Starratt Dissertation Guide

8/4/2019 Starratt Dissertation Guide

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Rev. Paul Pudussery, csc., Ph. DAdopted from the class notes of Jerry Starratt

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Suggestions for Writing a Dissertation

1.0: Model Chapter One of a Dissertation

Title: Chapter One: Overview of the Study

Introduction

This should be a one or two page lead-in to the problem or topic of the study. E.g., suppose your

study were a study of the results of the first two administrations of the MCAS for Special NeedsChildren. In your introduction, you may want to provide an abbreviated history of the policy and

legislative initiatives that brought special needs children into the mainstream of public education,and how their presence in the mainstream is qualified by many complex systems of support.

You may then wish to chronicle the history of recent school reform initiatives, with theirattendant high-stakes assessments, and the immediate concern over the assessment of special

needs children. You may then want to review the provision of various safeguards andalternatives available to special needs children in the state assessment procedures. All of this is a

lead-in to the positioning of your study.

Focus of the studyStatement of the ProblemTopic of the StudyAny of these subtitles or variations on them will do. The purpose of this section is to clearly and

concisely state what your study is about. Using the above example, you might want to say thatyour study is an attempt to document what the state wide scores were for special needs children,

broken down into the percentages of special needs children scoring in each of the four categories(or however they score the exams of special needs children). Usually a dissertation involves

more than simply providing columns of descriptive statistics, so your study might want to go into

some comparisons and contrasts. Your study might want to compare the results of the statewidescores of special needs children (the percentages falling in each of the scoring categories) withthe results of the general education population of children in the state, comparing the percentages

scoring in each of the scoring categories. Your study might also want to compare thosesimilarities of percentages or differences of percentages falling in each category with the per

pupil expenditures for children in various school districts representing differing levels of per pupil expenditures. You may further wish to make comparisons and contrasts among school

districts on the basis of average class sizes, and availability of teacher aides or teaming withspecial education teachers, to see whether this made any difference in the similarities or

disparities of percentages of children scoring in each category.

Research QuestionsHere is where you break down you focus of the study into very specific questions. The

questions do not have to be many. Usually three to five should get the job done, although Ivehad dissertations with but one or two questions. You may state your questions in the form of

hypotheses or null-hypotheses, or simply as questions. In the case of the special needs childrensassessments, you may wish to propose the following hypotheses: 1) the statewide percentage of

special needs children in the lower two scoring categories will be significantly larger than the percentage of general education children in the lower two scoring categories; 2) those


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communities at the top ten percent of per pupil expenditures will have special needs children

whose score distribution reflects significantly better score distribution than those communities atthe bottom ten percent of per pupil expenditures; 3) Those school districts with lower (18 or

lower)class sizes will have special needs children with score profiles significantly higher thanschool districts with large class sizes (25 and over). Those school districts which provide

additional teacher aides and special education teachers to work alongside of the generaleducation teachers in every classroom will have special needs children with score profiles

significantly better than those school systems that do not provide such supports in everyclassroom; 5) Those school districts which reveal all of the above supports for their special needs

students, namely, they are in the top ten percent of per pupil expenditures in the state, their classsizes never exceed 18, and they provide teacher aides and special education teachers for every

classroomthose districts will show the highest score profile of special needs children in thestate.

Theoretical Rationale

This is perhaps the most demanding part of Chapter One. And it is the part best served by wide

reading around your topic. Here is where you cite the research on the relationship between per pupil expenditures and school achievement, and its attendant research on community taxableincome, education of the taxpayers, and their willingness to spend extra money for high quality

education. (and the attendant involvement of the school board to see that the schools provide it).Connected to the per pupil expenditure research one would expect to find the research on the

effects of class size on achievement scores, as well as the effect on achievement scores of specialeducation children who attend mainstreamed classes where there is both a special education

teacher and a general education teacher. There should also probably be some review of theresearch on time-on-task effects on achievement, since the argument would suggest that smaller

classes and more human and instructional resources would enable youngsters to spend morefocused time engaged in the learning tasks. The argument would then suggest that the

cumulative effect of all of these supports would be associated with the highest achievement scoreprofiles for the special education population.

The purpose of the Theoretical Rational section is to bring interpretive frameworks to bear on the phenomena you are studying. If you expect to find certain things in your study, this section

answers the question, why? It provides the landscape of intelligibility that stands behind thestudy. In chapter five, when you are discussing your results, you will go back to your theoretical

rationale and be able to say, as the theory and research undergirding this study would havepredicted, our results show that blah, blah, blah. Or, if your findings did not come out as the

theory had suggested they would, you then go on to comment on how your findings are distinctfrom previous research, and you go on to discuss what might account for this difference. There

may be some contextual variables in your study that were not in any of the earlier studies. Forexample, one of your schools may have had a low per-pupil expenditure, but employed a lot of

peer tutoring and cooperative learning between general ed and special ed kids, and so that mayaccount for the higher than expected achievement scores of this special ed sub sample in your

study.

One question that always arises is how much detail to go into here without turning this sectioninto what is supposed to be in Chapter Two, namely, the review of the literature. My response is


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to provide enough of an exposition of your theoretical argument, with references to the literature

included, so the reader has an initial sense of the foundations behind the study. A more elaboratetreatment of the literature will follow in Chapter Two.

Significance of the study

Connected to the theoretical rationale, this part of the first chapter answers the so what?question. Lets say that you set out to find something, and you find it. So what? Whats the

value to the field of your findings? The significance may be, in the study above, that althoughcomparisons have been made of the achievement of special needs children and general education

children, no one has studied the comparisons in score profiles across a whole state that hasengaged in high stakes testing. Or, although studies like this have been conducted in Kentucky,

for example, their scoring rubrics involve a spread of eight categories instead of four. Thesignificance of your study may be to show the advantages to special needs children to having an

eight categories of scores rather than four categories.

The significance issue may have several dimensions. Your study may indicate the need for a

revised or new policy regarding the testing of the type of children in the study; it may suggest anew set of policy implementation guidelines are needed; it may suggest a revised form ofinstructional treatment more closely aligned to the test, or indeed the provision of more diverse

items on the test. In other words, your study should have some anticipated benefit for the field.Even if the anticipated results in your study are not forthcoming say, that none of the variable

you included in your study made any differencethe study would still have considerable value,for it would now challenge the accepted wisdom of the field.

Research DesignSome dissertation mentors entirely exclude this section from the first chapter, since it will be

treated at length in the Third Chapter. I suggest its inclusion in a very abbreviated form in thefirst chapter, so the reader has an initial sense of how you will carry out the study.

The section begins with a reference to the research questions or the hypotheses being tested, andsimply states the overall research methodology: Quantitative (descriptive statistics; survey of

attitudes, opinions, beliefs, values, in order to study of correlations among variables of race,gender, age groups; program evaluation using pretest and post test data; quasi experimental with

a control group and a treatment group; more complex statistical analysis using national databases); Qualitative (case study, qualitative program evaluation, comparative case studies, critical

ethnographical, participant observation, participant action research on a change process, etc.),Historical study of one event, using multiple sources of evidence: longitudinal historical study

comparing an institutional characteristic as presented over several decades or several centuries),Theoretical (comparing and contrasting two or three theoretical positions around the same topic,

providing a commentary and elaboration of one theoretical position, analyzing varyinginterpretations of one theory over two or three generations).

There could be a one or two sentence explanation of why that approach was deemed the mostappropriate for studying the question or hypothesis under study. A one or two sentence on the

projected sample involved and a one or two sentence statement of the data analysis procedures.


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Limitations of the studyThis section would not be included in the first chapter if the prior section on research design

were not included. It would be included toward the very end of Chapter Three in that case. Ilike to see it in the first chapter, since it indicates that the researcher has already begun to

critically evaluate the legitimacy of his study according to explicit research standards.

This section provides a series of disclaimers a scholar would make ahead of time indicatingvarious shortcomings of the study, both actual and possible. Some of these shortcomings would

involve the size of the sample (and hence the limitation on potential generalizations), the sampleselection process may tilt the outcomes in a certain way (as in purposive sampling, or the use of

outlier samples, for example), the first use of an instrument (and hence the need for furtherreliability and validity tests), the difficulties encountered in administering the survey, etc. One

of the probable limitations in most studies is the bias of the researcher. Researcher biasinescapably creeps into all studies, so it is always good to acknowledge it up front. There will

also be response bias (the respondents giving answers they think the researcher wants to hear).

Usually, your mentor will be a good source for suggestions in this section.

Definition of Terms

Some mentors insist on a definition of key terms in the study, some do not. In the example wehave been using on the testing of special education children, those definitions would probably

include the legal definitions of children considered as special needs children, the definition of thetest the state was using, as well as a definition of the four categories used in scoring the tests.

There would probably be a definition of a special education teacher, as distinct from a specialeducation aide. Per pupil expenditure would need to be defined since different school districts

report that figure differently, some including costs of transportation, and administrativeoverhead; some use a definition closer to the amount spent on instruction, or the amount spent

within the school (but not for the central office support resources).

Overview of the Study

This is a kind of pro forma section at the very end of the chapter where you tell the reader whatwill be treated in each chapter of the dissertation. So, the First Chapter will provide an

introduction to the study. The Second Chapter will provide an overview of the relevant bodies ofliterature which have influenced the direction and design of the study. The third Chapter will

present the overall research design, indicating the various methodologies employed in gatheringrelevant data, rationale for using those methodologies, sampling techniques, pilot studies (if

employed), Methods of data analysis and reporting the data. Chapter Four will present thefindings of the study. Chapter Five will summarize the findings, discuss the findings in the light

of the theoretical rational and the relevant literature, and make recommendations for policy,practice, and further research.


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1:2:0 Model Chapter Two of a Dissertation

Chapter Two presents a Review of Related Literature, and should be so titled. Thechapter should begin with an introductory paragraph or two which provides a road map

for the reader, indicating the major bodies of literature (both research literature and the

theory literature) that deal with or are related to the topic under study. In the exampleused in Chapter One about the state wide testing results of special needs children inrelation to spending, class size, and multiple professional resources available for

classroom instruction, one would certainly want to refer to the appropriate policyliterature which mandates the mainstreaming of special needs children, even up to

involvement in state testing procedures. One would also want to cite research that dealswith the testing of special needs children, and the exemptions to which they are entitled.

One would also want to refer to the research on high stakes testing in terms of its practice, its efficacy, its negative effects, and its impact on instruction. There may be

recent literature on the relationship between achievement scores and per pupilexpenditures, between achievement scores and class size, between achievement scores

and additional professionals in the classroom. There may also be some longitudinalstudies on achievement scores rise and decline over five or ten year periods, especially

in relationship to the consistency of school renewal efforts, and the resources availableover time for professional development of teachers in the state curriculum standards.

There should certainly be a search for any studies that resemble the present one, and ifthere are, then it should be stated how the present study differs, if at all from those

previously published studies.

At the end of each major section of the review of the literature, the author should take a paragraph to indicate which studies are most apropos for the present study and why.

Then, at the end of the chapter, there should be a concluding paragraph or two indicating

how the various crucial texts in the review have helped to shape and nuance the presentstudy

1:3:0 Model Chapter Three of Your Dissertation

Chapter Three: Research Design / Design of the Study (either will do)

IntroductionThis should be a brief road map for the reader, indicating the major parts of the chapter.

Research Question (s) or HypothesesHere you restate the research question which you will be studying.

Research MethodologyHere you indicate the methodology you will employ to generate the data which will

answer your questions or support your hypotheses. You should now go into some detailon the type of methodology you will employ and explain why this methodology is a

good/ the best methodology to use. (There are a number of books on ed research which


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explain why one type of methodology is appropriate in some cases, and another is more

appropriate in still other cases, so feel free to quote two or more of these authors asfavoring your choice, given the questions you are asking.

Sample

Here you want to go into some detail about your sample from which you will get yourdata. You should indicate the criteria of selection into the sample, criteria for the size and

make up of the sample. You should also indicate how, in fact, you got your sample. Youshould deal explicitly here with issues of consent, confidentiality, anonymity and ethical

issues around protecting human subjects in research.

Pilot TestHere you indicate whether you conducted a pilot test of your interview protocol or survey

instrument or experiment, whatever. Not all studies require a pilot test (e.g. an historicalstudy, a program evaluation that employs protocols used elsewhere). But if you had a

pilot test, you should describe it, and indicate how you used it to shape/improve/modify

the present study.

Data Gathering Procedures.

Here you should try to describe how you intend to actually gather your data, step by step,beginning with getting the necessary permissions to conduct your study. This part of the

chapter usually has to be rewritten after the data has been gathered, because there isusually one or more glitches in the procedures (e.g. you had intended to present your

study to the teachers at a faculty meeting, but instead the principal did, and did it in avery authoritative way, and that may have affected the percentage of returns of your

survey.)

Method of Data AnalysisIn this section you describe how you plan to analyze your data. In quantitative studies,you would indicate the statistical procedures you would employ to manipulate your data

into various categories for analysis. In qualitative studies, you might employ one of thesoftware processes for combing through interview and other types of qualitative raw data.

Other types of qualitative analysis involves coding the data under various rubrics andlooking for patterns and relationships that begin to appear in various coded clusters of

data. This section is often rewritten after the data has been analyzed, since other methodsof analysis may have been introduced which you hadnt foreseen when you were writing

this chapter. Thats ok, since the proposal is just that: a proposal, not a finished study. Inmost dissertations, All three chapters of the proposal are usually rewritten in the light of

how the study actually turned out.

Formats for Reporting the DataIn this section you attempt to indicate your plans for reporting the data. Will you use a

lot of charts and graphs? Summaries of narratives in sequence?Thematic selections fromall of the narratives? Again, this represents your best guess at the most appropriate way

to report your findings. You may change your mind, or modify your plans after you havemassaged the data many times. This is simply your initial plan. Again, having to think


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about this early will sometimes influence the kind of data you gather, and the kind of

parameters you set around your data gathering procedures.

Frameworks for Discussing the FindingsMany dissertations, if not most, do not include this section. I recommend that it be

included so that the author is forced early on to recognize that an important part of his orher study is the discussion in the final chapter. This usually forces the author to go back

to the theoretical rationale behind the study. Were the assumptions in the rationaleactually born out? Also, in the lit review, did your findings contradict or agree with

earlier studies, or suggest a new interpretation of older studies?

The Chapter should conclude with a nice transition into Chapter Four, the presentation ofyour Findings.

1:4:0 Suggestions for Chapters 4 & 5

This material is a continuation of materials that I've been asked to share with BC Ed

Admin Faculty and doc students on the writing of dissertation chapters. It is not, by theway, Divine Revelation, so be assured that I fully realize that what follows is not

necessarily the perfect way to compose a dissertation. Rather, after years of directing EdAdmin dissertations, these are my notions of how to do it, especially for students who

intend to remain as practitioners in the field. I fully expect that it will be modified andadapted by some, carefully followed by others, and discarded by still others. For those

who would like them, I also can attach exemplary chapters 4 & 5, culled fromdissertations I have directed or read.

Chapter 4 FINDINGS

Before getting into the composition of chapter 4, it might be helpful to comment on the

hard work that precedes the writing of ch 4.

After the dissertation proposal (first three chapters ) have been approved, the actualgathering of data will begin in earnest. Here, the plan outlined in ch 3 for conducting the

research swings into action. Surveys are sent out, interviews scheduled, observations ofcrucial events begun, experimental and control or comparison groups are involved in the

treatment., the effects of which are the unit of analysis. More often than not, things do not

work out as planned. A crucial liaison person at the site goes on medical leave,unanticipated problems with the teachers' union crop up, the principal at the site fails tomake the necessary accommodations for interviewing staff and the staff are put off, a

gang war among the student body has broken out and disrupted the climate and dailyrunning of the school such that your data gathering efforts are impeded--the list goes on

and on about all the unanticipated messes that interfere with your data gathering. But donot despair. Your situation is normal, not abnormal in the carrying on of research. You


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simply go back to chapter three after the study is over and record how the data was

actually gathered (despite unanticipated obstacles).

After the data is more or less gathered. The novice researcher stares in stupefaction at the boxes and boxes of survey forms, transcriptions of interviews, computer printouts of

thirty five statistical manipulations of the variables, field notes of observations,documents gathered in the effort to triangulate the data. This might be a good time to go

back to Sharan Merriam's Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications inEducation (especially pp. 155-168) for reminders for those doing qualitative

dissertations, or to texts dealing with quantitative data analysis. Now comes the arduouswork of pouring over the data and organizing it into some sensible piles under major

categories. Coding of the data becomes important at this point. Some will use softwarefor data analysis, but that still requires coding the material as you put it into the computer.

Some will start out with the field notes from the observation episodes and see whatcategories emerge from the notes, what repetitions of activities, rituals, metaphors,

political exchanges, what relationships between important variables seem to be evident,

patterns of association, references to power sources, enemies, past history of failures anddashed expectations, etc. Once the field notes have been coded, the analysis can go backto the piles of data sorted by codes and ask questions of these data: Why is this always

related to that? Why is it certain actors get to take charge and other do not? What is thesymbolic weight of the story about the fire in the locker room that is referenced in five of

the six visits to the teachers' lounge? Who exercises the informal leadership in thevarious episodes I observed, and do they represent union sentiments or board sentiments?

If the field notes do not yield enough data for answering those questions, they can still benoted for later questioning of other data sources.

The researcher moves on to the interview data, again coding for relationships, themes,

repetitions, patterns, striking metaphors. Since interview questions are usually designedto get at the research questions indirectly so as to avoid leading the subject to give youthe answer the question suggests, the coding will also be directed to the large issues

implied in the research questions, such as the frequency of teachers' conversations aboutstudent work, or the positive impact on the adoption of new instructional protocols

brought about by a specific professional development process. When the interviewresponses are coded and put into their respective piles, the researcher pokes around some

more and asks questions of the data piles: are there two or three different interpretationsof student success in this pile of responses coded as "student success"? What is the

culture of teacher autonomy revealed by this pile of responses labeled "resistance tochange"? There are three different kinds of pull-out programs at these schools; do I need

to put this pile of responses labeled "pull-out programs" into three distinct piles? Theresearcher also looks for congruence between impressions garnered from field

observations and interviews. Which impressions from one data source is echoed by theother data source? Also, do the questions that surfaced from my earlier reflections on the

coded field data find clues among responses in the interviews, and vice versa? Or, do thefield observations seem to be quite at variance with the responses to the interviews?

What could be the source of the variance?


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After messing around with the interview data, the researcher moves on to any quantitative

data and statistical analyses. What trends are evident there? What significantcorrelations appear? What data confirms my research hypotheses, or answer my research

questions? Which suggest, on the contrary, a negative relationship rather than thepositive one I was looking for? Again, the researcherlooks for congruence between the

observations, the interviews, and the quantitative data. Are all three data sourcesconfirming one another? Where are the surprises and discontinuities?

Similarly for the document analysis: do they confirm or disconfirm my hypotheses, or

answer my research questions? Are there relationships between the dates of thedocuments and observed changes in the administrators' behaviors? Do the observations

contradict what the documents proclaim about the mission of the school, or about thetherapeutic effects of the suspension program? Is the prologue to the teachers' contract

about teamwork and generosity given the lie by the observed political infighting betweenthe union and the administration, or is the assertive, in-you-face behavior of both

administration and faculty simply a manifestation of a larger urban culture, underneath

which there is a sense of teamwork and generosity?

As you can see, this is hard work, requiring the lonely asceticism of the cloistered scholar

who descends to the bunker for whole days of uninterrupted picking through the datasources, trying to bring intelligibility out of the debris of human testimony, putting aside

interesting stories of mischief and malice and humorous intersections of unlikelypartnerships which the data reveal, but which have nothing to do with the focus of the

study. The focus has to be relentless, like a detective searching through a crime scene forclues that lead to the perpetrator, casting aside other interesting observations about the

scene that have nothing to do with the crime or the criminal (the victim used Callowaygolf clubs, or wore such and such designer clothes, or drank Pepsi instead of Coke, etc.).

This will be the most tedious aspect of doing the dissertation, although for many thetedium will be punctuated after a while with bursts of satisfying insight, as the databegins to speak back with an emerging clarity. Periodically, however, the gaunt, bleary-

eyed scholar will need to emerge from the bunker for a holiday from the tedium, so as toreturn to the bunker and the data sets with fresh eyes and rested cognitive searchlights.

All this work is an example of what has been recently labeled a constructivist

approach to learning (and you used to think constructivist learning must be a lot morefun than passively memorizing the teacher's lectures). All this before you can write

Chapter 4. Later on, you may go back to Ch 3 and provide more information about howyou processed the data once collected (how you constructed knowledge!). For now,

however, get on with the happy task of reporting your findings in their recentlyrationalized packaging.

Introduction to Chapter 4

As you begin Chapter four, put in a clear introductory chapter that tells the reader howyou plan to divide the labor between ch 4 and ch 5 (If you have a complex study

brimming over with information that clamors to be shared, then you might have twochapters of findings, with your 6

thchapter providing the commentary and


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recommendations. Because some researchers spend a lot of time presenting the data

under the organizing principle of the research questions in ch 4, and some do more of thisin ch 5, it helps to let the reader know what you're putting in ch 4 and what your saving

for ch 5. There is no necessary or required way to present your findings. Some wouldsay you present the findings in ch 4 and the interpretation of the findings in ch 5. But as

should be obvious from the dreary narrative of the cloistered scholar above, the findingsare already the result of a lot of interpretation of the data. From my perspective, there is

no such thing as an "objective" finding. All findings (even dates) are presented in someform of humanly constructed framework of intelligibility within which the finding has

meaning, a meaning that is further nuanced by other categories of intelligibility that precede and follow the finding. (the finding that "Columbus discovered America in

1492", or "The North won the battle of Getteysburg" are considered objective statementsabout an historical reality, but only , I repeat, within humanly constructed (and humanly

distorting) frames of interpretation. I prefer to say that you present your findings in ch 4and you discuss or comment on the findings in chapter five. But even there, sometimes

the presentation of findings with some needed commentary can go in ch 4 and additional

commentary can come in ch 5.

However it works, tell your reader at the start of ch 4 how the next two or three chapters

will proceed. (You will have already done this, you recall, at the end of chapter 1, whenyou provided a brief overview of the study, giving us an outline of the chapters to come.)

A second paragraph or two in the Introduction should provide a clear road map to chapter4 for the reader. This road map will include, at least, the major headings in the chapter

and, where deemed necessary, the subheadings. Later in the chapter, when you get tothose major parts of the chapter, signal to the reader, perhaps with a bridge paragraph

from the previous section to the new section, saying, in effect to the tourists you areleading, "We are just leaving such and such an area, which as you know was the place

where., and we are about to enter this other area which differs from the previous area but is another important part of this whole site.:" So you provide the map at thebeginning of the chapter, and you refer to it explicitly at appropriate times of transitions

to new parts of the chapter. Remember, by this time you know your data backwards andforwards; it's there teeming in your mind. The reader, on the other hand, is entering the

forest of your data clusters for the first time, unsure where the path is leading. Tochange the metaphor: You are the chef. You've cooked the data and basted it, sauted,

tenderized and seasoned it. But your reader is encountering this feast for the first time.So at the beginning your provide a menu, and then as the feast progresses you help the

reader know what they are about to taste in each of the major portions of this banquetfilled with yummy data delicacies and surprising syrups and sauces of data syntheses.

So the guests can smack their lips and say, "Oh how clever to mix the standardcoefficients with the disaggregated regression analysis!" or "How tasty this morsel of

classical political conflict when mixed with street-level racism!" In other words, giveyour guests a chance to recognize what you are serving them.

Major Divisions of the Chapter

Depending on your study, there are any number of ways to organize your findings. Asthe researcher, you should have reasonable autonomy to lay out the findings in the way


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that seems most appropriate to you. Let me describe some ways it has been done in my

experience.

Whether your study is a quantitative or a qualitative study, you may want to provideandintroductory description of the site and the major characters of your study. If your

study is an evaluation or a case study of a project at the school, you may want to providea brief overview of the project, with references to the unit of analysis for this study.

Assuming that you have agreed to provide anonymity and confidentiality to the subjectsof the study, you may wish to give fictitious names to the school or school system and

indicate that your study involved a school or school system in Northeastern UnitedStates, or New England, or "on the East coast". If your study involves an interview of

five to ten superintendents, you may wish to provide and introductory description of eachof them, ("Superintendent X rose quickly from behind his desk cluttered with numerous

stacks of files and computer print-outs and greeted me with a genuine smile. Thoughlooking somewhat disheveled, his mind was anything but that as he incisively and

confidently responded to my questions." "Superintendent Y met me in the student

cafeteria of the school he was visiting that day. He introduced me to the table of studentswith whom he was sharing a meal and invited me to join them for lunch. He explained tothe students that I was from the university and was coming to study the process of

curriculum mapping the teachers had been involved in for the past two years. Thestudents seemed confused and unsure of how to speak to a visiting scholar, but the

superintendent tried to put them at their ease by talking about their stirring victory overtheir cross-town rivals in volleyball that week." These descriptions can be clustered all

together at the beginning of the presentation of the findings, or introduced as vignettes atthe start of a section dealing with each interview.

If you are doing a case study situated in one school, then you can write an introduction to

the school, providing enough detail for the reader to get a sense or a picture of the school("located on a hilly campus surrounded by oak and maple trees in a newly developed partof the town, this one story, white-bricked structure spread out in a y-shaped pattern,

providing a pleasant view of the landscaped campus from every classroom"; or on thecontrary, "this four storied hulk of red brick, long coated with city soot, grime, and

pigeon droppings, looked out on a cement parking lot, a cement playground, a twelvefoot high fence surrounding what was euphemistically called a campus, and graffiti-

covered walls of nearby public housing. In contrast to its foreboding exterior, however,the interior walls were brightly lit and covered with tropical pastels, displaying posters of

national heroes and inspirational sayings associated with them, and bulletin boardsexploding with student art designs, student science demonstrations, photographs of

laughing faces, and photos taken on city outings."

You get the idea.

In a study reporting the findings of a survey, the findings can be organized according toeach question on the survey, presenting the responses in terms of descriptive statistics

(frequencies, means and percentages). After the responses to each question of the surveyhave been presented, the researcher may wish to highlight demographic features of the


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population who sent in survey responses. The researcher may also do some correlational

analyses of variables around gender, age, years in the job, union affiliation, degrees, andso forth to see whether groups of respondents under various categories differed

significantly from other groups of respondents. There may be findings under one or twoquestions that closely mirror the findings of one or two other questions, where the logical

connection seems apparent, and these may be represented in a figure that stacks theresponses along side one another. Speaking of figures, it is helpful to use many figures to

represent quantitative data sets in a summary fashion. These figures give the reader aneyeball view of the variables being quantified. However, each figure should have a prose

exposition of what the numbers signify.

Some will organize their data chronologically. For example, in presenting the findingsof a change process, the data may be organized according to the initiation phase, the

implementation phase, and the institutionalization phase. Within those phases, theresearcher may report what the triangulated data reveal--data contained in field notes of

observations, data from interviews, and data from documentation or from initial

quantitative measures. After the chronological presentation of the findings, the data mayalso be presented using additional analytic perspectives on change, such as Fullan'sdistinction between re-culturing and restructuring, or Bollman& Deal's analysis using

cultural, structural, human resource and symbolic frames for analyzing what was goingon during the three chronological phases. One study I directed presented quantified pre

and post treatment student test data after studying the change process for a year, and then presented an analysis of the change process itself. The analysis of the change process

helped to explain why the outcome data showed no significant testable change in studentlearning. That is, the findings on the processes employed to conduct the change showed

how substantially flawed the process was. This researcher used Miles andHuberman'scategories on what is needed to institutionalize change to show how many

crucial variables were ignored in the process. This was a good example of a mixedmethodreporting of findings, where the qualitative data helped to interpret the quantitative data.

In another dissertation, since the researcher had done all his field observations first,

followed by interviews, and then followed by document analysis, he presented hisfindings under subtitles referring to these three methods of data collection, reporting the

findings in the chronology in which he collected the data. This enabled him to write asmall summary of his findings at the end of each section : a summary of the patterns of

relationships (student to student, student to teacher, teacher to teacher and teacher toadministrator, administrator to civic leaders) he observed during the various times he

visited the school to observe what was going on.; a summary of themes and similarities inthe stories emerging from the interviews; a summary of the themes, metaphors,

organizational arrangements, and political alliances to be found in the memos, letters,newspaper accounts, board minutes , etc in his document review). After finishing the

presentation of his findings for all the sections, he concluded ch 4 with a large summaryof the convergence of findings from each section. At the very end of chapter 4, he

presented a large map of significant events which had led from the initiation of the project through its implementation towards its institutionalization, with arrows and


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symbols indicating strong or weak or negative relationships between events (similar to

those maps found in Miles &Huberman'sQualitative Data Analysis). The map provided avisual summary of the findings he had reported throughout chapter four. The map

provided a helpful segue to chapter 5, where he wrote an extensive commentary onvarious crucial elements illustrated in the map, referencing those elements to earlier

studies that had reported similarly crucial events at that part of the change process.

As you can see, in the reporting of the findings the researcher presents data as providing evidence of a "finding." "Findings" are not data; they are generalizations

offered more or less tentatively about what the data you have collected and coded signify,what you think they mean. The findings present charts and graphs of data, summary

tables or clusters of data from interviews and observations which are used as evidencethat support what you call a finding. For example a finding might be that fourth grade

student reading scores went up after the school tried a certain intervention. As evidenceof this finding, you present the quantitative data of pre- and post-treatment test scores.

The test scores are not findings; they enable you to report a finding that students

improved or did not from one test to another. Your finding may be more carefullynuanced by an analysis of the sub tests on the test that deal with vocabulary, logicalreasoning, story analysis, expository writing skills, showing that the increase in the total

score on the test was due to advances on two or three sub tests, but not on all of them.Thus your finding in this case can give a more refined interpretation of the data. Let's

look at this distinction from another perspective. Imagine a fourth chapter that simplyprovided you with the transcripts of ten interviews. The transcripts are not findings; they

are more or less "raw" data. Findings derived from those interviews would representinterpretations of the relative uniformity of opinions and attitude and accounts which the

interviews revealed to the researcher who was trying to find out these two or threespecific things through the interviews. Selected examples of the interviews might be

lined up under a finding that "all of the subjects reported a continuous experience ofsexism in their dealing with the administration."

Once the findings have been presented in chapter four, they may be marshaledinto clusters of findings that respond to the major research questions you have set out to

study. In some dissertations, this bringing of the findings to answer the researchquestions is handled toward the end of chapter four. In other dissertations, the author

prefers to summarize the findings in relationship to the research questions in chapter five,where the researcher can more visibly show herself or himself in the interpreting role

rather than the supposedly more objective reporting role adopted in ch 4. In theprocess of summarizing the findings significance relative to the research questions, the

author in chapter five may feel more comfortable in providing a running commentary ofhow the author sees connections between various findings that seem to point to a rather

conclusive response to each research question. On the other hand some researcherswould rather conclude chapter four by putting the research questions to bed, leaving

chapter five more open to a wider ranging commentary, comparing this study's findingsto other research findings, rummaging around in the theoretical rationale to come up with

possible explanations of why the findings came out the way they did, why the surprises inthe findings appeared, what new questions the findings raised that would need further


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exploration in future studies. As I said earlier, it is up to the researcher to shape what

gets done in ch 4 and what gets done in ch 5.

1:5:0 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS

Introduction Again, in the first paragraph provide the reader with a map or a

menu of what is to come .

Summary of Findings Here is where the researcher reports (even though it mayalso have been done in the fourth chapter) what answers to the research questions the

study produced. If the fourth chapter had reported on this, then this section can be ratherbrief. If not, this section may be more expansive, with some commentary and exposition

woven around the summary of the major findings that answer the questions or confirmthe hypotheses. By and large , this section should be crisp and concise. Then the fun

begins.

Discussion of the Findings At this point we find the mature scholar lighting up apipe or cigar, pouring a favorite drink in a large snifter , fluffing up the cushion on the

favorite rocking chair by the fireplace, striking the proper reflective pose, andmurmuring, "Hmmm. Now let's see what we can make of all this." At this point the

researcher knows more about his study than anyone else. Having worked on it sointensely, the researcher can let the study talk back to him or her as questions emerge out

of intuitions and hunches that percolate inside the researcher's fevered mind. Here iswhere the researcher asks, " Is there anything new that I've discovered, anything different

from earlier studies of this topic? What is the larger logic in my findings? Do myfindings, if presented clearly with sufficient scholarly and rhetorical scaffolding, have the

potential to change something very important to practitioners the field, somethingthat will knock the socks off the posturing policy community, something that willcause a paradigm shift in the dominant theory? While few dissertations do this, some

have, and it's worth asking the question. Sometimes the findings, while not exhibitingsuch dramatic significance, can nonetheless be significant enough to catch enough

people's attention to be worthy of a book. Here is where the researcher makes the casefor such significance

From a more modest stance, the reflective scholar, gently rocking back and forth,chin in upturned hand, gazing into the flickering flames, should be asking, "How do my

findings look against the landscape of various theories? What do those theories tell me Ishould ask further of my findings, or should have asked at the start but didn't? In this

section of the chapter it is allowable, even desirable to speculate, to imagine yourself in adebate with some of the giants in this field of research, to ask how your study would

appear to some of the most critical voices in the field. You may, in your professionalwork life, be a practical, detail-oriented administrator who has always criticized those

university types with their heads in the clouds of theory, but here is a chance to let thatrole go for a while and to enjoy some speculation. After all, you know more than anyone

else about this study, so you've earned the right to play the scholarly game, if only for tento twenty pages or so.


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Sometimes it helps to jostle the reflective juices by posing the question, "Well,

now you've finished. So What? Of what use is your study to any practitioners in thefield? To the policy community? To other research scholars who are working in this

area? What are the implications of my study for practice, for policy, for furtherresearch?" These are questions that should be answered in Chapter Five, and this part

usually comes toward the end of the chapter. But asking them early may lead you back tosome of the other questions, the more speculative stuff.

Limitations to the Study After the scholarly blather ("On the one hand, finding X

suggests that perhaps we may need to rethink Kornblaster's theory about .; on theother hand, finding Y makes one pause before endorsing out of hand Blasterkorn's policy

recommendation that all students should. When we put findings M, N O and Ptogether, we begin to see a new logic to the phenomenon of resistance to change) has

been pretty thoroughly played out, you should have a section on the limitations of thestudy. You may have already outlined such a section in chapter one, but it is helpful to

return to it in ch 5. Since ch 5 is where you will be touting the findings, it's important to

forestall your potential critics who are always ready to point to the obvious limitations ofyour findings because of a) b) c) d), etc. By devoting a section of ch 5 to presenting thelimitations of your study, you get there ahead of them and anticipate their criticism by

outdoing them at their own game. Given those limitations, you conclude with allmodesty, the findings, spectacular though they be, must be hedged around with

reservations. You may wish to return to Merriam's discussion of validity and reliabilityin chapter ten in order to sharpen your comments that might relate to the questions of

validity and reliability in your findings. This section sets you up for the section belowthat deals with Implications for Further Research.

Implications for Practice Here is where you begin to answer the "so what?" question.

You ask yourself why you wanted to do the study in the first place. It may have beendirectly related to some practice in the field which you thought was counter productive,or obsolete, or just plain stupid. Assuming that your findings confirmed your initial bias,

here is where you get a chance to spell out in spades why your findings suggest doingthings a different way. You findings may have also surprised you with some unexpected

revelations about possible improvements to be tried in the field. A big caution here: putyour recommendations for practice diplomatically. You don't want to come off as an

arrogant know-it-all who has finally brought the light to all those misguided or maliciouseducators in the field about how they need to do things differently. Given the limitations

of your study, you might phrase your recommendation in words such as " This studysuggests that teachers might try practice Y, especially with bi-lingual students.," or

"the findings of this study suggest that third grade reading teachers might try to modifypractice X by placing practice Y in front of it as providing additional scaffolding" or

"This study raises questions about the uniform application of zero-tolerance policies invogue in many school districts, pointing, perhaps, to a need for more discretion on the

part of administrators when dealing with children under six years of age," or " Thoughrestricted to middle school males, this study about the effects of bullying-prevention

interventions may offer possible courses of action for both secondary and primaryschools, especially the practice of .," or "This study of the effects of class size, per


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pupil expenditure and combining special education teachers with general education

teachers, suggests that lower class size may be the most influential variable on improvedspecial education students' scores on high stakes state tests."

Implications for Policy Again, diplomacy is called for. Some dissertations may have

no implications for policy. On the other hand, a study of successful bullying-preventioninterventions, or of the influence of class size on special education students'

achievements, may have clear policy implications at the school and district level. Otherstudies dealing directly with state policies may generate findings with implications for

modifying or initiating state policies.

Implications for Further Research Going back to the limitations, you can generate allkinds of recommendations for further research that will add additional variables not to be

found in your study (e.g., adding the variable of parental involvement with theirchildren's learning to the study of influences on special education students' achievement

on high stakes tests), replicating your study within different populations (doing the study

in an urban district next time, or a rural district; doing the study with science teachersnext time as well as language arts teachers, or doing the study with sixth graders andseventh graders next time around the variable of use of scaffolding to achieve readiness

for learning; or comparing senior teachers(over 60) with veteran teachers (over 40-under55), instead of veteran teachers with experienced teachers (more than 26 and less than40)

around the variable of use of computer assisted instruction. Sometimes an unexpectedfinding will generate a recommendation for further research. Sometimes a noticeable

differentiation between two sub populations of your study may suggest further study ofthese populations.

Conclusion You want to end your dissertation somehow the way a classical composer

ends a symphony. Sometimes that could be a personal statement of appreciation of thededication, integrity, vision, compassion or whatever of the subjects of the study, withoutwhich American schools would languish in a sea of ,,,. Some will end it with a

warning that, if the issues uncovered by this study are not attended to, the schools willdrift into a crisis situation, blah blahblah. Some will end their study with a hopeful

refrain, indicating that the findings of the study point to something very positive aboutschools, or about parents, or (glory be to God!) about school boards. What you do not

want to do is end without a conclusion. Your reader has been with you now for morethan two hundred pages; don't end abruptly, as though you were so happy to be rid of this

job, that you could not find a satisfying way to round it off. Your reader would fall offthe cliff into your silence, with a "well, I guess it's over," You want to leave the reader

with a feeling that you are glad that you did the study, that it taught you somethingworthwhile, that it provided you a platform to understand some things, that the topic is

worth continuing to pursue, that the study opened up new possibilities. If none of theabove would be true, then don't lie about it; say something that is true that affected you in

the study.


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Skeletal outline of Chapter 4

Introductiona) division of labor between ch 4 &ch 5b) road map or menu of what is to follow in the chapterIntroduction to the site, to the "project",to the subjects, to the unit of analysis

First Major cluster of Findings with supporting evidence, charts, figures, diagrams

and(perhaps) a brief summary of this section

Second Major cluster of Findings with supporting evidence, charts, figures, diagrams and(perhaps) a brief summary of the section

Third Major cluster of Findings etc.

Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, major cluster of Findings, etc

A summary of the cluster summaries (Triangulation, Convergences, continuities,

discontinuities, surprises), with diagrams, figures, charts, maps and prose exposition

Findings related to the Research Questions (in ch 4, or in ch 5, or in both) with or withoutadditional commentary

Concluding Summary to Ch 4

Skeletal Outline for Chapter 5

Introduction A Road map or menu of major sections of the chapter

Summary of Findings, usually related to the Research Questions, with crisp exposition of

the logic behind the findings.

Discussion of Findings Relating the findings to the "Big Picture"; relating the findingsto expectations from earlier research studies, from theoretical perspectives; relating the

findings to significant debates in the field; speculation about connections between

disparate findings, about surprises, and weird findings, etc.

Limitations of the study

Implications/Recommendations for Practice

Implications/Recommendations for Policy


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Implications/ Recommendations for Future Research

Concluding Statement


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2:0:1 Observation: An overview

Observation is fundamental to all the qualitative inquiry (Rossman& Rallis, 2003). In

observation, the researcher takes field notes (Sanjek, 1990) on the behavior and activities

of individuals at the research site (Creswell, 2003). My research site was the campus and

I choose to observe through the dinning hall. This observation enabled me to draw

inferences about students meaning and perspective (Maxwell, 1996) that I could not

otherwise obtain by relying exclusively on an interview data. I choose to have two

observations; in one case, I was a full participant at the dinning table discussing diversity

and the possibility of having an Asian festival. In the other observation scenario, I was

simply an observer (Creswell, 2003. Muncey&McQuillan) without being a participant in

the conversation. The third option that I had in observation was to completely conceal my

role as a researcher and be part of the process. Reflecting on the experience, I am little

concerned about the ethics of such an observation process.

Advantages of observation:-

The advantage of observation is that the researcher can obtain a first hand experience

(Creswell, 2003) from his or her involvement with the participants. Through observation,

the researcher can also observe the repeated pattern of behavior that people are unwilling

to talk about in an interview (Rossman& Rallis, 2003).

My research will also explore certain uncomfortable aspects and stereotypes of

anthropological diversity. This kind of observation will assist the researcher and the

participants to move beyond the selective cultural perceptions and clichs common to the

public and enable them to construct meaning from certain consistent observable patterns..

Approaches to note taking:-


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How can one record these observations to ensure the validity of the research? These

recording of researchers observations are known as field notes (Sanjek, 1990). Field

notes are texts that document immutable records of some past occurrence. Field notes

will enable the researcher to recreate the past with certain authenticity in order to dissect

and to make quality assumptions that can be grounded on facts. Field note can achieve

this by recording the lengthy accounts of the observed scenario, with its complex patterns

of interaction, and by putting these accounts into journals, note books, audio types, and

even videos (Stevens). Field notes can be described as systematic record of the

researchers impressions, insights and emerging hypotheses (Rossman& Rallis, 2003).

They need to be descriptive and concrete. It is important that the researcher write up the

notes as soon as possible after leaving the field of research (class notes). The field notes

need to contain time, date, location, facts, sensory impressions, personal responses,

specific words that resonate special meaning, questions that arise in the mind, page

numbers and so on (Class notes).

One can develop a certain protocol for the sake of the observation. It will assist the

observer in being consistent with the observation. Check lists are yet another way to

record observation by checking off the items as they happen (Annenberg Institute, 2004)

or not happen. This process makes the codification of the observation limited, but

practical.

Challenges of observation:-

The researcher may be viewed as intrusive. I felt that students were watching me as I was

sitting at the dining table observing what was happening in the place. Sometimes I felt

uncomfortable doing what I did. I felt that some students were wondering what I was


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Interviews (sample)

Title of Study:

WITHIN HIGH SCHOOLS - - INFLUENCES ON RETENTION AMONG THE

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF NORTHEAST INDIA

Name of Investigator: Pudussery,

Introduction

The study is prompted by a 78.97% dropout rate among the indigenous people ofnortheast India as reported in the selected educational statistics of 2004 -2005 (Ministry

of Human Resource Development, 2007). This study will identify and profile thecharacteristics inherent in the teaching practices used by the teachers in educating a very

low achieving subpopulation in India. Some schools in this region stand out as successfulschools that are effective in working with the indigenous tribal children of northeast

India. The presumption is that the best institutional practices for teaching, schoolleadership, physical facilities, school culture, class size, performance assessment, and

teacher workload have an overall effect on student retention.

Purpose of Study:Through this project, the researcher hopes to gain a deeper understanding of the practices

that lead to a greater retention rate among the indigenous people of northeast India.

Description of Study Procedures:It is the intention of the researcher to interview a sample of teachers from the three

schools. The questions asked each teacher will focus on the teaching practices thatcharacterize high schools with successful records for graduating indigenous pupils of

Northeast India. It will also focus on how these teaching practices are affected by school

leadership, physical facilities, school culture, class size, and teacher workload. Allquestions will be open ended. A sample question is as follows: What pedagogicaltechniques do you use to make learning relevant for students?

Participation in this study will involve at least 90 minutes of your time. There are no risks

for you from participating in this study. The interview will be recorded in audio format,which will be transcribed in English for subsequent analysis by the researcher.

Benefits of Being in Study:

You will have no direct benefit from this study, though indirectly everyone involved ineducation will benefit.

Payments:

You will be given a gift certificate to the value of Rs: 250.00

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Costs:There is no cost to you to participate in this research study.


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Confidentiality:Your answers to the questions will not be seen by anyone but the people working on this

study. Neither your principal, teachers, nor students, nor anyone else, will have access toyour answers.All information obtained from this study will be confidential. All notes,

tapes and documents linked to this specific study will be stored in safe custody anddestroyed shortly after the study has been completed.

Voluntary Participation/Withdrawal:

All participants of this study do so voluntarily. Participants may choose to withdraw fromthis study at any given time.

Dismissal From Study:

If you do not follow the instructions you are given, you will be dismissed from thestudy.Likewise, If the study sponsor decides to stop or cancel the study, you will be

dismissed from the study

Contacts and Questions:This study is conducted under the direction of Dr. Robert Starratt, Professor at

BostonCollege. Any questions concerning this study may be addressed to the [email protected] ,

If you have any questions about your rights as a research subject, you may contact:

Director, Assam Don Bosco University

Copy of Consent Form:You will be given a copy of this form to keep for your records and future reference.

Statement of Consent:I have read (or have had read to me) the contents of this consent form and have been

encouraged to ask questions. I have received answers to my questions. I give my consentto participate in this study. I have received (or will receive) a copy of this form.

Signatures/Dates

Study Participant (Print Name) : _________________

Date ______________

Witness/Auditor (Signature): _________________________________

Date _______


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4:0 Articles summery Sheet

Type of Study:

(Empirical/Conceptual/Advocacy)

Author and Year: Title: Larger Field

Keywords:

Research Questions:

Research Method :(Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed

Methods)

Research Strategies: Analysis Strategies:

Epistemic or Paradigmatic Stance:

[(Post)-Positivist; Relativist; (Post)-Structuralist;Constructivist)

Theoretical or Paradigmatic Framework:

(Functionalist; Conflict Theory; CriticalTheory; Behaviorism; Ethnic; Feminist;

Marxist; Queer Theory; Anti-Racist)

Major Findings (for Empirical Studies)

or Major Arguments (for Conceptual/Advocacy Pieces)

Generalizability/Power/Influence/Appeal/Contribution to Larger Field

Critique (implicit or explicit epistemic and theoretical stance; internal/external validity; reliability;

appropriateness of generalizing to larger population; quality of inferences and analysis, unanswered

questions, alignment of theoretical frameworkresearch questionsresearch strategiesfindings)


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Components of a research study

ResearchQuestion Theoreticalframework ResearchMethodology ResearchStrategies(data

collectionand

analysis)

Reportingformat/representation

References

Anfara,Vincent A. Jr., Brown, Kathleen., &Mangione, Terri . (2002) QualitativeAnalysison Stage: Making the Research Process More Public. Educational Researcher,

Vol. 31, No. 7, 28-38Maxwell, Joseph. (1996) Qualitative Research Design. An interactive approach. Sage

Publications. California.

Creswell, John. (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed MethodsApproaches. Second edition. California. Sage Publications.

Rossman, Gretchen & Rallis, Sharon. (2003) Learning in the field: An introduction to

qualitative research. Second edition.California. Sage Publications.


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Documents

Starratt Dissertation Guide