Story of Antarctica

THE STORY

OF

ANTARCTICA

NATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FOR

ANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCH

&&&&&

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

The SThe SThe SThe SThe Story of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarctica

Anju Tiwari, K.P.Krishnan and Rasik Ravindra

Pages : 64Year : 2008

ISBN : 978-81-906526-0-5

c National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchMinistry of Earth Sciences, Goa

Geological Society of IndiaBangalore

Designed and Printed by National Institute of Science Communication AndInformation Resources, C.S.I.R., Dr. K. S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi-110 012.

Antarctica is the only place on the Earth that is not owned by anyone. It is a

continent of peace, tranquility and science. The Antarctic Treaty System cur-

rently in place, offers an opportunity to the scientific community world over, to search

for the answers to many unresolved questions pertaining to our mother earth. Com-

mon people, especially the young generation needs to know more about this continent

and its role in global perspective.

Bringing together historical and scientific aspects of Antarctica in a lucid and

interactive manner so that children find it interesting, has been a major objective of

this venture. The triennium 2007-2009 is being celebrated as the International Year of

Planet Earth as also the International Polar Year. It is therefore befitting that informa-

tion relating to a lesser-understood region of earth - Antarctica, is being brought in the

present form. This book is an outcome of determined effort made by many enthusias-

tic, young researchers and scientists of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Re-

search who were encouraged by the Ministry of Earth Sciences and Geological Society

of India to take up this task. I sincerely hope that this book would enthuse and excite

the imagination of our school children and inspire them to know more about the icy

continent of Antarctica so that it’s pristine environment is preserved for the genera-

tions to come.

(P. S. Goel)

SecretaryMinistry of Earth Sciences

Government of India, Mahasagar Bhavan,Block-12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road,

New Delhi - 110 003Dr. P.S. Goel

FOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORD

iii

Antarctica deserves special place in Earth’s geography not only because of its

location but also due to its importance in influencing Earth’s climate and sea level.

Unfortunately it continues to be the least studied continent because of its remote and

inhospitable location. Attempts to understand it commenced in earnest during the past

50 year with the launch of International Geophysical Year in 1957-58. India joined the

select group of nations active in Polar Science by launching its first Antarctic expedition

in 1981. Since 1981, scientific expeditions to Antarctica are launched every year. The

26th expedition in this series coincided with International Polar Year (2007-2008).

Geological Society of India has been actively involved in science popularization

via books under “Popularization of Science Series”. Under its aegis two books have

already been published by GSI, which are “Story of Oceans” & “Glaciers: The Rivers of

Ice”. In continuation to this, the society prompted National Centre for Antarctic and

Ocean Research (NCAOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences, which is the premier

institute for Antarctic research, to bring out a book on Antarctica for school children so

that mysteries surrounding it can be uncovered. I would like to congratulate NCAOR

for producing an informative and beautifully illustrated book and I believe that it will

go a long way in creating awareness about this icy continent in general public and

especially school children’s minds.

(Harsh Gupta)

PROLPROLPROLPROLPROLOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUE

v

Dr. P.S.Goel, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences is gratefully acknowledged for ap-

proving this popular write up. Dr. B.P. Radhakrishna and Dr. Harsh K. Gupta have

been the driving force in bringing out this series. Mr. S. Mukherjee, Mr. Arun Chaturvedi,

Mr. M.J.D’Souza and Mr. M.J.Beg from the Antarctica Division, Geological Survey of

India are earnestly thanked for reviewing the draft of the book and providing their

valuable comments. Many websites were scoured to get the right photographs to add

visuals to the text. These are all listed in the bibliography and are duly acknowledged.

Two postgraduate students of the Pune University (Mr. Ashok Sunwade and Ms.Preeti

Oswal) have contributed some of the pictures incorporated in the book.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

vi

Foreword …………………………..………............................................iii

Prologue …………………………..………............................................. v

I. The mysterious continent.…………………………..………................1

II. It is ice and ice every where..………………………….……...............4

III. Life in Antarctica.............................................................................9

IV. Discovery of Antarctica...................................................................14

V. Is it really no man’s land …..……..…….………………................21

VI. India’s journey to Antarctica……………………………................24

VII. Antarctic science…………...…………………………….................36

VIII. The Indian Contribution to Antarctic Science.................................45

IX. Amazing facts about Antarctica………………………...................52

Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Bibliography . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS

vii

1

The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA

Antarctica, the white continent, of

ten called as the last wilderness of

our planet earth, stands isolated at the

earth’s southern most part today. This huge

landmass covered with a thick blanket of

ice throws relentless challenges to the

adventurous instinct of mankind. It is wild,

breathtakingly beautiful and still remains

unexplored fully by man. The pristine

environment makes the icy continent a

unique place to conduct scientific research.

Very wisely, the world has designated

Antarctica as the continent for Peace and

Science. Today, we have realized that

Antarctica is a virtual storehouse of

THE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUS CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT

information about many mysteries of the

earth. This frozen continent holds the key

to the story of drifting continents and the

past climate of earth. It also controls the

key to global climate-pattern of today.

A place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremes

Antarctica is the highest, coldest and

windiest continent. With very low amount

of snowfall and practically no rainfall, most

of the continent is technically a desert. The

Antarctic icecap stores almost 70% of the

world’s freshwater and 90% of ice. The

Southern Ocean surrounding this

continent freezes up to a distance of 1500

I

If you’re exploring the planet, Antarctica is the last stop on the train.... —Barry Lopez

An Iceberg

1

2


km in winter, more than doubling the

actual size (13.9 million sq km) of the

continent. This is also a place of midnight

sun and a continent where darkness prevails

for months together during the Polar

winters. The continent is as large as India

and China put together with no permanent

habitation. There are no forests, no

perennial rivers and no industrial or

military activity. There are also no markets

or super bazaars. Explorers from different

nations mingle with one-another and call

themselves Polar men.

Antarctica is not a merely scientific

curiosity but a key part of the fabric of the

Earth system. The processes taking place

in the Antarctic system affect the world’s

climate and its oceans, linking the

continent inextricably to what we

experience thousands of kilometers away.

In understanding global climate change,

Antarctica has a crucial role to play. Locked

up in its more than 4 km thick ice sheet, is

a record of past climate for the last 5,00,000

years or even more. Trapped bubbles held

in the ice act as an archive of atmospheric

gases. Evidence for levels of global pollution

by industry, agriculture and atomic

explosions are frozen in the ice. Equally

important is the evidence for ozone

depletion in the upper atmosphere. Studies

on the ice sheet and its contribution to

world sea level rise are vital to our

understanding of the global change.

Southern lights or Aurora Australis, seen

during the dark periods in Antarctic sky, is

another unique and fascinating

AAAAAurururururora Aora Aora Aora Aora Australisustralisustralisustralisustralis

3


phenomenon viewed in Antarctica by the

charged particles received from solar flares.

These lights are like dancing ballerina

wearing multicolored bright dresses.

Snowstorms, blizzards and magnetic storms

are rather a common sight. Infact, their

frequency is so great that one starts missing

these if a spell of good weather continues

for a long period. Some of the magnetic

storms can seriously damage satellites and

even power systems. Early detection of

these storms and prediction of their possible

damage can save electronic equipment.

The wild life on the peripheral regions of

the continent, comprising birds such as

petrels, skuas, penguins and larger animals

like seals and whales make the place really

lively and interesting as it brings to our

knowledge the art of surviving, breeding

and community living in the most hostile

environment.

Penguins moving into the sea

Snow covered mountains in Antarctica

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4


4

northward and reaching very close to South

America. Ice is the typical, defining

property associated with Antarctica. The

various forms and shapes in which ice

exists in this continent are astounding and

constitute characteristic features of

Antarctica. So, let’s first acquaint ourselves

with the diverse forms of ice in this polar

mass of land and surrounding ocean.

Antarctica surrounds the geographic

South Pole of the earth and is the fifth

largest among the seven continents of the

earth. Ninety eight percent of the Antarctic

continent is under ice cover. Antarctica

totals 13.9 million sq km with an average

elevation of about 2300 m (about 7500 ft)

and its shape is almost circular with an arm

- the Antarctic Peninsula - protruding

IIIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHERE

Indian Antarctic Expedition Vesselenters the Polar Circle

5


Under The SUnder The SUnder The SUnder The SUnder The Sheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Ice

The ice that covers the land of Antarctica

is called ice sheet. This sheet is formed

because layers of snow continuously got

deposited over this continent for hundreds

of thousands of years. The ice sheet is

continuously in motion and its physical

parameters are changing. It forms as snow

crystals fall and pile on top of each other,

creating a huge weight that compresses the

earlier snow and converts it into ice. This

weight places pressure on the ice, which in

turn is forced to move down and across

the land, flowing from the high interior of

Antarctica to the coast. Near the edge of

the continent, ice is channeled, which form

great rivers of moving ice called glaciers.

Pushing through to the coast, glaciers can

also flow out over the ocean creating Ice

Shelf. The ice shelf is anchored to the land

but floats upon the ocean. With the push

of the ice sheet from behind and the

pounding ocean down below, parts of the

floating ice shelves eventually break off and

become icebergs. Some of these are

grounded near the coast becoming

spectacular guardians to the continent,

while others float with the currents to great

distances. They can vary in size and shape.

Some icebergs are as big as a small country.

Some could take a city on their back on a

cruise and can take years to melt as they float

in the ocean surrounding Antarctica – the

Southern Ocean.Glaciers

Icebergs

6


Continental IceContinental IceContinental IceContinental IceContinental Ice

The ice that envelops the continent of

Antarctica is called continental ice. This is

also known as ice cap, ice sheet or polar

ice. This ice sheet is not just a flat, solid

mass. It is dynamic and continuously

changing. Some of its varied characteristics

are described and illustrated below.

1. Hexagonal Ice Crystals appear in a varietyof places!2. Ice Cliffs The margins of the ice sheet areexposed at times as great cliffs.3. A Crevasse, as here, shows typical Antarc-tic blue ice. It can become covered by fallingsnow. This is dangerous as the gap beneathcannot be seen and accidents can take place.4. Blue ice- Antarctic lakes start freezing asthe temperature drops with the advent of theAntarctic winter. Blue Ice is the frozen sur-face of a lake or continental ice that is veryhard and shines like a glass surface.

1

7


IcebergsIcebergsIcebergsIcebergsIcebergs

Icebergs are not sea ice. They are actually

pieces of freshwater ice that break off the gla-

ciers or ice shelves. They are found in various

shapes and sizes and are one of the most en-

chanting features of Antarctica. The differ-

ent sizes and shapes of icebergs tell a story of

the kind of hostile and harsh weather they

have endured with success. Icebergs look strik-

ing during sunrise and sunset. 1 & 2 – Weath-

ered ice berg, 3 & 4 – Flat topped ice bergs,

5 – Pinnacle ice berg, 6 – Tilted ice berg.

5

6

4

3

2

1

8


The SThe SThe SThe SThe Sea Iceea Iceea Iceea Iceea Ice

The ice that forms on the sea is very

different from that which forms on the

continent. As the ocean surrounding

Antarctica lives through its annual cycle of

freezing and melting, it depicts different

forms of ice. Close to the continent there

are areas of Fast ice and Polynya. Fast ice

is sea ice attached to the shelf ice and melts

away during Antarctic summer.

The initiation of freezing gives rise to a

greasy surface on the sea, which on further

freezing forms like small Pancake ice floes.

These pancake floes join together to form

Pack ice. During winters, large tracks of

Southern Ocean are covered by this Pack

Ice. In between areas of fast/shelf Ice and

the Pack ice, there are areas of open water

called Polynya. These are formed due to

(i) cold winds from the continent or ocean

currents that instantly drive away the freshly

formed ice in continent’s close proximity,

(ii) warm water upwelling (influx of deep

seawater to the sea surface), which reduces

and altogether stops ice formation.

PPPPPancake iceancake iceancake iceancake iceancake ice

PPPPPack iceack iceack iceack iceack ice

PPPPPolynyaolynyaolynyaolynyaolynya

FFFFFast iceast iceast iceast iceast ice

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9


9

Let's now meet the inhabitants of thiswonderful continent. The abnormally

harsh climatic conditions in Antarcticamake the survival of any form of life astruggle. When one thinks of life forms inAntarctica, the first one to cross our mindsis the penguin. The obvious question thatfollows is how do penguins survive in thecoldest and windiest continent? The an-swer is that penguins (and also other formsof life in Antarctica like seals and whales)are protected from the cold and wind by athick layer of insulating fat under theirskins. Small forms of lives such as algae,lichens and mosses can be found beneathinsulating layers of rocks or any other formof shelter from cold. As the winter passesby and spring leads to Antarctic summer,

IIILIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICA

10


the ice starts melting and the Sun shinesover the continent. This breathes life in theicy continent and one can see the birds likeskua, snow petrels, albatross etc. makingtheir nests where they tend to rear theirchicks. Except for the Emperor, it is thebreeding season for all other types of pen-guins. Once the chicks arrive, penguins

know how to care for them! Penguins areknown for their responsible parental care.In a penguin rookery (please see inner coverpage for a view of Adelie penguin rook-ery), one parent waits with the baby to keepit warm, while the otherparent goes to the oceanand gets back with themeal of the day. Some-

Emperor penguins (Scientific name:Aptenodytes forsteri) have the upright, regalposture to express their dignity. They are thelargest of penguin species with an averageweight of around 30-40kg and a height ofmore than a meter (~3.8ft.)Macaroni penguins (Scientific name:Eudyptes chrysolophus) can be easily recog-nized with their bright yellow crest feathers.They nest on Antarctic islands like SouthGeorgia and Heard Island. They are about4.2 kg in weight and some 70 cm tall.Adelie penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelisadeliae) outnumber any other penguin spe-cies in Antarctica. They weigh 5-8 kg andare about 70 cm in height. Their distribu-tion is circumpolar, all around the Antarcticcoastline.Gentoo penguins (Scientific name:Pygoscelis papua ) are the largest of thePygoscelis penguins, though not by much,they average about 5.5 kg and 71 cm tall forthe southern gentoo; while about 0.7 kgheavier and 10cm taller for the northerngentoo.Chinstrap penguins (Scientific name:Pygoscelis antarctica) are so called becauseof their characteristic band of dark feathersunder the chin that appears to be keepingtheir dark hats on.

Gentoo Penguin

Emperor Penguins

Macaroni Penguins

Adelie Penguins

Chinstrap Penguins

11


times it takes longer for him to get backbut the family waits for him. It is amazinghow they remember their way back to thefamily!Antarctica and the adjoining regions

abound in the seal population, especiallyafter the ban on its killing was imple-mented. Seals are mammals that had toadapt to sea life for survival. There werenineteen species of seals in the seas but twoof these have become extinct. Mainly fivespecies of seals are encountered in Antarc-tica which can be found basking on thepack ice that surrounds Antarctica.

12


SEALS

1. Crabeaters (Scientific name: Lobodoncarcinophagus) are large seals, weighingabout 220kg. They are frequently scarred,sometimes quite badly by predatory leop-ard seals or killer whales.

2. Antarctic fur Seals (Scientific name:Arctocephalus gazella) are more accuratelycalled “Southern fur seals”. The males canreach 200kg and can be up to 4 times largerthan the females. They are restricted mainlyto the sub-Antarctic islands, with 95% ofthe world’s population being found on theisland off South Georgia.

3. Leopard Seal (Scientific name: Hydrurgaleptonyx) is one of the largest predators inAntarctica, smaller only than the killerwhale. They are named for the spotting onits underside. Females are larger than malesand average about 10ft long and are around350kg in weight.

4. Weddell Seals (Scientific name:Leptonychotes weddellii) are animals of theice. The pups of these seals stop drinkingmilk and begin eating normal seal food, i.e.fish from around 7 weeks. When adult, theyweigh about 400kg and can be up to 10ftlong.

5. Elephant Seals’ Males can grow to15ftlong and weigh up to 4 tonnes. They arecalled elephant seals partly because of theirsize.

Antarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic Plant Lifelant Lifelant Lifelant Lifelant LifeThere are no trees or shrubs, and only twospecies of flowering plants, Antarctic hairgrass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarc-tic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) arefound, occurring on the South Orkney Is-lands, the South Shetland Islands and alongthe western Antarctic Peninsula. There are,in total, around 100 species of mosses, 25species of liverworts, 300 to 400 species oflichens and 20-odd species of macro-fungi.The greatest diversity of species is foundalong the western side of the Antarctic Pen-insula where the climate is generallywarmer and wetter than elsewhere in theAntarctic continent.

Antarctic hair grass

Antarctic pearlwort

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Antarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeIt is a strange paradox that marine life re-markably outnumbers the terrestrial life inAntarctica! Most life in the Antarctic be-gins in the ocean. Plankton is the founda-tion of the marine food chain. In the nu-trient-rich waters south of the AntarcticConvergence, phytoplankton and zoop-lankton (microscopic plants and animals)like Krill occur in profusion in the sum-mer season. During the remainder of theyear because of the lack of light and heavycloud cover, as well as the extensive pack-ice, the productivity of the oceans gets lim-ited. The krill swarms are also seasonal andmuch of the food chain is dependent onthem. So much so, that if they fail to ap-pear other species such as penguins andwhales experience drastic breeding failures.The ocean bottom flora is rich in diversitywith several species of sea anemones, starfish etc.

Krill

Star fish

Minke WhaleSea Anemone

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14


14

Now that we know Antarctica is an

icy continental mass situated at the

southern most part of the globe, don’t you

wonder how this land was discovered? Who

was the first person to stand on this pris-

tine, beautiful white continent

located in the middle of the

ocean? Let us take a journey

back in time and find out the

fascinating story behind the

discovery of this ‘last wilder-

ness’

Ancient Greeks had postulated

that a large, southern continent

must exist to balance the Arc-

tic in the northern hemisphere.

It is relevant to remember; here that Arctic

(around the North Pole) was discovered

much before the discovery of the South

Pole or Antarctica. The imaginary south-

ern mass of land was referred to as Anti-

Arctic or opposite to Arctic and hence the

name Antarctic. However, Antarctica re-

mained an imaginary, mysterious land be-

cause no one could cross the ice barrier,

surrounding the continent. In one of the

earliest maps of the world, this southern

landmass is shown as Terra Australis In-

cognita i.e. the Unknown Southern Land.

Early VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly Voyages

Imagine the condition of those initial ex-

plorers who ventured into the task of dis-

covering the Antarctic continent in wooden

ships! But man is known for his invincible

nature, and the fire to find Antarctica had

been ignited.

DISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAIV

15


Captain James Cook , the famous naviga-

tor and explorer of the Pacific and Antarc-

tic, became the first human being to cross

the Antarctic Circle reaching 67°15’S,

when the pack ice forced him to turn back

his ship ‘Resolution’, a mere 80 miles from

his destination! Cook had not taken hu-

man greed into consideration. Ironically,

it was Cook’s own penchant for thorough-

ness that fueled the burst of activity because

he had noted in his log (records) that large

numbers of seals and whales were present

in the high latitudes.

The motivation for reaching Antarctica

now was search for new locations where

seals and whales could be found.

The Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early Explorers

The seal hunters were actually the early ex-

plorers who located areas of abundance of

seals and raised the hopes that new and un-

discovered lands might be lying further

south. Ships of many countries started en-

circling the Southern Ocean. The Russian

government sent Captain Thaddeus von

Bellingshausen, with a team of two hun-

dred sailors to get the accurate information

about Antarctica. On 27th

January 1820 for the first

time human eyes saw some

distant mountains towards

the southern end of earth.

Bellingshausen had actually

become the first person in

the human history to see

Antarctic continent!Captain BellingshausenCaptain James Cook

Antarctic Circle

16


Another remarkable “sealer-scientist,” was

James Weddell, captain of a British ship.

Weddell had taken part in exploration dur-

ing 1820-21 and 1821-22 and had gained

a lot of experience. On February 20, 1823

at longitude 34°16’45"W, and latitude

74°15’S,Weddell became the first man to

go farthest south that anyone had ever gone

before! It would be over 80 years before

anyone could get that far south again in

the Weddell Sea.

Inspired by Weddell’s deep foray into the

Weddell Sea and by the tantalizing glimpses

of land reported

by the sealers, the

French, British,

and United

States govern-

ments launched

exploratory mis-

sions in 1840s.

France sent Jules

Sebastian Dumont

d’Urville as the

Captain of its ship,

USA’s Leader of the

expedition was

Captain Charles

Wilkes and the

Leader of the Great

Britain’s expedition was Captain James

Clark Ross. These three explorers not only

discovered different parts of the Antarctic

landmass but also deciphered that each

piece of newly discovered land in Antarc-

tica was connected with other parts and

hence it was not an archipelago of islands,

but actually a huge continent!

SSSSSearcearcearcearcearch for the Sh for the Sh for the Sh for the Sh for the South Magneticouth Magneticouth Magneticouth Magneticouth Magnetic

PPPPPoleoleoleoleole

James Clark Ross was specifically assigned

the job of finding the elusive South Mag-

netic Pole as he had already found the north

magnetic pole in 1831. Ross’s advent to the

South Magnetic Pole was, however, stopped

by an Ice Shelf (which Ross called the

Victoria Barrier but was renamed after him).

He, did establish that the South Magnetic

Pole lay inland, inaccessible by the sea.

Captain Weddell

James Ross

17


Race To The SRace To The SRace To The SRace To The SRace To The South Pouth Pouth Pouth Pouth PoleoleoleoleoleDiscovery of the South Pole posed a greater

challenge to the Antarctic Explorers. Each

one of them wanted to set his feet first at

the Pole and become immortal in the hu-

man history. The first person to accept this

challenge was a British, Captain Robert

Falcon Scott, who started his expedition

in 1902 in a ship named “Terra Nova”. Un-

fortunately his expedition had to be

abruptly ended when he was still about 800

km away from the South Pole because all

his dogs and

many of the

team mem-

bers started

s u f f e r i n g

from Scurvy

(Vitamin-C

deficiency).

Three main

members of

this team,

Shackleton, Wilson and Scott himself were

on the verge of death. Shackleton, who

was an exceptionally bright member of the

Scott’s team in Terra Nova, started prepar-

ing for his own expedition immediately

after returning back home. After four years

of preparation, in 1908 he was again in the

Ross Sea with NIMROD, a more mecha-

nized ship than Terra Nova. In January

1909, when Shackleton and his four col-

leagues were only 180 km away from the

South Pole, they found that they were suf-

fering from immense frostbites and their

bodies were not supporting them. They had

to return back completely shattered, both

physically and mentally.

SSSSScott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsen

Robert Scott planned his expedition to

Antarctica immediately after the unsuccess-

ful return of Shackleton. Scott started his

expedition in November 1910, unaware

that Norwegian explorer Roald

Amundsen was already on his way to the

South Pole!

Amundsen and his team worked remark-

ably well and as a result they reached the

South Pole on

14th Decem-

ber 1911. Be-

fore returning

home to a he-

roic welcome,

they raised

the Norwe-

Captain R.F. Scott

Roald Amundsen

18


gian flag and kept the records of reaching

the South Pole in a safe box. On the other

hand, Scott and his team faced lot of diffi-

culties in reaching the Pole. On 17th Janu-

ary 1912, they fond the Norwegian flag

hoisted there on the South Pole!

“This told us the whole story. The Norwe-

gians have forestalled us and are first at the

Pole. It is a terrible disappointment and I

am very sorry for my loyal companions. Many

thoughts come and much discussion we have

had. To-morrow we must march on the Pole,

and then hasten home with all the speed we

can compass. All the day-dreams must go; it

will be a wearisome return”. -January

17th1912, quotes from Scott’s Diary.

They were already facing shortage of food

and by 21st March they were not left with

anything to eat. Suddenly a formidable

blizzard started which continued for five

days. The last lines of Scott’s diary on 29th

March, state:

“There has been nothing to eat for the past

three days. Now, I am not even able to write.

End is not far. For God’s sake, take care of

our families”.

The last major expedition of the heroic era

was marked by Ernest Shackleton’s voyage

in Endurance on August 8, 1914, planned

to cross Antarctica by approaching it

through the Weddell Sea. However,

Shackleton was trapped in the pack ice of

the Weddell Sea and drifted through the

winter. Ultimately, Endurance was crushed

by the ice and sank on November 21, 1915.

Shackleton and his men dragged and rowed

their lifeboats over the pack ice and open

waters until they made it to Elephant Island.

19


The MecThe MecThe MecThe MecThe Mechanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of ExplorationThe advent of more powerful engines, steel

hulled ships, airplanes, and radios consid-

erably enhanced man’s ability to reach dif-

ficult and inaccessible area of Antarctica,

aiding to success of several exploration

programmes. The radio was particularly

important as for the first time; Antarctic

explorers were not completely isolated from

the rest of the world. One of the first to

use the new aeronautical technology was

Sir Hubert Wilkins (Standing on right side

of the cockpit in the picture ; page 20). In

an expedition supported by Randolph

Hearst (a well known publisher) and the

American Geographical Society, Wilkins

The Story of “Endurance” in pictures

20


made the first Antarctic flight on 16th No-

vember 1928. On December 20, he flew

over Graham Land and became the first

Antarctic explorer to discover new land by

air. After that, Antarctic explorers have

never looked back.

Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)

----

21


21

Prior to 19th Century when new lands

were being discovered, the explorers

would raise the flag of their countries and

claim the territory in the name of their

kings or rulers. The first such formal claim

over Antarctic territory was made by Brit-

ain in 1908. In 1923 Britain handed over

part of their claim on the Ross Dependen-

cies to New Zealand. In 1924, France laid

claim to Terre Adelie. Australia claimed a

large chunk of territory in 1933. In Janu-

ary 1939, Norway formalized its claim to

Dronning Maud Land. While most of the

claims took different slices of

the continent, there were many

areas where different parties

made overlapping claims. For

example, in 1940, Chile be-

came the third country to

claim overlapping-sovereignty

over the Antarctic Peninsula

(after Britain and Argentina).

Although the United States

pursued no claims of its own,

the flurry of claims encouraged

the U.S. Congress to establish the U.S. Ant-

arctic Service in 1939 to take control of

American Antarctic exploration. Other

countries soon followed suit.

The world, however, soon realized that one

could get more from this pristine, un-

touched reserve of snow and ice, in terms

of science rather than the worldly riches.

This realization gave birth to a drive to gain

scientific knowledge and enrich humanity

by the unique opportunity provided by this

natural laboratory.

IS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LAND?AND?AND?AND?AND?V

United Kingdom

NorwayArgentina

Chile

Unclaimed

AustraliaNew Zealand

France

Australia

22


The International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International Geophysical

Year: PYear: PYear: PYear: PYear: Paving the Raving the Raving the Raving the Raving the Road to theoad to theoad to theoad to theoad to the

Antarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic Treatyreatyreatyreatyreaty

By December of 1955, preparations for the

International Geophysical Year (IGY) were

well underway. The year saw thirteen ships

proceeding to Antarctica with personnel

for seven separate expeditions. As winter

of 1956 closed in, there were twenty-nine

separate parties in Antarctica from seven

countries: British, Chilean, and Argentine

outposts on the Peninsula, and French,

American, Australian, Soviet, and British

stations on the continent proper. In all, 508

people stationed in Antarctica, were ready

to stay there through out the long winter.

Preparations continued during the 1956-

57 austral summer season. Thirteen more

stations were established, bringing the to-

tal on the continent to 42, representing 12

countries (Belgium, Norway, New

Zealand, Japan, and South Africa had

joined the effort). An additional 21 sta-

tions were established on Antarctic and

sub-Antarctic islands. By this time the

IGY was well underway. During the

summer of 1956-57, 42 bases and sup-

porting ships accommodated 6,167

people in Antarctica, more than at any

other time in history. In 1957-58 there

were 44 continental bases, 21 island bases,

and 5,362 people involved in the largest

multinational scientific research effort in

the history. The IGY was originally sched-

uled to last from June 1957 through De-

cember 1958. However, it was so success-

ful, that all participating nations soon

formed permanent research programs to

continue their presence and activities in

Antarctica. The International Council of

Scientific Unions (ICSU), which had pro-

posed the IGY, formed the Scientific Com-

mittee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to

coordinate the continued scientific coop-

eration among nations. The success of the

effort, and the need to defuse competing

territorial claims also led to the signing of

the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. In essence,

this treaty (ratified by all parties in 1961) set

the continent of Antarctica aside for peace-

23


ful and scientific purposes; and placed all ter-

ritorial claims in abeyance till the Treaty lasts.

Antarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the Treatyreatyreatyreatyreaty

The original signatories i.e. Argentina, Aus-

tralia, Belgium, Chile, the French Repub-

lic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the

Union of South Africa, The Union of So-

viet Socialist Republics, The United King-

dom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-

land, and the United States of America,

signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1st Decem-

ber 1959 at Washington, D.C. These 12

signatories became the original consulta-

tive nations. As of today, 16 additional na-

tions (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador,

Finland, Ger-

many, India, Italy,

Netherlands, Po-

land, Peru, Re-

public of Korea,

Sweden, Spain,

and Uruguay)

have achieved

consultative status

by acceding to the

Treaty and by

conducting sub-

stantial scientific

research in Antarctica. Another 16 nations

have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Aus-

tria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Re-

public, Democratic Peoples Republic of

Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala,

Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania,

Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and

Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by

the Treaty and may attend consultative

meetings as observers. At present scientists

and other professionals live and work more

or less effortlessly at Antarctic stations es-

tablished by these nations. These stations

help each other in the hour of need and

evolve together as one community.

Neumayer (Germany) Maitri (India)ANTARCTICPENNINSULA

Palmer (U.S.) RONNEICE SHELF

King sejong (Korea)

Rothera(U.K.)

ROSSICE SHELF

----

24


In December 1981, the first Indian Ant

arctic Expedition was launched from

Goa under the leadership of the eminent

scientist Dr. S.Z. Qasim. This pioneer

team, that included renowned glaciologist,

Dr C.P.Vohra and Oceanographer like Dr

H.N.Siddiqui, created history by reaching

the Antarctic continent on 9th of January

1982 and laid the foundation of India’s

Antarctic Programme. The First expedi-

tion was immediately followed by the Sec-

ond (under the leadership of Shri

V.K.Raina). The success of these endeav-

ors and the recognition by international

community encouraged India to establish

her permanent research base at the Ant-

arctic continent for pursuit of scientific re-

search. In 1983,

under the leader-

ship of Dr.

Harsh Gupta, a

well known

earth scientist,

the third expedi-

tion team estab-

lished India’s first

permanent station in Antarctica and appro-

priately named it “Dakshin Gangotri” in a

record time of one Antarctic summer. This

station was home to the Indian team mem-

bers for five long years, sheltering them

from harsh and ruthless conditions of Ant-

arctica as also providing them all the facili-

ties to conduct scientific research work.

INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAVI

Dr. Harsh Gupta

Dr. S.Z. Qasim

Dakshin Gangotri under construction

24

25


Since Dakshin Gangotri (it is affectionately

called DG by the Antarcticans from India)

was situated on an ice shelf, it gradually

sank into snow. By 1988, India had to pre-

pare its second station in Antarctica because

Dakshin Gangotri was no longer safe for

living.

An ice-free area

on a small hill

range called

‘Schirmacher Oa-

sis’ was selected in

1987-88 and the

station was built

in two summer

seasons (there be-

ing no sun during

the winter period,

DG in the summer of 1989

out side activity is highly restricted between

the months of April to October). By 1988-

89, the station construction was nearly over,

paving the way for decommissioning of the

old station during 1989-90 and shifting the

major scientific laboratories to the new sta-

tion named “Maitri”.

DG in 1985

Maitri

26


Maitri became operational same year (IX

Expedition) with commencement of the full-

fledged wintering under the leadership of Rasik

Ravindra, a Geologist from Geological Survey

of India. The inmates of Maitri bring out a House

Bulletin - Himvat - that contains interesting

account of personal experiences of members in

hand written or typed pages. To cite some

interesting articles, in Himvat of 1989-91 a

member recounts his trauma when a heavy snow

vehicle ran over him and he still survived with

only minor bruises on his body but strong

impressions on his mind turning him towards

Photograph of some of the leaders of the past expeditions [Standing from L to R, numbers in the parenthe-

ses indicate expedition number: AK Hanjura (x), M Sudhakar (LS Hill Expd.), Rasik Ravindra (IX), Robin Sengupta

(VII), VK Raina (II & Weddell Sea Expd.), CP Vohra (Dy. Leader, I), SZ Qasim (I), V.K. Dhargalkar (XII),

R. Asthana (XXIV), S. Jayaram (XIII) Sudhakar Rao (XIII), AK Hanchinal (XXII), S Mukerji (XI), Arun Chaturvedi

(XV, XIX and XXVII); Sitting : A Dhar (XVIII), N Khare (NCAOR), SM Bhandari (Solar Eclipse Expd),

RPLal (XXI).

spirituality. In yet

another incident a

team lost all its

cooking oil in a fire

accident and had to

survive on boiled

food through out

the winter period.

You can write mails

to the wintering

members or to the Leader of the Maitri Station

at <[email protected] > for any

information on the Station or Antarctica.

Shri Rasik Ravindra

27


Introduction of special flights to Antarc-

tica and facilities of an ice runway very close

to Maitri station has paved the way for

short visits of policy makers and senior sci-

entists to Maitri. Honorable Minister of

Science and Technology, Shri Kapil Sibal

visited Maitri in 2005 along with Dr. Harsh

Gupta (then secretary to Department of

Ocean Development), while Dr.P.S.Goel

(Secretary) and Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Sec-

retary) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences visited

the facilities at the Indian station in 2007.

India is all set to establish a new Antarctic

base at Larsemann Hills, in the eastern

Antarctica- a part of the continent that,

about 120 million years ago, was contigu-

ous with India’s east coast. The proposed

station that is to be built on an unnamed,

ice free, coastal area (promontory) fring-

ing the Prydz Bay will be located close to

Russian and Chinese stations- Progress and

Zhongshan respectively. The proposal was

recently cleared by the international body

Shri Kapil Sibal (Honorable Minister of Science and

Technology) along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secre-

tary to Department of Ocean Development) and Shri

Rajesh Asthana (Leader, 24th Expedition) at Maitri

Dr. P.S. Goel (Secretary, MoES), Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary, MoES) with other Antarctic

expeditioners at the ice runway very close to Maitri station

28


overseeing the environmental aspects of

Antarctica (Committee on Environment

Protection). India is committed to come

up with an environmental friendly, struc-

ture that will preserve the pristine nature

of the place.

The new station will be about 2000 km

away from Maitri. It will have an easy ac-

cess from the sea, as the

area is free of shelf ice.

This region, including

the islands and prom-

ontories will offer ex-

cellent opportunity for

extensive studies on ge-

ology, tectonics,

paleoclimatic, geophys-

ics, meteorology, oceanography, marine

and fresh water biology.

The induction of women expeditioners to

the icy continent of Antarctica began way

back in 1983 when Drs. Sudipta Sengupta

and Aditi Pant spent their summer in 1983-

84 (III). Since then, women participation

in Antarctic expeditions has been over-

Artist’s impression of station at Larsemann Hills

proposed site

29


whelming. The other lady members who

took part of earlier expeditions are Ms.

Gouri Indresan (IIT Mumbai, V), Ms. Rita

Kohli (Delhi University, IX), Smt.

Meenakshi Chatterjee (Calcutta Univer-

sity) and Dr. Usha Sachdeva (AIIMS,X),

Dr. P.A. Loka Bharathi (NIO) and Ms. M.

Naidu (AIIMS, XIII), Dr. Manju Mehta,

Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS) and Dr. Girija

Rajaram (IIG, XXVIII), Ms. Stella (IMD,

XX), Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII), Prof.

Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV), Dr. Binita

Phartiyal (BSIP) and Ms. Preeti Oswal

(NBRI, XXV).

Another milestone was achieved by Dr.

Kanwal Vilku of the Central Government

Health Services in the year 2000 (XIX) and

by Dr. Devyani Borole (XXV) who spent a

wintering each (16 months) in Antarctica.

How did it feel to stay alone in a men only

company? “all the expedition members

treated us respectfully and it was a memo-

rable stay’’ has been the answer.

LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS(Within brackets: Institution and Expedition number)

Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (JadavpurUniversity, III and IX)

Dr. Aditi Pant (NIO, III)

30


Ms. Gouri Indreasan (IIT, V) Dr. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX)

Dr. Meenakshi Chatterji (Univ.of Calcutta, X) Dr. P. A. Loka Bharathi (NIO, XIII)

Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS, XVIII)Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XVIII)

31


Dr. Manju Mehta (AIIMS, XVIII) Dr. Kanwal Vilku (CGHS, XIX)

Ms. Stella (IMD, XX) Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII)

Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV) Dr. Binita Phartiyal (NBRI, XXV)

Smt. Devyani Borole (NCAOR, XXV)Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV)

32


LauncLauncLauncLauncLaunching of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditions

How are the Indian expeditions to Ant-

arctica launched? How are the members se-

lected? Who arranges the voyage and who

pays for the expenses? The aspirants, who

wish to explore Antarctica, often ask these

questions. Initially the expeditions were

managed and launched by the Department

of Ocean Development (DoD), a scientific

Department under the Prime Minister of

our country (DoD has now been upgraded

to a full-fledged ministry named as Minis-

try of Earth Sciences). Subsequently, the

Government established an autonomous

institution with headquarters at Goa and

gave it the mandate to launch and manage

the logistic and scientific aspects of the ex-

peditions. Since the Southern Ocean is an

integral part of Antarctic eco system, its

study was also entrusted to this newly con-

stituted Centre. The institute, named as

National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean

Research (NCAOR) moved into its own

campus on 5th April 2000 with Dr. P.C.

Pandey as its first Director. Today, the Cen-

tre has modern laboratories for conduct-

ing research in the fields of microbiology,

oceanography, sedimentology, paleo-

climatic and glaciology etc. The sophisti-

cated clean ice core laboratory established

here is the only such facility of its type

existing in India.

National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchDr. P.C. Pandey

33


The selection of Indian Antarctic Expedition

Team is done through a rigorous process. This

process starts in the month of March, when

NCAOR places advertisement in the lead-

ing national newspapers inviting proposals

from interested scientists to conduct research

in Antarctica. After scrutiny, projects are se-

lected and team members are short-listed.

The team, which is generally a reflection of

the wide spectrum of the Indian Society with

the members drawn from different regions

and with different work experience, repre-

sents universities, research

organizations, defense

laboratories etc. Defense

personnel too join the

team for maintenance and

operation of the Research

Station at Maitri. The

members undergo a detailed medical ex-

amination at All India Institute of Medi-

cal Sciences, New Delhi. The selected

members are then sent to a Himalayan gla-

cier for training and acclimatization under

the guidance of expert mountaineers.

The team is now ready for the expedition. It

assembles at the NCAOR Campus, where

last minute instructions are passed on, for-

eign exchange is arranged, official documents

are handed over and Expedition is wished

‘Bon Voyage’. Initially, the members used to

board the expedition vessel at Goa and it took

almost 20 days to reach Antarctica. Later, ar-

rangements were made to fly the members

to Cape Town, South Af-

rica, from where the char-

tered ship takes them to

Antarctica in approximately

eight days. This saves a lot

of voyage time. From the

coast of Antarctica, where

the ship is

berthed, mem-

bers are flown

to Maitri by the

helicopters that

are chartered

and brought to

Antarctica on

the expedition

vessel itself.

34


Once the ship reaches Antarctic coast, the

cargo is off loaded on the shelf. This is then

loaded on to the trailers and toed to sta-

tion by a number of snow vehicles that

move together in the form of a convoy. As

the journey of over a hundred kilometer

covering a treacherous icy terrain, full of

hidden crevasses, the Leader of the convoy

has a great responsibility to guide the driv-

ers safely to destination. The convoys of-

ten get trapped in snow storms. One can

also get stranded because of vehicles get-

ting trapped in melt water channels.

With improvements in logistics, now it is

even possible to transport key scientists and

some members directly to Maitri by flight

that takes about eight hours from Cape

Town!

The expedition members not only attend

to their scientific tasks, carry out the ex-

periments or collect data by taking traverses

to interior areas, they are also required to

attend to the house keeping, perform du-

ties by turn in the kitchen, assist in watch

over the power generating systems and at-

tend to waste disposal. Antarctica being

governed by a strict protocol on environ-

mental protection, the waste has to be dis-

posed as per a pre defined scientific pro-

cess or removed from the Antarctica – and

mind you this also includes the night soil!

In retrospect, the members who have spent

35


about sixteen months in the station at a

stretch have little complaints. If you have

been once to Antarctica, you can’t help fall-

ing in love with the pristine beauty, great wil-

derness and awesome ruggedness of this lone-

some, unspoilt, white desert. So strong is the

urge and fascination of this charm, that one

gets swayed. There are members who have

repeatedly opted for wintering more than

once (wintering in Antarctica means staying

back there till the next expedition comes to

relieve the old one, which is only after more

than a year).

The Indian station is located very close to

the Russian Station (Novolazervaskaya) and

members of the two stations often visit each

other during the long winters. During the

peak of winters, in June, when we in India

have the longest day (21st June), our scien-

tists at Maitri face the peak of the winters. All

over Antarctica, this day is celebrated as “Mid

Winter Day” when members of adjoining

stations come together to share their experi-

ence and forget the isolation. The severe win-

ter months also mark the dark period, as there

is no sunlight, forcing most of the members

indoors. Many members utilize this period

to sharpen their hidden talents (see above for

the portrait of an Indian Expedition Leader

been drawn by a Russian member).

36


36

So far we have learned that Antarctica

is a remote, isolated and a frozen con-

tinent which is arguably the most un-

touched region on the planet. That makes

it one of the most important laboratories

of the world. Humans didn’t even catch a

glimpse of Antarctica until ~185 years ago

and only in the last 50 years have people

begun to explore this vast

polar desert in earnest. To-

day, scientists come to the

South Pole and the conti-

nent enclosing it, from

around the world to study

geology, climate, astro-

physics, marine biology,

ecology, and more!

What is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalgeography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-tica?tica?tica?tica?tica?

Geographically, Antarctic

continent comprises two

distinct constituents:

ANTANTANTANTANTARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEVII

· East Antarctica (mostly east of

Greenwich), consisting of a single

great continental plateau

· West Antarctica (west of Green-

wich), consisting of a group of

small plateaux, which constitute a

sort of archipelago covered by ice.

EASTANTARCTICA

WEDDELSEA

ROSSICE SHELF

RONNEICE SHELF

WESTANTARCTICA

ROSS SEA

POLE OF RELATIVENECESSIBILITY

SOUTH POLE

ROSS ICE SHELF

WEST ICECAP

EAST ICE CAPTRANS ANTARCTICMOUNTAINS

Elevation(Metres)

4000350030002500200015001000

0

37


East Antarctica is formed by magmatic and

metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic (2500

to 542.0 ± 1.0 million years ago), and partly

Archaean age (4000 to 2500 million years

ago). Conversely, Western Antarctica con-

sists of more recent rocks, of Mesozoic age

(251 to 65.5 million years ago) and Ceno-

zoic age (65.5 million years ago to present),

alternating with volcanic ashes and lava

rocks. The east Antarctic ice cap is much

thicker than the west Antarctic ice cap. The

topography in east Antarctica is also higher

than that in the west Antarctica. The high-

est peak, Vinson Massif (4892m) is situ-

ated in the Ellsworth Mountains of western

Antarctica, overlooking Ronne Ice Shelf.

GeologyGeologyGeologyGeologyGeology

Antarctica was at one time a part of an an-

cient, considerably larger landmass, referred

to by geologists as “Gondwanaland”. The

supercontinent began breaking up ~150

million years ago and its several segments

gradually drifted apart to form the present

land masses of South America, Africa, In-

dia, Australia (with New Zealand), and

Antarctica ( for a simulation of Gondwana

breakup with time scale, refer the link in

www.ncaor.gov.in).

100 Million Years Ago 50 Million Years Ago

150 Million Years Ago Present Day

38


always a cold and inhospitable place. Coal

deposits found today in sandstone beds less

than 500 kilometers from the South Pole

show that these materials were laid down

during late Paleozoic time (240-300 mil-

lion years ago) under marshy conditions

in a cool, moist climate.

How do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the past

disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?

The present outlines of these continents—

along with the similarity of their geology

and fossil finds—indicate that they had fit-

ted together and that Antarctica was not

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

39


Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?

Volcanic activity in Antarctica is limited

to only a few places, the most notable be-

ing Mount Erebus on Ross Island. The is-

land is entirely of volcanic origin, as are

White and Black Islands, Brown Peninsula

and Mina Bluff, and the massifs of Mounts

Discovery and Morning. These are prod-

ucts of eruptions—from the Pliocene

through the present—of basaltic lavas from

central cones and fissures at various loca-

tions. Mount Erebus is the largest and by

far the most active of the few volcanoes on

the continent, almost continuously spew-

ing out steam and gases from its summit

crater.

Smoke emanatingfrom an active volcano

40


Are there rocAre there rocAre there rocAre there rocAre there rocks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?

Geologists have dug deep into the Antarc-

tic ice to see what lies beneath! A small part

of Antarctica (~ 2 %) remains ice-free and

is extensively studied by the Earth Scien-

tists to discover the geological history and

evolution of Antarctica in the past many

millions of years. You would be surprised

to know that Antarctica is made up of one

of the world’s oldest rocks which could be

around 3 billion years old! One promi-

nent topographic feature of the Antarctic

continent is the Transantarctic Mountains.

These ranges form a divide between East

(greater) and West (lesser) Antarctica and

cover more than 2,200 kilometers.

Ocean floor around Antarctica

41


ClimateClimateClimateClimateClimate

We have read that Antarctica is the cold-

est, windiest, driest continent on the Planet

Earth. The weather, strong winds and bru-

tal storms have been synonymous with

Antarctica since its discovery and continue

to be a major challenge for modern explor-

ers.

Why is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather so

brutal?brutal?brutal?brutal?brutal?

Antarctica’s climate is so inhospitable due

to several factors. The main cause is that

Antarctica has a perpetual ice sheet cover-

ing the major part of the continent. Ice is

highly reflective and doesn’t absorb

warmth. Attenuation of solar radiation

energy is greatest at high latitudes where

the path through the atmosphere is long-

est. Also, solar energy reaching the surface

at high latitude is spread over a larger area

because the surface is at a greater angle to

the incoming radiation. Therefore, the

earth’s surface at the poles is a heat sink

when compared with that at the tropics.

The poles simply lose more energy than

they receive – they have a negative radia-

tion balance. Another important factor is

that it is surrounded by a vast ocean, South-

ern Ocean, in which flows one of the

world’s largest and strongest current that is

known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current

(ACC). It is a cold oceanic current driven

by strong winds generated due to the Ant-

arctic Circumpolar Trough, which is a zone

(between 60°S and 65°S) of low pressure

that exhibits variable winds moving from

west to east. ACC is the only current en-

circling the whole globe as it is unhindered

by landmasses. It isolates the Antarctic con-

tinent from the effect of warm surface

ocean currents and thus helps in the gradual

build-up of ice.

Antarctic ocean current system

42


The Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone Hole

What is ozone?

Ozone is a form of oxygen in which each

molecule contains three atoms of oxygen

as compared to the normal two. It is a blu-

ish gas and is chemically very active. When

inhaled it is toxic and particularly harmful

to asthmatics and others with respiratory

problems. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet

radiation (UV), a property of considerable

significance to life on Earth. Ozone occurs

naturally in our atmosphere, which is

dominated by nitrogen (78% of the total)

and oxygen (21%).

Global relevance of Antarctic Science

Ozone hole in Antarctica?

In 1974 the American scientists Mario

Molina and Sherwood Rowland proved

that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) possibly

played an active role in the depletion of

the ozone layer. CFC are stable industry

gases containing mainly chlorine, fluorine

and bromine, used in refrigeration systems,

air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in

Zone of ozone depletion

43


the production of some types of packag-

ing. The hole in the ozone layer over Ant-

arctica was discovered in 1985. When Brit-

ish scientists at the Halley Bay station in

Antarctica saw the results of their measure-

ments, they thought that there was some-

thing wrong with their instruments. At

once they were replaced, but the results

stayed as alarming as before. When their

conclusions were published in the scien-

tific magazine Nature, the world recog-

nized that something had to be done and

quickly. A question that is often asked is

“Why the hole in the ozone layer occurs

only over Antarctica?” During the polar

night the temperature in the stratosphere

drops to sometimes -100o Celsius. At lower

temperatures the demolition process of the

ozone molecules is strengthened. At the be-

ginning of spring (September - October)

it goes from bad to worse. Each year a cold

wedge of ice clouds moves in over Antarc-

tica. At about the same time of year the

Sun returns to the continent after the win-

ter dark months, and the combination of

sunlight, ice clouds and CFCs form a mix-

ture that destroys the ozone.

What effects does ozone depletion have?

The ozone layer plays an important role in

the atmosphere. It protects us from the

harmful effects of certain wavelengths of

UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation

(radiation between the wavelengths 280-

320 nanometers). Overall, ozone destruc-

tion process over Antarctica reduces the

total amount of stratospheric ozone on a

global scale.

44


Why Arctic doesn’t have an “Ozone Hole”?

Unlike Antarctica, which is a continent sur-

rounded by oceans, the Arctic is an ocean

surrounded by mountainous continents.

This means that the stratospheric circula-

tion is much more irregular, and the tem-

perature does not fall as low as it does in

the Antarctic. Stratospheric clouds are

therefore, less common, which prevents the

formation of a deep ozone hole over the

Arctic.

Arctic ViewArctic Circle660 300 North

GreenwichMeridian

North Pole

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45


45

Indian Antarctic Research Programme is

one of the finest examples of a coordinated

long-term research effort of key national re-

search institutions. It is also an important

component of international scientific

community’s effort to understand this remote

icy continent. Antarctica plays a key role in

the global climate. India has been pursuing

research in the fields of earth atmospheric,

biological, human physiology, communica-

tion, space and weather sciences etc. Antarc-

tica provides a unique envi-

ronment to study the inter-

actions of glaciation and cli-

mate without human inter-

ferences.

Atmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SciencesciencesciencesciencesciencesAntarctica has attracted the

attention of scientific com-

munity all over the world since it is one of

the most important climate regions with a

potential to influence long-term global cli-

mate change. India Meteorological Depart-

ment (IMD) is participating in Antarctic ex-

THE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOANTANTANTANTANTARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCES

VIII

peditions since beginning for conducting at-

mospheric studies. Other Institutions include

National Physical Laboratory, National In-

stitute of Tropical Meteorology, National In-

stitute of Oceanography, National Geophysi-

cal Research Institute, Indian Institute of

Technology (Delhi) etc. Continuous record-

ing of surface weather parameters at Maitri

has provided necessary input for understand-

ing the variations in the Antarctic atmospheric

circulation patterns. Surface characteristics

and insulation features over

Antarctica also influence the

energy budget of the globe,

which in turn control the cli-

mate. The scientific com-

munity has recognized that

ozone depletion could in-

crease the levels of UV rays

on the earth. Indian Scien-

tists are monitoring the ozone hole above the

Maitri station and have found that the hole

depth is fluctuating from year-to-year. The

observations at Maitri also showed an event

of major stratospheric warming during 2002.

46


Biological SBiological SBiological SBiological SBiological Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences

Biological studies on the ice shelf and fresh

water lakes have been carried out since the

first expedition. Researchers have studied

the composition, spatial distribution and

influence of different physical and chemi-

cal factors on eco-biology of fresh water

environment. The invertebrate fauna, birds

like Penguin and South Polar Skua of

Schirmacher Oasis have also been studied.

Genetic information of Antarctic Algae,

Mosses & Lichens is an exciting field of

study proposed to be mounted by NCAOR

in Antarctica. The microbiologists work-

ing at NCAOR in collaboration with Cen-

tre for Cellular and Molecular Biology

(CCMB), Hyderabad aims at unraveling

the molecular basis of the survival of mi-

crobes under extreme climatic conditions.

Findings of this research can help to de-

velop better technologies for the easy sur-

vival and living habits of mankind in the

Antarctic. Indian scientists are making an

attempt to highlight the bacterial diversity

of Antarctica, the biotechnological poten-

tial of the cold-loving bacteria and also to

understand their survival strategies. Stud-

ies on the bacterial diversity of Antarctica

have led to the identification of a number

of new species of bacteria from Antarctica

such as Sphingobacterium antarcticum,

Pseudomonas antarctica, Planococcus

antarcticus, Pseudonocardia antarctica,

Planococcus maitriensis, Arthrobacter

gangotriensis etc. As of now, only about 120

new species of bacteria have been identi-

fied from the frozen continent. India has

added 20 new species to this list.

Sampling for Biological Studies

47


Studies on the human biology and behav-

ior of expedition members are being done

for regular monitoring and to examine

their responses in extreme conditions. For

example a research program has been

initiated to study the disturbances in sleep,

salivary melatonin hormone concentration

and their daily rhythm. Initial results show

that there was no phase shift in the

acrophase in the melatonin level was ob-

served during the period of observation at

Antarctica except in April and August.

Earth SEarth SEarth SEarth SEarth Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences

Indian efforts in earth science studies over

Antarctica were initiated by Geological Sur-

vey of India (GSI) and National Geophysi-

cal Research Institute (NGRI). In the light

of continental drift theory (see section on

Geology of Antarctica), Antarctica formed

a major part of the super continent

Gondwanaland, from which India, Austra-

lia, Africa, South America, Madagascar have

drifted apart. From the point of view of

earth sciences, therefore, Antarctica pro-

vides a vital link in the reconstruction of

Gondwanaland. The proximity of Eastern

Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) of India to a

large part of East Antarctica in recon-

structed models of the supercontinent and

the fact that mineral enriched zones of

Gondwanaland reconstruction c.400million years ago

48


Gondwanaland continents were in contact

with Antarctica in the geological past; un-

derline the importance of studying Ant-

arctica geologically. India has been carry-

ing out integrated geophysical, geological

and geochemical inves-

tigations in Antarctica.

The objective of these

studies is a reconstruc-

tion of Greater

Gondwanaland by

finding out the past

geological events, their

field configuration, the

pressure and tempera-

ture conditions of the

melt that gave rise to

the rocks and the nature

of metamorphism, deformation, and time

of formation of the rocks. To work out an

evolutionary model and finally compare

these results with the Indian counterparts,

the above studies have been carried out in

the Schirmacher Oasis,

and parts of Wohlthat

ranges.

India has also been suc-

cessful in retrieving ice

cores to decipher

palaeoclimatic history

of polar continental ice.

An ice core is a sample

of the ice that might

have been burried over

hundreds or even thou-

sands of years. This iceIce Core Drilling

Ice Core Archival Facility Ice Core Processing

49


preserves the trapped air bubbles represent-

ing gases from geological past. The com-

position of these ice cores, especially the

presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes,

provides a picture of the climate as well as

the time of the deposition of snow. Because

water molecules containing heavier isotopes

exhibit a lower vapor pressure, when the tem-

perature falls, the heavier water molecules will

condense faster than the normal water mol-

ecules. The relative concentrations of the

heavier isotopes in the condensate indicate

the temperature of condensation at the time,

allowing for ice cores to be used in global

temperature reconstruction. In addition to

the isotope concentration, the air bubbles

trapped in the ice cores provide an opportu-

nity to measure the atmospheric concentra-

tions of trace gases, including greenhouse

gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and ni-

trous oxide. The air bubbles may also con-

tain traces of aerosols, which are produced in

great concentrations during volcanic erup-

tions. Shallow cores, or the upper parts of

cores in high-accumulation areas, can be

dated exactly by counting individual layers,

each representing a year.

The Indian contributions towards glaciologi-

cal studies in Antarctica were initiated in

1982-83. The initial observations recorded

fluctuations of polar continental ice margin,

ablation and accumulation pattern of the ice

shelf, details of stratigraphic zonation within

the shelf ice, melting rates on shelf ice during

the polar day etc. The net average accumula-

tion of snow over the ice shelf near the In-

dian research base is estimated to be more

than 50 cm. Studies also indicate that the

growth patterns have a strong temporal bias,

encompassing different segment of the year.

Surface drift is the major source of both ac-

cumulation and ablation.

Scientists are conducting different geomag-

netic measurements in Antarctica to compre-

hend the response of the experimental setup

to various atmospheric, electrical and meteo-

rological conditions and assess the role of so-

lar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interac-

tions in modulating the Global Electric Cir-

cuit etc.

The studies on seismo tectonics and

geodynamical processes between Antarctica

and Southern Indian Peninsula by GPS-Ge-

odesy and seismology were initiated in 1997

by the National Geophysical Research Insti-

tute (NGRI). The primary objective of ob-

taining the signatures of geodynamical and

crustal deformation processes have already

50


been achieved and more detailed studies are

being currently done.

India’s research activities in the polar remote

sensing field concentrates on cryosphere re-

mote sensing which aims at the extraction

of sea ice surface characteristics from the

observed electromagnetic signatures sensed

by the space borne sensors. The threshold

technique of quasi co polarized ratio and

quasi co polarized difference during win-

ter and summer have been used to distin-

guish water and ice pixels for delineating

the sea ice in the background of open sea.

Some of these studies have been fine tuned

and some long-term investigations have

been initiated.

Environmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences

A comprehensive study of the different en-

vironmental components viz., air water,

land, noise is being carried out at the

Indian Polar research station Maitri, in

compliance with the statutory require-

ments of the Antarctic Treaty. India has

established an Environmental Monitoring

Laboratory at Maitri. The objectives are

to assess the impacts of various scientific

programmes and their logistic support

The 2003 Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse at Antarctica

51


facilities on the fragile system of Antarc-

tica, identify the major sources of pollu-

tion and quantification of pollution load.

Previous studies reported that the level of

pollution at Maitri are not alarming but

there is a scope for concern looking into

the critical aspects of Antarctic environ-

ment and the carrying capacity of the

environment surrounding the Maitri

station.

Shri Arun ChaturvediParticipant of X, XII (Wintering), XV

(Wintering & Leader), XIX (Wintering& Leader), XXII, XXV, XXVII (Winter-

ing & Leader) Expedition.

Shri Ajay DharParticipant of V, VI (Wintering), XV,XVIII (Wintering & Leader), XXII,

XXIII, XXVI (Leader Larsemann Team),XXVII (Leader Larsemann Team)

Expedition.

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52


52

AreaAreaAreaAreaArea Ice-free areaIce-free areaIce-free areaIce-free areaIce-free area1.39 times bigger than the USA (2% of total)13,829,430 km2 280,000 km2

Largest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice Shelfhelfhelfhelfhelf MountainsMountainsMountainsMountainsMountainsRoss ice shelf: Transantarctic Mountain chain:(about the size of France) 3,300 km510,680 km2 Highest mountain: Mt. Vinson - 4,892 m

TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature WindWindWindWindWindLowest recorded - 89.2°C Maximum recorded gust:248.4 km/h

IceIceIceIceIce PPPPPopulationopulationopulationopulationopulationAntarctica has 70% of all the worlds freshwater About 4,000 on scientific bases in theFrozen as ice and 90% of all worlds ice short summer 1,000 total in winterMean thickness is 1,829 m around 25,000 summer tourists -

are no permanent residents and no nativepopulation.

GovernanceGovernanceGovernanceGovernanceGovernance Discovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationGoverned by the Antarctic Treaty System 1st time anyone set foot was in 1821

1st overwintering in 1898South Pole was first reached in 1911

“If Antarctica’s ice sheets melted, the worlds oceans would rise by 60 to 65 metres (200 - 210ft) - everywhere.”

“The largest land animal in Antarctica is an insect, a wingless midge, Belgica antarctica, less than 1.3cm(0.5in) long. There are no flying insects (they’d get blown away), just shiny black springtails that hop likefleas and tend to live among penguin colonies”.

“When the Antarctic sea-ice begins to expand at the beginning of winter, it advances by around 40,000square miles (100,000 square kilometres) per day, and eventually doubles the size of Antarctica, addingup to an extra 20 million square kilometres of ice around the land mass”.

“One of the biggest icebergs ever (possibly the biggest iceberg ever) broke free from the Ross ice shelf in Antarctica in2000”.

IXAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICA

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53


53

Dear Reader,

Antarctica has remained as an area of immense curiosity and awe due to

its inaccessibility and inhospitable climate. Though the scene is changing fast with the

opening of ice runways and ships carrying tourists, yet this continent continues to be

the last wilderness because of no permanent habitation.

We have attempted to bring together information scattered at various locations

for students interested in knowing different aspects pertaining to Antarctica. The ac-

count varies from the discovery of the continent to stories of heroism, gradual shifting

of scene from the days of huskies to automobile/ motorized ships/ aircrafts, the unique

flora and fauna capable of surviving in the extreme cold and finally the Indian initiative

in this land.

We sincerely hope that the book will stimulate our young minds, which is the

main objective of this ‘popular series’.

(Rasik Ravindra)

DirectorNCAOR

EPILEPILEPILEPILEPILOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUE

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54

BIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRAPHYAPHYAPHYAPHYAPHY

Many articles, books and websites were consulted in search of material for this book.

While all known and unknown sources are thanked, the main ones are listed below.

Arun (2005): Rochak aur Romanchak Antarctica, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi.

Australian Antarctic Division: www.aad.gov.au

British Antarctic Survey: www.antarctica.ac.uk

Global Warming: http://www.climatehotmap.org/index.html

Gateway to Antarctica: http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz

Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: Third and Ninth Scientific Reports.

International Polar Year: www.ipy.org

Kids Design Antarctic Experiments: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/news/05-02/

antarctica.html

New Zealand Antarctic Survey: www.antarcticanz.govt.nz

National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research: www.ncaor.gov.in

National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/

Nova warnings from the ice: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/)

Polar meteorology web module: http://www.weather.nps.navy.mil/~psguest/polarmet

Polar regions: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/intl/pola/webpage.html

Portals of the world: http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html

Scott Polar Research Institute: http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk

The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research: www.scar.org

The Commission for the conservation of the Antarctic marine life: www.ccamlr.org

The secretariat of the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC): www.asoc.org

The South Pole: www.south-pole.com

The explorer web: (http://www.thepoles.com/)

Teachers experiencing Antarctica and Arctic: http://tea.armadaproject.org

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ResearcResearcResearcResearcResearch Teamh Teamh Teamh Teamh Team

Manish Tiwari National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchC.M. Laluraj National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchLalit Kumar Ahirwar National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

AdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisors

S. Mukherjee Geological Survey of IndiaArun Chaturvedi Geological Survey of IndiaK. R. Gupta Geological Society of IndiaN. Khare National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchAjai Saxena Ministry of Earth Sciences

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Documents

Story of Antarctica