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1 - introduction to strategies2 - the structure of learning3 - theories of learning4 - learning is in the mind of the student
1 - ways of learning2 - the perceptions of the student3 - all the interactions4 - what we can do to help
overview
1 - introduction to strategies
Here ‘strategies’ are the invisiblecognitive learning processes
Not the physical games or actions, and not the input memory aid activitieslike repeating a word, drawing, or passively watching a movie
1 - introduction to strategies
In this presentation, we will learn thata student chooses a ‘cooperative strategy’ when she perceives any inequality in levels( cooperation is used to make levels equal )
and a ‘collaborative strategy’ when she perceives equal knowledge levels( collaboration is used to negotiate meaning )
1 - introduction to strategies
In this presentation, we look at : What is learning What is cooperative learning What is collaborative learning
and how we can help the student to use the appropriate strategy at the right time
2- the structure of learning
A negative-feedback loop comparesan ideal state with the perceived current state
The difference induces cognitive feelingcalled ‘emotion’ , then if an opportunity is seen and if a reasonable chance of success is seen, the student proceeds to engage learning
3- theories of learning
- behaviourism- cognitivism- cognitive constructivism- social constructivism
- radical constructivism- constructionism- social constructionism
behaviourism :
Teacher-centredTeacher gives stimulusStudent response is assessedTeacher adapts stimulus, and re-tests
There are two types ; -- intrinsic- extrinsic
cognitivism :
Teacher-sequenced inputs,
Response process (not product) is assessedConnections between parts – rather than whole
Teacher asks students to identify similarities or differences
cognitive constructivism :
Students are pre-tested to be put into streams
Teacher says the connections to be madebetween new information input and past prior knowledge
Open-ended questions to large classes or multiple-choice to individuals
social constructivism :
Pre-task awareness-raising, check there is adequate knowledgeor teacher as moderator –so then cooperative
Groups discuss concepts, ideas, not facts
Parts must be understood only in terms of the whole
radical constructivism :
Student-centredEach builds up own unique map of the world
Student’s mind changes to fit with experience
The outside world imposes constraintsbut mind acts within these constraints
Assess by problem-solving
constructionism :
Learning alone independently
Knowledge is in the ethereal interactionsnot constructivist in the world andnot cognitivist in the individual mind
Learning occurs through interacting with own imaginative projectionS
social constructionism :
Student learns through reflecting on own interactions with others
not from own experience, and not from other ideas
Diversity helps by enriching interactivity
Context-based ( not teacher- not student-based )
low
…
pr
ior
know
ledg
e …
hi
gh
low … task complexity … high
- - - b e h a v i o u r i s m - - -
- - -
- - - c o g n i t i v
i s m - - -
- - - - - -
c o g n i t i v i s m - -
- - - -
c o n s t r u c t i v i s m - - -
4 - learning is in the mind of the student
In constructionism, the mind engagesproactively, or sub-consciously ~ ~ with a raised area of knowledge
and re-organizes this area ~ making stronger or weaker connectionsmaking and breaking connectionsto develop a personal consistent model
4 - learning is in the mind of the student
in constructionism, the mind engagesproactively to re-organize anddevelop a personal consistent model
knowledge is in the connections or interactions
5 - ways of learning
There are four distinct ways of learning- - these are physical as well as mental
Depending on whether the student is alone or in a group
and depending on the types of interaction
There are four distinct ways of learning
Learning-Alone Learning-in-a-Group
INDEPENDENT
Freedom
over content andmethod of learning
INDIVIDUAL
No Freedom
over content ormethod of learning
orpre-negotiated
freedom
INTERACTIONAL
COOPERATIVE COLLABORATIVE
CONNECTEDLEARNING
Group with a‘ knower ’
Group withno ‘ knower ’
interactions are either cooperative or collaborative
What is the difference between cooperative and collaborative learning ?
What is the difference between cooperative and collaborative learning ?
Cooperative involves recycling old knowledge
Collaborative involves creating new knowledge
Cooperative lower-order thinking, eliciting old knowledge, sharing, brainstorming,experiencing, publishing
Collaborative higher-order thinking, rationalizing, theorizing, justifying / judgingdisjunctive thinking, synthesizing new knowledge
These are serial in the learning narrative of theTransactional Distance Model with collaborative Structure central
Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003
1 elicit needs, sharing, brainstorming
2 rationalizing, theorizing, justifying
3 consider all possible alternatives, disjunctive thinking
4 test out new way, experiential, publish
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
Cooperative sharing old
Collaborative creative
Collaborative disjunctive
Cooperative experiential
Here we use the letters S and D to refer to :
S Structure : the educative structure imposed by the teacher, textbook or institution
D Dialogue : the educative guiding conversation ( not idle or social chat )
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
Cooperative sharing old
Collaborative creative
Collaborative disjunctive
Cooperative experiential
Stage 1 Cooperative
Stage 2Collaborative
Stage 4Cooperative
Stage 3Collaborative
Stage 1
is characterized by cooperative sharing of prior old knowledge and prior experience,eliciting views, brainstorming and divergent thinking to gather various differentframes of context
Stage 2
is characterized by collaborative creation and discovery of new theory rationalizing and underlying prior knowledge, developing metaphors, horizontal and lateral thinking
Stage 3
is characterized by collaborative testing out of hypotheses to co-discover some new potential knowledge, problem solving, vertical and disjunctive thinking
Stage 4
is characterized by cooperative presenting new ideain real-life, experiential,personal meaning-making,social-constructivist,dissemination, reflecting, judging, publishing
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
Cooperative sharing old
Collaborative creative
Collaborative disjunctive
Cooperative experiential
Now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
are that initially the student chats, ( not educatively, so here D- and without teaching tasks S- )to share own background, to reduce anxiety,and to become comfortable and able then to engage S+ reasoning
Now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
then the student explains to othersand must engage S+ reasoning
At this Stage 2, social interactions may be fun or desirable but is no longer needed
Now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
then the teacher engages ( D+ )and raises alternatives to be explored ( S+ ),
and finally the student tries out a new ideain her own context ( S- )with teaching guidance and assessment ( D+ )
This Transactional Distance Model
succeeds through bringing the student from not knowing ( greatest Transactional Distance )
to knowing something ( zero Transactional Distance )
Learning Transaction =requires 4 interactions
1 student’s prior knowledge and need are identified
2 the text or teacher gives an amount of information
3 the student outputs an own construction
4 the teacher or society confirms the meaning
Three encounters / passes are needed to ‘learn’
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
Cooperative sharing old
Collaborative creative
Collaborative disjunctive
Cooperative experiential
Four Categories in Transactional Distance Theory
less
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
added
Structure
added
Dialogue
cooperative learningproceeds through interactions different from the interactions forcollaborative learning
cooperative learning :
the aim is to make knowledge levels the same
through sharing, explaining, translating,repeating, practising
( cooperation starts with eliciting differences )
cooperative learning :
A) (Hello) Affirm + Elicitation
B) Opinion + Request understandingA) Organization + Reflection backB) Affirm + AppropriationA) Confirm + Re-Elicitation
followed by BABA sequences
cooperative interactions in practice
collaborative learning :
in the sciences, the aim is to test out hypotheses so to co-createnew shared knowledge
in the arts, the aim is to find an individual new insight built on critical reflection
collaborative learning :
Two different scaffolds or processesInduce collaborative learning
1- in the sciences, and 2- in the arts
These are given next . . .
collaborative learning in the sciences :
A) (Hello) Affirm + ElicitationB) Opinion + Request understandingA) Confirm + Counter-opinion
A) Affirm + ElicitationA) Opinion + Request understandingB)Confirm + Counter-opinion . .
This is given in the three-leaves pattern next
1
23
4
56
Affirm
Elicit
Opinion
Requestunderstanding
Counter-opinion Confirm
collaborative interactions in practice
collaborative learning in the arts :
A) (Hello) Affirm + Elicitation
B) Opinion / Analysis + Request understandingA) Affirm + Elicitation of Evidence B) Reflect + Elicit other opinions / Analyses
A) Opinion / Analysis + Request understandingB) Affirm + Elicitation of Evidence A) Reflect + Elicit other opinions / Analyses
6 - the perceptions of the student
K - K knowledge - knowledgeinteractional partners perceived as equal then
rich complex interaction collaboratively
6 - the perceptions of the student
K - C knowledge - contentinteractional partners perceived as unequal then
simplistic interaction cooperatively
6 - the perceptions of the student
In the mind, there can be many interactional partners
eg (a) the idea that a zoo is fun (b) the idea that a zoo is dirty, and (c) the sensory idea that it is cold
(c) may strengthen (b), and weaken (a)whether these three ideas are from different people does not matter
7 - all the interactions
interactions can be categorized as Student - Tutor Student - Content and Student - Student
and Student - Technologyand Vicarious Interaction
7 - all the interactions continued
can be reduced to the interaction within the student’s mind between knowledge - knowledge
Generally some knowledge is better known than other knowledge, but even if equal - -fundamentally, there is only one interactionand this is the internal negotiation of meaning
there is only one interactionand this is the internal negotiation of meaning
From this, you can see that any external source ( book, person, experience )can provide input to become the stimulus in the mindfor the student thento re-construct personal meaning
the question naturally arises as to which is better – cooperative or collaborative :
as you saw in the Transactional Distance Model, cooperative collaborative collaborative cooperativeStages 2 & 3 of added Structure are collaborative
1 S- D-2 S+ D-3 S+ D+4 S- D+
Both cooperative and collaborative are needed
In vocational training, perhaps only Stages 1 and 4 are usedto keep the course practical, without theorising,as in learning office or factory skills
For creative critical thinking, you should includethe central collaborative Stages of added Structure
7 kinds of interaction have been found :
Coop 1 re-phrasing, translating 2 to avoid misunderstanding 3 to extend to familiar or new contexts
Collab 4 contrasting ideas 5 limiting the applicability 6 to warn of consequences 7 to raise inconsistencies
3kinds of interaction have been found in Conversation Theory :
appropriation elaboration justification
these 3 need to be opened up and re-categorized as coop or collabso that they can be put in sequence for learning
5 kinds of cooperation have been suggested :
automatic traditional contractual directed spontaneous Nisbet (1968)These also need to be opened upso that they can be deployed in learning
8 - what we can do to help
the student to interact in her mind knowledge – knowledge
for the student to learn . . .we can help in all the five Domains of Learning
the five Domains of Learning
COGNITIVE
AFFECTIVE
METACOGNITIVE
ENVIRONMENT
MANAGEMENT
COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF LEARNING
the aptitude, prior knowledge and skills necessary for performing a task or test, notably the reflective critical thinking skills
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN OF LEARNING
the motivation, attitude and decision to initiate performance, including the will to reduce own autonomy in order to achieve group tasks
METACOGNITIVE DOMAIN OF LEARNING
understanding how the task is performed, and the ability to self-monitor, evaluate and plan own future learning and help others learn
ENVIRONMENT DOMAIN OF LEARNING
social or physical forum and virtual or augmented reality in which learning occurs, including group size to suit each learning task
MANAGEMENT DOMAIN OF LEARNING
coping with massive amounts of information to obtain appropriate material in a suitable quality for learning, and time management
8 - what we can do to help continued
the student to interact in her mind knowledge – knowledge
There is a Content EffectAdults are reluctant to self-questionWomen are reluctant to question others / self
The Content Effect :
“ When we reason we do not automatically accept the given premises as true. We use our knowledge about the topic ( content ) to judge the veracity of the premises and to supply additional information that influences which conclusion we will accept as valid.”
Halpern, D.F. ( 1984, p.359 ) Thought and Knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
the Content Effect
is closely related to the reluctance of adultsto suspend knowledge they have trusted for years, to then explore without prejudicenew less-well known ideas
Adults more so than young people, becausemore ideas and trusted over longer time
Men and Women in groups have different Conversation Styles
Men may prefer independent collaborative argument
Womenmay prefer connected cooperative sharing
in practice,
a student may ask ( for cooperation ) if anyone knows & then if no-one knowsgo to collaborative and suggest a hypothesis . . .
8 - what we can do to help
There are several interventions we can do to help a student to learn
Let’s take a quick look again at the second point2 - the structure of learning . . .
2- the structure of learning
A negative-feedback loop comparesan ideal state with the perceived current state
The difference induces cognitive feelingcalled ‘emotion’ , then if an opportunity is seen and if a reasonable chance of success is seen, the student proceeds to engage learning
2- the structure of learning
We can model a desirable ideal state ( show a picture of a successful business and large comfortable house, etc )We can ask the student about her current state
We can present a range of opportunities, andWe can show that others have succeeded . . .
2- the structure of learning
we can intervene at every stage to induce the student to learn
2- the structure of learning
A negative-feedback loop comparesan ideal state with the perceived current state
The difference induces cognitive feelingcalled ‘emotion’ , then if an opportunity is seen and if a reasonable chance of success is seen, the student proceeds to engage learning
What kind of ‘ideal state’ do we model ?
We do a Needs Analysis listening carefully to the student
taking into consideration the various levels of need, in order . . .
These needs are in order ( highest = at top )
personal development / self-actualization needsself-esteem, recognition, and statussocial belonging to a group and lovesafety, security, shelterphysiological needs – food, water, procreation
Let’s simplify these :
(a) Personal(b) Feel-good(c) Group(d) Shelter(e) Food
Students who have food (e)and live in a company dormitory - not yet (d),will be best motivated if we show that he canget his own secure home (d)
In another case, an MBA studentmay have (a) food, (b) own home, (c) marriage,and (d) company respect,
and will then be best motivated if we show the ideal state how he can (e) personally develop his career
- we can initiate motivations towards this, through modelling a high-flying executive or showing inconsistencies in his CV, and so on
Learning occurs in the mindKnowledge is in the interactions
If perceived to be at equal levels, thendeep rich complex collaborative interactionscan occur, and if at unequal levels, thensurface sharing cooperative interactions
Scaffolds can help add Structure to DialogueStructure is the central essence of collaborative learning transactions
summary
Which learning strategy is chosencooperative or collaborative
depends on the student’s perceptionof the raised knowledge levels,
We can help the student choose collaborativethrough careful interventionsto induce the perception of equal levels
summary
How a student decides which strategy ( coop / collab ) to use
other questions naturally ariseHow does a teacher decide which strategy or method to use ?
How does a researcher decide which research design to use ?These questions will be covered soon . . .
further study
for our further discussion :
http://OpenTeacher.blogspot.com
QQ 60338304 : Open Teachgoogle group : Open-Teachemail : [email protected]
You can download these slides freely from the website
http://www.open-ed.net / library / strategies.ppt
or by email to me at
kawachi @ open-ed.net