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Stages of LiteracyStages of LiteracyRos LuggRos Lugg
Beginning readers in the USABeginning readers in the USA
Looked at predictors of reading success or Looked at predictors of reading success or
failurefailure
PrePre--readers aged 3readers aged 3--5 yrs5 yrs
Looked at variety of abilitiesLooked at variety of abilities
�� IQIQ
�� Speech and language abilitiesSpeech and language abilities
�� Attention spanAttention span
�� Motor skillsMotor skills
�� Phonological processingPhonological processing
Most effective predictors (in Most effective predictors (in
order of importance)order of importance)
1.1. Phonological awarenessPhonological awareness
2.2. IQIQ
Knowledge of letter/sound correspondence Knowledge of letter/sound correspondence
also importantalso important
(Bond & Dykstra 1969, (Bond & Dykstra 1969, ChallChall 1967)1967)
Bryant & Bradley (1983)Bryant & Bradley (1983)
�� 400 4400 4--5 year old (non5 year old (non--readers) tested on readers) tested on
ability to:ability to:
��Detect alliterationDetect alliteration
��Detect rhymeDetect rhyme
ChildrenChildren’’s reading and spelling were s reading and spelling were
tested again 4 years later (age 8tested again 4 years later (age 8--9)9)
Rhyme detection ability at 4Rhyme detection ability at 4--5 years of 5 years of
age most effective predictor of age most effective predictor of
literacy progress 4 years later.literacy progress 4 years later.
Phonemic awarenessPhonemic awareness
Phonological awarenessPhonological awareness
Phonemic awarenessPhonemic awareness
Skills include:Skills include:
�� Ability to identify initial, medial and final Ability to identify initial, medial and final
soundssounds
�� Tell the difference between individual Tell the difference between individual
sounds (auditory discrimination)sounds (auditory discrimination)
�� Phoneme manipulation/transpositionPhoneme manipulation/transposition
�� Segmentation and blendingSegmentation and blending
Phonological AwarenessPhonological Awareness
Much broader term incorporating phonemic Much broader term incorporating phonemic
awareness + the following:awareness + the following:
�� Awareness of sounds and sound patterns Awareness of sounds and sound patterns
in language, e.g. rhymein language, e.g. rhyme
�� Awareness of the rhythm of languageAwareness of the rhythm of language
�� SyllabificationSyllabification
�� Word retrievalWord retrieval
Development of Phonological Development of Phonological
AwarenessAwareness
RhymeRhyme
Gradual development from earliest stagesGradual development from earliest stages
SyllabificationSyllabification(previous understanding)(previous understanding)
Sentences Sentences �� WordsWords
Words Words �� SyllablesSyllables
Words/syllables Words/syllables �� SoundsSounds
Syllabification Syllabification (Current understanding)(Current understanding)
Sentences Sentences �� WordsWords
Words Words �� SyllablesSyllables
Words Words �� Onset + rimeOnset + rime
Syllables Syllables �� SoundsSounds
((GoswamiGoswami & Bryant (1990)& Bryant (1990)
““The majority of preschoolers can segment The majority of preschoolers can segment
words into syllables. Very few can words into syllables. Very few can
readily segment them into phonemesreadily segment them into phonemes””
The more sophisticated stage of phoneme The more sophisticated stage of phoneme
segmentation is not reached until the segmentation is not reached until the
child has received formal instruction in child has received formal instruction in
letterletter--sound knowledge.sound knowledge.””
Predicting reading and spelling difficulties (Predicting reading and spelling difficulties (SnowlingSnowling & Backhouse 1996)& Backhouse 1996)
Why is the onset + rime approach so Why is the onset + rime approach so
important?important?
It utilizes an awareness of rhyme (sound It utilizes an awareness of rhyme (sound
patterns) to enable the child to patterns) to enable the child to recogniserecognise
spelling patterns.spelling patterns.
It simplifies the task It simplifies the task –– word families instead word families instead
of individual words.of individual words.
It develops analogical transfer It develops analogical transfer –– the ability the ability
to apply knowledge learned in one to apply knowledge learned in one
context to a different context.context to a different context.
Enables the child to work with word Enables the child to work with word
families: families:
““If I can spell If I can spell ‘‘ballball’’, then I can spell , then I can spell ‘‘wallwall’’..””
Cuts the processing load:Cuts the processing load:
stringstring
s / t / r / i / s / t / r / i / ngng
(5 elements to sequence and remember (5 elements to sequence and remember –– a a huge load on sequencing and working huge load on sequencing and working
memory)memory)
It avoids confusion over vowel sounds:It avoids confusion over vowel sounds:
Teach Teach ‘‘aa’’ sound as in sound as in ‘‘catcat’’
Then meet Then meet ‘‘aa’’ in in ‘‘allall’’, , ‘‘--awaw’’, , ‘‘--arkark’’, etc, etc
Most importantly:Most importantly:
It teaches at a level of natural phonological It teaches at a level of natural phonological
developmentdevelopment
Moral:Moral: Early spelling or work with a Early spelling or work with a
learner with learning difficulties needs to learner with learning difficulties needs to
be based on onset + rime.be based on onset + rime.
Onset + rime can and should be used with Onset + rime can and should be used with
more advanced learners. Otherwise they more advanced learners. Otherwise they
will not develop analogical transfer. will not develop analogical transfer.
It need not be used exclusivelyIt need not be used exclusively
SummarySummary
�� Rhyming skills at 3Rhyming skills at 3--5 years are the single 5 years are the single
most accurate predictor of later reading most accurate predictor of later reading
success.success.
Therefore: developing rhyming skills is a Therefore: developing rhyming skills is a
high priority.high priority.
�� Rhyme awareness leads to the ability to Rhyme awareness leads to the ability to
use onset + rime.use onset + rime.
Link awareness of sound patterns with Link awareness of sound patterns with
later awareness of spelling patterns later awareness of spelling patterns ––
teach word families.teach word families.
�� Onset + rime awareness is a natural Onset + rime awareness is a natural
stage of phonological development.stage of phonological development.
Use onset + rime approach particularly in Use onset + rime approach particularly in
the early stages to simplify the task and the early stages to simplify the task and
aid memory.aid memory.
�� Phonemic awareness does not develop Phonemic awareness does not develop
naturally, but as a result of literacy naturally, but as a result of literacy
teaching.teaching.
Teach and develop phonemic awareness Teach and develop phonemic awareness
as part of your spelling programme, but as part of your spelling programme, but
be aware of the stage your child is at be aware of the stage your child is at ––
provide appropriate scaffolding as provide appropriate scaffolding as
necessary.necessary.
�� Poor early readers often have poor Poor early readers often have poor
syllabification.syllabification.
Develop the sound skills of syllabification. Develop the sound skills of syllabification.
Check that your learner can divide Check that your learner can divide
sentences into words and clap rhythms sentences into words and clap rhythms
first.first.
�� Onset + rime awareness leads to Onset + rime awareness leads to
analogical transfer analogical transfer –– the most important the most important
reading/spelling skill.reading/spelling skill.
Use the word family approach, even with Use the word family approach, even with
more advanced learners, to develop more advanced learners, to develop
analogical transfer. Take every analogical transfer. Take every
opportunity to teach your learner to draw opportunity to teach your learner to draw
analogies analogies –– spelling and reading.spelling and reading.
Early phases of literacy Early phases of literacy
developmentdevelopment
Logographic phaseLogographic phase
Alphabetic phaseAlphabetic phase
Orthographic phaseOrthographic phase
((FrithFrith, 1985) , 1985) ‘‘Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexiaBeneath the surface of developmental dyslexia’’
Logographic PhaseLogographic Phase
Basic sight vocabulary Basic sight vocabulary –– high frequency words or high frequency words or
words with special significancewords with special significance
Words Words recognisedrecognised holistically holistically –– from overall from overall
shapeshape
Similar looking words confusedSimilar looking words confused
No understanding of letter/sound No understanding of letter/sound
correspondencecorrespondence
Alphabetic PhaseAlphabetic Phase
Recognition of sound/letter correspondenceRecognition of sound/letter correspondence
Decoding and encoding take placeDecoding and encoding take place
Phonic knowledge usedPhonic knowledge used
Pupil can spell simple, regular wordsPupil can spell simple, regular words
Errors are phonetic (Errors are phonetic (coffcoff))
Lacks sophisticated understanding of word Lacks sophisticated understanding of word
structurestructure
Reading slow and Reading slow and labouredlaboured –– limited fluencylimited fluency
Orthographic PhaseOrthographic Phase
Rapid whole word recognition Rapid whole word recognition –– holisticholistic
Words become sight vocabularyWords become sight vocabulary
Reading fluency achievedReading fluency achieved
Understanding of sophisticated spelling patterns Understanding of sophisticated spelling patterns
((--oughough))
Logographic phaseLogographic phase
Alphabetic phaseAlphabetic phase
Orthographic phaseOrthographic phase
Neurological Basis
Brain Systems for Reading A Neural Signature for Dyslexia
Compensatory Systems Conclusion – reading systems
Dyslexic Learners have:
� An impaired occipito-temporal (word form
area)
They therefore:
� Over-rely on the wrong areas – Broca’s
area and Parieto-temporal area
Broca’s area and the parieto-temporal areas therefore develop as instruction progresses.
Wrong strategies being employed.
Wrong areas being developed.
Consequence:
Reading fluency never develops correctly.
Correct process
� Learner analyses and correctly reads
the word several times
Uses the word analysis systems
� Neural model of word is formed
Stored in the occipito-temporal
� Word can now be activated
automatically – fluency achieved!
Teaching Implications
Teachers need to:
� Practise and develop word analysis strategies
� Provide the right activities/practice to transfer the word into the occipito-temporal
In other words – make the word into sight vocabulary
How?
� Speed reading
� Sight vocabulary games
� Word flash activity (Steps)
� Targeted reading practice – geared
towards developing reading fluency, not
decoding ability!