Stand initiation: South facing hillside, kept open by moisture limitations + repeated fires, Douglas-fir slowly invading (Kalamopsis Wilderness)

Stand initiation: Natural regeneration 5 years after windstorm w/ salvage harvesting; no site preparation, no planting (Black Forest, Germany)

Stratification after Disturbance (clearcut)

Quaking Aspen (natural regeneration) overtoppting Red pine (planted)

(MN)

Stem exclusion

90-year old Red pine, natural regeneration w/o thinning

Basal area: appr. 270 square feet/acre

(MN)

Stem exclusion: Managed beech stand, naturally regenerated, repeated thinnings, kept dense to prevent understory vegetation(Black Forest, Germany)

Understory inititation: Balsam fir invading quaking aspen stand (MN)

Understory initiation (by same species as overstory): Eastern white pine regeneration under Eastern White pine, repeated fires kept understory open (MN)

Late understory initiation:

Balsam fir under Quaking aspen (MN)

Understory initiation: Cleared gap shows extend of understory vegetation (mostly hazel) under 70-year old Douglas-fir