected by Don Lofgren, Director ofThe Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology.


Investigations at the Merrell Locality were undertakenin cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-ment, and collaboration in the field with Dave Battenand John Albanese. Dave Fullerton, Carol A. Edwardsand Rufus Churcher provided information on verte-brates collected as part of research associated with theUnited States Geological Survey. Fullerton and Church-er have been especially helpful in providing backgroundinformation on their original research. Renewed fieldstudies of the Lindsay mammoth were conducted incollaboration with Les Davis. Stratigraphic studies atOTL Ridge were conducted in conjunction withexcavations by Les Davis. Funding for research wasprovided by a National Science Foundation MONTSaward and the Kokopelli Archaeological Research Fundcreated by an endowment from Joseph and RuthCramer. Thanks to Richard Kuntzelman and CherylHill for their fine work as research assistants and toBruce Eng for drafting the figures. I am grateful toGeorge (Rip) Rapp, Steven Holen, and H. GregoryMcDonald for reviewing this paper and providingexcellent suggestions that greatly improved its quality.

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Documents

Stratigraphic and geochronologic contexts ofmammoth ......Stratigraphic and geochronologic contexts ofmammoth (Mammuthus) and other Pleistocene fauna, Upper Missouri Basin (northern