SSHRCKnowledgeSynthesisResearchReport

“HowcanAboriginalknowledgesystemsinCanadacontributetointerdisciplinaryresearchontheglobalextinctioncrisis?”

Photocredit:ZoeTodd(takenattheMuseumofNature,Ottawa,November2016)

ReportcompiledbyDr.AudraMitchell(AssociateProfessor,WilfridLaurierUniversity)

Dr.ZoeTodd(AssistantProfessor,CarletonUniversity)PitseolakPfeifer,BA(MACandidate,NorthernStudies,CarletonUniversity)

September2017

1

TableofContents

KeyMessages……………….................................................................................1ExecutiveSummary…………………....................................................................4Context………………………………………………………………………………………………….......6Implications………………………………………………………………………………………………...7Approach…………………………………………………………………………………………………..11Results

Audra……………………………………………………………………………………………....13Zoe……………………………………………………………………………………………..…...19Pitseolak…………………………………………………………………………………….…....23

StateofKnowledge…………………………………………………………………………………….25KnowledgeMobilization……………………………………………………………………………..26Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………..……..27ReferencesandBibliography………………………………………………………………….…..29

2

Keymessages● MainstreamconservationandTEKdiscoursesdonotreflectthefullrangeof

understandingsof‘extinction’heldbyIndigenouscommunities.

● Inordertogainadeeperunderstandingofthenature,causes,andpossibleresponsestoextinction,itisnecessarytocentretheknowledgeofIndigenousthinkers,Eldersandknowledge-keepers.

● Indigenousknowledgesofextinctionaresidelinedbythecolonialdisciplinary

practicesofWesternacademia.

● WithinIndigenousknowledgesystems,whatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’,andindeed,thebroadercategoryof‘ecology’cannotbeunderstoodinisolationfromthesocial,political,legal,economic,andspiritualcontextofacommunity.

● ThereisaneedtotreatIndigenousknowledgesystemsascomplexwholes,replete

withtheirownsocio-ethicalframeworksformediatinghuman-environmentalandhuman/nonhumanrelations.Fromalegal-governanceperspective,theCanadiangovernmentmustconsiderthenation-to-nationrelationship(RCAP1996)and,buildingontheTruthandReconciliationCommission’sCalltoAction45(TRC2015),mustacknowledgeIndigenouslegalordersinitsresponsestoextinctioncrises.Approachingextinction,co-management,and/orTEKissuesfromthisperspectiverequiresthatthegovernmentandpolicymakerscannolongerassumethateuro-westernlegalframeworkssupercedeIndigenouslegalorders.

● Asextinctionisacategorythatisappliedbythestateanditsinstitutionsupon

Indigenousnationsthemselves,itiscrucialtounsettleandchallengetheuniversalisteuro-westernlawsandideologiesthroughwhichIndigenouspeopleswere(andsometimesstillare)deemedtobe‘vanishing’or‘extinct’.

● Wemustthereforepluralizeournarrativesandunderstandingsofextinctionin

Canada,andworkfromareciprocalanddiplomaticplacethatacknowledgesthatIndigenouspeople’slegal-ethicaltraditionsandphilosophiesoffermeaningfulperspectivesforrespondingtotheGlobalExtinctionCrisis.

● Weproposethatanongoingcommitmenttodecolonizingwesternacademicpraxisis

necessarywhenscholarsengagepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsinCanadianresearchonextinction.ImplementingtherecommendationsofRCAP(1996)andtheTRC(2015)regardingfulsomeandethicalnation-to-nationrelationsbetweenIndigenouspeoplesandCanadianlegal-governmentandacademicbodieswillensurethattheworkbeingdonebyIndigenouspeoplesonIndigenousknowledgewillberobustlyandmeaningfullyengagedinbroaderconversationsinCanada,withaviewtodismantlinglegaciesofsettlercolonialerasureanddispossessionofIndigenouslaws,languages,land,andlivelihoods.

● ItiscrucialnottocollapsepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsintoone‘TEK’or

“IK”frameworkinstudyingtheGlobalExtinctionCrisis,butrathertoworkfromparadigmswhichareattentivetoplace-andtime-specificIndigenouspraxisandlaw.

3

ExecutiveSummary

(photocredit:ZoeTodd,MuseumofNature,Ottawa,November2016)

ThisresearchexaminesthecurrentstateofknowledgeofIndigenousperspectivesonextinctioninCanada,withaviewtopluralizingcontemporaryunderstandingsof,andresponsesto,theGlobalExtinctionCrisis.Weworkedcollaborativelytoconductasystematicreviewofexistingmaterials,specificallyreadingandanalyzingmaterialsforperspectivesfrompluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsregardingtherelationshipsbetweenhumansandnon-humansinthecontextofextinction,loss,andwithdrawal.ThisknowledgesynthesisprojectrevealsanumberofkeyissuestoaddressindecolonizingunderstandingsofextinctioninCanada,whichwillbecrucialtoaddressindevelopingmeaningfulandrobustresponsestothecontemporaryGlobalExtinctionCrisis.Inthisexecutivesummary,weelucidateseveralkeyfindingsinthisreport,listedaboveinpointforminthekeymessagessectionofthisreport.First,mainstreamTraditionalEcologicalKnowledge(TEK)discoursesdonotreflectthedynamicandnuancedrangeofunderstandingsof,andengagementswith,theconceptofextinctionheldbyIndigenouscommunities.Second,responsestotheGlobalExtinctionCrisisinCanadamustcentreIndigenousthinkers(and,indeed,mustcentrethosemarginalizedoroppressedvoicessilencedorerasedinmainstreamdiscoursesoncontemporarystrugglesintheGlobalExtinctionCrisis).Third,Indigenousknowledgesofextinction,andindeedotherurgentmatters,aredecidedlysidelinedbythecolonialpraxisofWesternacademe.Fourth,theconceptofextinction(andrelatedconcepts,suchasecology)cannotbeisolatedfrominter-dependentsocial,political,legal,economic,andspiritualrelationsthatshapeacommunity.Fifth,pluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsarecomplexwholesrepletewithlegal-ethicaltraditionswhichmustalsobeconsideredinthecontextofimplementationofnation-to-

4

nationrelations(RCAP1996)andIndigenouslegalorders(TRC2015)inCanadatoday.Sixth,anystudyofextinctioninCanadamustalsoacknowledgeanddisruptthefactthatscholarsandthestatehaveasserted,andinsomecasescontinuetoassert,Indigenousnationsandsocietiesthemselvesas‘extinct’,orrapidly‘goingextinct’.ThisrequirescarefulengagementwiththelegaciesofthecolonialimpositionofvanishingorextinctionnarrativesuponIndigenousnations,societies,laws,language,andlivelihoods.Seventh,weproposethatanyacademicorpolicy-orientedengagementwithIndigenousperspectivesonextinctionmustbecoupledwithananti-colonialordecolonialethos.Eighth,weurgescholarsnottocollapsepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsintoasingularTEKnarrativeorframework,butrathertoremainattentivetotime-andplace-rootedIndigenousthinking,praxis,andlaw.AnethicofengagedreciprocityBuildingonthesekeyfindings,weproposeanethicofengagedreciprocityfornon-IndigenousscholarsstudyingconceptsofextinctioninCanada.Bythis,wemeananattentiontotheongoingandoutstandinglegal-ethicalandgovernancequestionsbetweenIndigenousnationsandtheCanadiannation-state(anditsconcomitantresearchandscholarlyinstitutions).Wemustacknowledgethatwesternscientificdiscoursesofextinctionpossessafraughtlegacy,onewhichwasknowinglyanddeliberatelyusedtodispossessIndigenousnationsinCanadaoftheirrightfulclaimstolands,laws,language,andlivelihoods(Nieoczym2017).IndigenousresponsestotheGlobalExtinctionCrisisarethereforeentangledwitheffortstodecolonizeandtransformacategorythatnotonlyappliestoecologicalnotionsofextinctionbutalsothoseappliedtoIndigenouspeoplesandtheirlaws,languages,philosophies,andcosmologiesaswell.Aswepointout:

“ToreadandthinkaboutextinctionalongsidepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsisthereforearadicalact:itistore-storythesedeliberateerasuresandvanishingsofIndigenouslanguage,laws,andlivelihoodsfromtheeuro-westernacademiccanonandinsistentlyre-centrefleshyandvisceralIndigenousnarrativescontrathosesocio-scientificacademicframingswhichoncepositioned,andinsomecasesstillposition,Indigenouspeoplesasdisappearing.”(p.10)

WesituatethisKnowledgeSynthesisreportintheongoingdiscoursesofdecolonizingacademia,andthereforewereadandengagedwiththematerialsforthisreportwithaviewtoelucidatingthewaysinwhichacademicinstitutionsinCanadaaresucceedingorfailingatthegoalofincorporatingpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsintocontemporaryworkonextinctioninanethicalandfulsomeway.OneseriousissueistheongoingfactthatwesternknowledgesstillfailtoengagewiththerelationalityofmanyIndigenousknowledgesystems:

5

“Westernknowledges-particularlyinthesciencesandsocialsciences-tendtoseparate‘data’or‘information’intosilos,whereasmanyIndigenousknowledgesystemsaffirmtheirinterlinkedandholisticnature.”(p.11)

Thisworkwaslimitedtoafocusedstudyofthreeverybroadregions:a)theGreatLakes(Anishinaabeg,HaudenosauneeandsomematerialfromMi’kmaqthinkers),b)thePrairies(Métis,Cree,andBlackfoot),andc)Nunavut(Inuit).Wecautionthatitsfindingscannotbeextrapolatedbeyondthecontextinwhichtheywerestudiedforthisreport.However,thepreliminaryfindingsofthisKnowledgeSynthesisprojectsuggestthatthereisaneedforethicallyengaged,reciprocalresearchwhichcentresIndigenousstories,languages,laws,relationships,labour,andlivelihoodsinunderstandingthemulti-facetedimpactsofthenotionofextinctiononbothhumanandnonhumanbeings.ConclusionOurfinalargumentisthatthereisagreatneedfornon-Indigenousscholarsandresearchersstudyingextinctiontomovebeyondthe‘politicsofrecognition’(seecritiquesofrecognitionbyCoulthard2014;Simpson2016),andintoamuchmorereciprocal,discomfitting,andtransformativeengagementwithpluralIndigenousKnowledgesystemsinsuchawayastounsettleanddismantlethosecolonialstructuresandideologieswhichsidelineorsiloIndigenousontologies,epistemologies,cosmologies,laws,andphilosophies.Inourresearchforthisreport,eachofusemployedrelationally-focused,reciprocal,andplace-andtime-rootedapproachesappropriatetothecommunitieswebelongtoandtendto.Inthisway,eachoneofus(Mitchell,Todd,andPfeifer)mobilizedethicalprocessesdeeplyinformedbyourco-constitutiveresponsibilitiestowhereweworkandwithwhomweworkalongsideandanswerto.Ultimately,themethodologyandapproachemployedinthisKnowledgeSynthesisprojectestablishes,weargue,amulti-vocalandpluralcollaborativeethic,onewhichisdeeplyinformedbyourcommitmentstotendingtopluralIndigenousknowledgesystems,legal-ethicalorders,andnations/societiesinCanadatoday.Wefinishthisexecutivesummarywiththefollowingreflectionfromourreport:

“OneoftheimportantoutcomesofthisKnowledgeSynthesisreportistheopportunitytounsettlethesupposeduniversalityofhuman-environmental,legal-ethical,andscientific/academicunderstandingsofextinctioninCanadainthe21stcentury.ThisreportdemonstratesthatpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsapproachquestionsofrelationality,reciprocity,andnarrativebetweenhumanandnonhumanagentsinthepast,present,andfutureinwaysthatsubvertorchallengewesternconceptionsof‘extinction’and‘existence’.Itisvital,inordertorectifytheongoinglegacyofeffortstorenderIndigenousknowledgesandpeoples‘extinct’,toturntoandtendtoreciprocalprocesseswhichre-centreIndigenouslegal-ethicalandphilosophicalapproachestothescientificandlegalparadigmsof‘extinction’.”(p.11)

6

ContextTheEarthisinthemidstofarapid,planetary-scaleaccelerationofextinctionsthatmayeliminatethreequartersofexistingspecieswithinafewcenturies(seeBarnoskyetal2011;Regnieretal2015;Kolbert2014).Widespreadextinction,itsdrivers-includingclimatechange,thedestructionofecosystemsandresourceextraction-andconservationtechniquesallunderminetheself-determinationandwell-beingofAboriginalpeopleinCanadaandworldwide.Specifically,theglobalextinctioncrisisdestroyslifeformsthatarecentraltothecontinuityofpluralAboriginalkinshiprelations,medicine,lawsandprotocols,foodandknowledgesystems(Whyte2016),whileitsglobaldriverscauseenormousharmtoAboriginallandandextendcolonialandcapitalistmodesofexpropriation.Inaddition,techniquesofconservationofteninvolvetheseizureofIndigenouslands,theoutlawingofhunting,gatheringandgrowingpracticesandthedevaluationofIndigenouswaysoflife(Blaser2008;HowittandSuchet-Pearson-2008;Sandlos2007).Assuch,itiscrucialthatAboriginalunderstandingsof,andresponsesto,globalextinctionphenomenaarecentredwithinresearchongoverningtheglobalextinctioncrisis.However,mainstreamapproachestotheglobalextinctioncrisisarebasedalmostexclusivelyonWesternsecularscientificlogics,whichentrenchsharpdivisionsbetweenhumansand‘nature’;livingandnon-livingbeings;framenonhumansasresourcesfortheinstrumentaluseofhumans;andpresenttechno-scientificandeconomicmanagement(inparticular,conservation)astheonlyfeasiblemeansforgoverningextinction(Mitchell2015,2016).Incontrast,Aboriginalknowledgesystems,epistemologiesandontologiesfocusontherelationsbetweenhumansandnonhumansandpluralmodesofgoverningandsustainingtheserelations(includingprotocolsandAboriginallegalorders)(Fienup-Riordan1990;Kuokannen2007;Donald2009;DelaCadena2010;Rose2011;Deloria2012;TuhiwaiSmith2012;Kohn2013;Watts2013;Todd2014;BawakaCountry2015;Tallbear2015;LittleBear2016).Thesedifferencesinontology,epistemologyandethicsmakemainstreamconservation-basedapproachesdeeplyproblematicforAboriginalpeoples.Intheexistingliterature,Aboriginalknowledgesystemsarealmostexclusivelyengagedthrough‘Traditionalecologicalknowledge’and“IndigenousKnowledge”(TEKandIK)approaches.TEK/IKreferstotheuseofknowledgederivedfromIndigenoussourcestoinformandshapeconservationpractices(Berkes2008;McGregor2005).ItdrawsonselectedelementsofIndigenousknowledge,includingcertainhuntingandgatheringprocesses,tohelpachieveconservationgoals.TEK/IKhasisusednotonlybyresearchers,buthasalsobeenleveragedbycommercialbioprospectors.ThishaspromptedseveralIndigenous-leddeclarations(Kari-Oca1992;SantaCruz2014)andinternationalpolicies(InternationalLabourOrganization1989;WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization2014),includingtheCBD’sNagoyaProtocol(2010),intendedtoensurethefairandequitableuseofIndigenousknowledge.ItiscrucialtonotethatTEK/IKapproachesemergefromWesternscientificandpolicyframeworks(McGregor2005),instrumentalizingaspectsofIndigenousknowledgesystemstoachievepredeterminedgoalssuchas‘sustainability’,‘conservation’and‘management’(seeCajete2000;Cruikshank2004;HowittandSuchet-Pearson2006;Nadasdy2007;Blaser2009;).Asaresult,theytendtoreduceAboriginalknowledgesystemstosourcesofempiricaldataforuseinWesternconservationframeworks,ignoringtheirdistinctontologies,epistemologiesandmethods.Moreover,TEK/IKdiscoursestendtofragmentIndigenousknowledgesystemstofocusonthoseaspectsthatmostcloselyresemblewithWesternscientificcategories(Geniusz2009).Forinstance,TEK/IKpractitionersseekoutAboriginalknowledgethatseemstocorrespondtoWestern

7

conceptsof‘ecology’.However,duetotheintegratednatureofmostAboriginalknowledgesystems,‘ecology’canonlybeunderstoodinthebroadercontextofphilosophy,cosmology,ontology,social,legal,historical,politicalandeconomicthought.Furthermore,TEK/IK’sfocuson‘traditional’knowledgemaymarginalizethecontributionsoflivingAboriginalthinkers(includingurbanIndigenousscholarship)andtheglobal(ratherthanlocalized)significanceoftheirknowledgesystems(Stewart-Harawira2007;Beier2005).Inaddition,sinceTEK/IKisorientedtowardsWesternscientificconservationprograms,itfailstorecognizemanyothermodesofresponsetoextinctionthatareembeddedwithinAboriginalknowledgesystems-forinstance,inprotocolssurroundinghunting(Nadasdy2007;WatsonandHuntington2008).

ThisKnowledgeSynthesisprojectinvestigateshowtheconceptof‘extinction’isunderstoodandaddressedwithinpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsacrossCanada,withaparticularfocusonCree,Metis,Haudenosaunee,Anishinaabe,InuitandMi’kmaqknowledgesystems,butalsodrawingfromotherknowledgesystems.Itseekstoidentify(a)howIndigenousknowledgesofwhatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’arerepresentedwithinthedominantTEK/IKliterature;(b)othertheoriesandframeworksforunderstandingthesephenomenarootedinpluralIndigenousknowledgesystems;(c),toanalyzeandaddressthegapscreatedbythedominanceofTEK/IKapproaches;and(d)tocontributetothedecolonizationofIndigenousknowledgesof‘extinction’throughcentringand(re)contextualizationofknowledges,andthroughthepracticeand/ordevelopmentofdecolonizingmethodologies.ImplicationsMainstreamconservationandTEKdiscoursesdonotreflectthefullrangeofunderstandingsof‘extinction’heldbyIndigenouscommunities;infact,theymayobscuretheseunderstandingsbyimposingWesternscientificdefinitions.Oneofthemajorimplicationsarisingfromthisfindingisthat,inordertogainadeeperunderstandingofthenature,causesandpossibleresponsestoextinction,itisnecessarytocentretheknowledgeofIndigenousthinkers,Eldersandknowledge-keepers.Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgeconceptsotherthan‘extinction’thataremobilizedinIndigenousphilosophicalandlegal-ethicaldiscourses(forinstance,thewithdrawalofplantsandanimalsinrelationtothebreakingoftreaties).Inparticular,sinceknowledgeofplants,animalsandotherbeingsisdeeplyspecifictoplace,itisimportanttoengagewithknowledgethathasco-evolvedwiththemore-than-humancommunitiesthatco-shapeeachparticularlandscape.AnotherimplicationofthisprojectisthatIndigenousknowledgesofextinctionaresidelinedbythecolonialdisciplinarypracticesofWesternacademia.Thisproject,whichreliedentirelyonpublishedacademicliteraturebyIndigenousauthors,showsthatthereisawealthofexistingliteratureinthisareathathasnotbeenbroughtintodialoguewithmainstreamdiscoursesonextinction.Thisincludesmaterialssuchasfilm,poetry,art,oralhistories,languagepedagogymaterials,andotherformsofknowledgetransferwhicharenotnecessarilyconsultedinmainstreamscientificextinctionresearch.Insteadofsupportingresearchthatinvolvesmore‘primaryresearch’carriedout‘on’(oreven‘with’)Indigenouscommunities,itisimportantforSSHRCandextinctionresearcherstoengagewithexistingworkbyIndigenousthinkers,andtoacknowledgethatthisworkmaytakeapluralityofformsthatarecurrentlynotincorporatedintoeuro-westernextinctionscholarship.

8

AnotherkeyimplicationoftheresearchisthatwithinIndigenousknowledgesystems,whatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’,andindeed,thebroadercategoryof‘ecology’cannotbeunderstoodinisolationfromthesocial,political,legal,economicandspiritualcontextofacommunity.Thisincludesacommunity’shistory,intergenerationalrelationsandspecificrelationsbetweenhumansandotherbeings.OurworkalsorevealsthatthereisaneedtotreatIndigenousknowledgesystemsascomplexwholes,repletewiththeirownsocio-ethicalframeworksformediatinghuman-environmentalandhuman/nonhumanrelations.Fromalegal-governanceperspective,theCanadiangovernmentmustconsiderthenation-to-nationrelationship(RCAP1996)and,buildingontheTruthandReconciliationCommission’sCalltoAction45(TRC2015),mustacknowledgeIndigenouslegalorders.Approachingextinction,co-management,and/orTEKissuesfromthisperspectiverequiresthatthegovernmentandpolicymakerscannolongerassumethateuro-westernlegalframeworkssupercedeIndigenouslegalorders.Euro-westernproperty,resource,andwildlifelawcannotbetheoverarchingframeworkappliedtogovernanceofIndigenousenvironmentalandco-managementconcerns(includingquestionsaroundresourceextractiononIndigenouslands).Instead,ourworkrevealsthatarobustnation-to-nationrelationship,onewhichacknowledgesandinterlocutesthoughtfullyandrespectfullywithIndigenouslegal-ethical,ontological,philosophical,andcosmologicalpraxis,isnecessaryinordertounsettleongoingcolonialdispossessionanderasureofpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsinCanada.Inotherwords,wemustpluralizeournarrativesofextinctioninCanada,andworkfromareciprocalanddiplomaticplacethatacknowledgesthatIndigenouspeople’slegal-ethicaltraditionsandphilosophiesareasworthyandnecessaryasthosetaughtthrougheuro-westernparadigms.

Here,weturntothescholarshipofCameroonianphilosopherAchilleMbembeforguidance.Mbembe(2015)arguesfora‘pluriversity’inlieuoftheconventionalwestern‘university’modelthroughwhichmostofusteach,research,think,andlabour.Mbembearticulatesapowerfulneedforoppressedandmarginalizedcommunities--particularlythosenationsandsocietiescolonizedbyEuropeannations--tomanifestandmobilizeformsofpedagogyandscholarshipwhichprovincializethesupposedly‘universal’westernknowledgecanon.Specifically,Mbembe(2015:19)articulates:

“ApluriversityisnotmerelytheextensionthroughouttheworldofaEurocentricmodelpresumedtobeuniversalandnowbeingreproducedalmosteverywherethankstocommercialinternationalism.Bypluriversity,manyunderstandaprocessofknowledgeproductionthatisopentoepistemicdiversity.Itisaprocessthatdoesnotnecessarilyabandonthenotionofuniversalknowledgeforhumanity,butwhichembracesitviaahorizontalstrategyofopennesstodialogueamongdifferentepistemictraditions.Todecolonizetheuniversityisthereforetoreformitwiththeaimofcreatingalessprovincialandmoreopencriticalcosmopolitanpluriversalism–ataskthatinvolvestheradicalre-foundingofourwaysofthinkingandatranscendenceofourdisciplinarydivisions.”

InthinkingthroughMbembe’snotionofthepluriversity,wemustalsoattendtohowandwhereknowledgeof‘extinction’isproducedinCanada,andtowhatends.AstudyofIndigenous

9

knowledge,ontologies,epistemologiesofextinctioncannotbedisentangledfromtheeuro-americanimpositionofthenotionofextinctionuponIndigenouspeoplesthemselves.Thelogicsofdispossessionanderasure(Wolfe1999)thatdrivesettler-colonizationwerenormalizedthroughthelogicsof‘vanishing’or‘extinction’ineuro-americanpoliticaldiscourseofthe19thand20thcenturies.Asweargueinthisreport,thesenaturalized,euphemisticformsof‘vanishing’arestillenacteduponbothhumanandmore-than-humankininthecontextoftheCanadiannation-stateanditsimaginaries.Animplicitfacetofthecontemporarydiscourseonextinctionthereforeisthat,atonetime,euro-americanactorsbelievedthatIndigenouspeopleswereatriskof‘extinction’.Thisnotionoftheextinctionofpeoples/culturesdroveagreatdealof19thcenturyandearly20thcentury‘salvageethnography’,aanthropologicaltheoreticalapproachoftenassociatedwithethnographerFranzBoas(Calhoun2002:46).Thisethnographicapproachsoughttocapturethestories,language,art,andpraxisofso-called‘vanishing’tribesaroundtheglobe(Calhoun2002:46).ThisnotionofsupposedlyvanishingIndigenouspeoplepersistsincontemporaryunderstandingsof‘extinct’IndigenousnationssuchastheBeothuk(NewfoundlandandLabradorHeritageWebSite2017)inNewfoundlandandinstill-celebratedpopularimaginariessuchas‘TheLastoftheMohicans’,an1826novelbyJamesFennimoreCooper.Theseimaginariesofthevanishing/extinctIndigenousperson/tribearedeeplyimbricatedinthesettler-colonialprojectofdispossessionanderasureofIndigenouspeoplesandpluralIndigenousknowledgesystems.Anextinctpeoplenolongerhaveclaimstolands,nordotheyhavelawswhichmustberespectedbytheCanadiannation-stateanditsinstitutions.TheinevitabilityofIndigenous‘extinction’wasandismobilizedinwaysthatobscurethecolonialcausesformassivedisruptionanddisplacementofIndigenousnations,societies,laws,andcosmologies.ThesalvageethnographyofFranzBoasfocusedontheeffortsofsalvagingthe‘mythology’,language,tools,andartofnationsofIndigenouspeoplesfearedtobedisappearingduetotheencroachmentof‘modern’civilization(Calhoun2002:46):

“MuchofBoas’agendawasdrivenbytheurgencyofdocumentingIndianculturesthatwerebeingrapidlydriventoextinction.Thisbecameknownas“salvageethnography”--theattempttoreconstructthetraditionsandpracticesofculturesthathadalreadysufferedradicallossesofintegrity.”

Thereismuchtounpackhereregardingprioreuro-americanacademicbeliefsaboutIndigenousnationsandsocietiesas‘vanishing’entities.Whatispertinentforthepurposesofthisreportisthat,perhapsowinginparttothese19thand20thcenturyanthropologicalqueriesofIndigenousnationsandsocietiesthatwerebelievedtobegoingextinct,theCanadiangovernmentcananddoesdeclarecertainIndigenousnationsextinct.Thislendsthesocial-scientificnotionofextinctionhighlyproblematiclegal-governanceweight.InBritishColumbia,theSinixtNation,whoseterritoryencompasseslargemountainlakesandvalleysthroughouttheKootenaysanddowntowardstheUS-Canadianborder,wereofficiallydeclared‘extinct’forthepurposesoftheIndianActin1956(Nieoczym2017).Thedeclarationofextinctionhaslong-reachingramificationsforSinixtpeopleslivinginCanada,includingthefactthattheirhuntingrightsarenotrecognizedintheirtraditionalterritoriesintheArrowLakesandSlocanValleyregionsofBritishColumbia(Nieoczym2017).Infact,a2017BCprovincialcourtrulingassertsthattheSinixtarenotextinct,pavingthewayfortheSinixt

10

nationtore-assertformalAboriginalrightsinBritishColumbia,sixtyyearsafterthenationwasstrippedoftheserightsthroughtherubricof‘extinction’(Nieoczym2017).ToreadandthinkaboutextinctionalongsidepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsisthereforearadicalact:itistore-storythesedeliberateerasuresandvanishingsofIndigenouslanguage,laws,andlivelihoodsfromtheeuro-westernacademiccanonandinsistentlyre-centrefleshyandvisceralIndigenousnarrativescontrathosesocio-scientificacademicframingswhichoncepositioned,andinsomecasesstillposition,Indigenouspeoplesasdisappearing.ItisnotonlyIndigenousnationswhicharedeclaredextinct.OneofthemostpervasivewaysthatextinctionisstillleviedagainstIndigenouspeoplesinCanadaandtheUSAtodayisthroughnotionsofIndigenouslanguageextinction.WhatourstudyoftheperspectivesofpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsonthenotionofextinctionteachesusisthateuro-westernconceptsofextinctionwhichframeextinctionasapermanent,terminalconditionaredeeplychallengedbyIndigenousrefusals(Simpson2014)toacceptextinction.MiamilanguagescholarWesleyLeonard(2011)1demonstratesthisrefusalinrelationtohisowncommunity’slanguagepraxis,alanguagewhichislargelyconsidered‘extinct’(2011:135)bylinguists.However,asLeonard(2011:137)explains:

“inadditiontoitsrecentuseinspecific“unexpected”places—suchasincontemporarysongs,games,andcomputer-mediatedcommunication—the“extinction”ofMiamimakesitsuseanomalousevenincontextsthatthedominantdiscourseotherwiserecognizesaslegitimatelyIndian,suchastraditionalceremonies.Itsactivereclamationfromhistoricaldocumentationafterathirty-yearperiodofdormancyreflectsascenariothatmostwouldacknowledgeistechnicallypossible,butthatisanomalousbecauseextinctmeansforever.Manypeople,expertsandnonexpertsalike,havenotcaughtuptotherealitythatMiamisspeakmyaamiatoday,andmoreover,thatthewaysinwhichwedosoare,uponcommonsenseconsideration,arguablyexpectedinthattheyreflectthecontemporarycircumstancesofbeingMiami.”

Inotherwords,extinctioncanbesubvertedandrefractedbyIndigenouspeoplesinordertotranscendthecategorizationofapeople,language,collective,orbeingsas‘vanished’.Throughthisdisruption,Indigenouspeoplesandtheirnonhumankincanassertinsteadarelationalandvisceralcommitmenttorevivingproperrelationships,protocols,andresponsibilitiesrequiredtobringlanguagesintocontemporarycommunityaction.AsisexplainedinthisKnowledgeSynthesisreport,thereisalinkbetweencolonialstateeffortsto‘clearthePlains’(Daschuk2013)inthe19thcenturyanddeclinesinmore-than-human-kinthatPlainsIndigenousnationsreliedupon,suchasbison.ScholarsarguethatstarvationpolicieswereemployedbytheCanadiangovernment,policieswhicheffectivelyaimedtodispossessIndigenousnationsontheprairies(see:Innes(2013),citedinMcCallum2017).Effortstoeradicatemore-than-humanlifewere,arguably,effortstoeraseanddispossessIndigenouspeoplesinordertoasserteuro-westernlawsandontologies.Theinter-relationofdeliberateorcomplicitstatedisappearance(extinction)ofmore-than-humankinandthedispossessionofIndigenousnationsmustthereforebeaddressedinresearchonextinctioninCanada.

1 AspecialthankyoutoChickasawlinguisticanthropologistJennyL.Davisforsharingthisresourcewithus.

11

OneoftheimportantoutcomesofthisKnowledgeSynthesisreportistheopportunitytounsettlethesupposeduniversalityofhuman-environmental,legal-ethical,andscientific/academicunderstandingsofextinctioninCanadainthe21stcentury.ThisreportdemonstratesthatpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsapproachquestionsofrelationality,reciprocity,andnarrativebetweenhumanandnonhumanagentsinthepast,present,andfutureinwaysthatsubvertorchallengewesternconceptionsof‘extinction’and‘existence’.InordertorectifytheongoinglegacyofeffortstorenderIndigenousknowledgesandpeoples‘extinct’,itisvitaltoturntoandtendtoreciprocalprocesseswhichre-centreIndigenouslegal-ethicalandphilosophicalapproachestothescientificandlegalparadigmsof‘extinction’.ApproachAudra2AccordingtoAnishinaabescholarKathyAbsolon(2007),reflectiveself-locationisintegralto‘wholistic’researchthatengagesrespectfullywithIndigenouspeoplesandknowledges.ForMitchell,astheonlynon-Indigenousmemberoftheresearchteam,themethodologicalapproachwasdrivenbyaprocessofengagingwithstolenlandthatsheoccupiesasawhitesettlerandlearningtoliveaccordingtotheknowledgesofthepeopleswhohavetraditionallycaredforthisland.HavingrecentlymovedtoHaudenosaunee,AnishinaabeandWendatlands(Toronto),andworkingonHaudenosaunee,AnishinaabeandNeutralterritories(Waterloo)Mitchell’smethodologyfocusedonlearningtheappropriatelawsthatgovernedtheselandsandthatwouldallowhertolivewellwithinthem.Forinstance,TorontoandtheareasurroundingitissubjecttotheDishWithOneSpoonWampumBeltCovenant,apeacetreatymadebetweentheleagueoffivenations(theHaudenosauneeorIroquoisConfederacy)andtheAnishinaabegconfederacybeforethearrivalofEuropeancolonizers.TheWampumaffirmsacommitmentbetweenthesenationstocarefortheGreatLakesandthehuntingterritoriessurroundingthem,inparticulartoensurethatnoonetookmoreanimalsthanthelandcouldreplenish.Importantly,learningaboutthebasiclawsoftheselandsinvolvednotonlyresearchingtheminwrittenform,orattendingtalks,lecturesandIndigenous-ledactionsorientedtowardsthem,butalsoengagingwiththeland.ThisinvolvedspendingtimeontheshoresofNigaani-Gichigami/LakeOntar:io;waterwalkingaroundLakeWaawaasaegaming;gatheringmedicinalplants;participatinginceremonywheninvited;andhelpingIndigenousfriendstoholdspaceforyouthinmidtownTkaront:o.Thistimespentonthelandenablesnotonlyexperientiallearningbutalsothemaintenanceofgoodrelations.Westernknowledges-particularlyinthesciencesandsocialsciences-tendtoseparate‘data’or‘information’intosilos,whereasmanyIndigenousknowledgesystemsaffirmtheirinterlinkedandholisticnature.Toaddressthisproblem,Mitchellattendedtoanumberofthemesinherresearch,including:storiesabouttherelationshipsbetweenhumans,otheranimals,Ancestors,land,water,

2 Inthespiritofmulti-vocality,weclearlyindicatewhoauthoredspecificsectionsofthereport.Thisenablesthepublictoclearlyevaluatetheintellectuallabourofeachcontributortothereport,andalsokeepswithpracticesofaccountabilityandtransparencyregardingwhereandwithwhomknowledgeforthisworkisgenerated.Ascollaboratorsandco-thinkersonthisproject,weworkbothinmulti-vocalandco-thinkingmodes.Someeffortsarecollaborativeandsomeeffortsareclearlydenotedasproducedbyspecificcontributors.

12

andotherbeings;colonialhistoriesofthegreatLakesarea;andpracticalworksonanimalandplantknowledgeinrelationtofoodandmedicine.Althoughthereisagreatdealofformally-publishedworkonthesethemesbyHaudenosauneeandAnishinaabegauthors,thesourcesMitchelldrewuponalsoincludednarrativesordescriptionsofstories,songs,poems,dreams,andtextandimagesorientedtowardsteachingchildren.Moreover,althoughthescopeofthisgrantislimitedtoIndigenousknowledgeswithinCanada,AnishinaabegandHaudenosauneeknowledgesarenotlimitedbypoliticalborders.Forthisreason,MitchellengagedwiththinkersfromthesetraditionslocatedinbothCanadaandtheUnitedStates,andwithotherIndigenoustraditionsthatinfluencedthethinkerswhoseworksheengaged.Overall,Mitchell’sresearchapproachwasinspiredbystrategiesthatresist(re)colonization,inparticularbiskbiyaangapproaches(Geniusz2009;Simpson2011),whichinvolvereclaimingknowledgesthathavebeenextractedthroughcolonialresearchprocessesandreturningthemtothebroader,living,communalstructuresinwhichtheyarerooted.Asasettlerscholar,Mitchellisnotabletoengageintheaspectsofbiskibiyaangthatinvolvepersonalandcommunity-basedIndigenousresurgence.However,sheaimedtorespectthegoalofbiskibiyaangbyidentifyingknowledgethathasbeenextractedorfragmented,andre-locatingtheseknowledgesasmuchaspossiblewithintheirbroadercommunitycontexts,butalsowithinthehistoriesofsettlercolonialismthatcontributedtotheirfragmentation.ItisalsoimportanttorecognizethatalthoughthestoriesthatMitchellworkedwithwerepublishedinwrittenform,andthereforeinthepublicdomain-andcirculatingwithinthesphereofWesternknowledgeproduction-theyarealive,andcommandrespect,includingtheexecutionofappropriateprotocolsand/orceremonies.ItisinterestingtonotethattheKnowledgeSynthesisGrantschemeisrestrictedtothecollectionof‘secondarysources’(thatis,workpublishedinacademicformat)andtherefore,inaccordancewithmostWesternresearchprotocols,ethicsapprovalisnotrequired.However,thisapproachreinstatescolonialmodesofknowledge-collectioninwhichwritten(orotherwise-gathered)knowledgeistreatedasdead,oraslackingethicalstatus.Tohonourandrespectthesestories,itmaybenecessarytogeneratesystemsofethicsapprovalthataccountforthenecessaryprotocolsandceremoniesthatattendengagingwithstoriesandotheraspectsofIndigenousknowledgesystems.ZoeFormyworkexaminingtherelationshipsbetweenIndigenousontologies,epistemologies,knowledgesystems,anddiscoursesofextinctiononthetheprairies,Ifocusedonnarrativescentredonhuman-animalrelationsintheprovinceIgrewupin,Alberta.Inarrowedmyareaofinquirytothisregion,anditsimmediatelyadjacentregions,becauseIamintimatelyfamiliarwithwildlifeconservation,environmental,andpolicydiscoursesintheprovince.ThematerialIconsultedislargelyMétis-centric.ImadethisdecisionbecauseIamabletospeakethicallyandaccountablytotherelationshipsbetweenMétisland-basedknowledge,history,andrelationshipsinwaysthatIcannotspeaktootherIndigenousepistemologiesandontologies.However,IalsomadeanefforttothoughtfullyengagepublishedmaterialsfromCreeandBlackfootknowledge-keepers,inordertospeaktothepluralityofknowledgesystems,andtheinter-linkedlabourandrelationality,whichanimateprairielandscapes,waterscapes,geographies,andterritories.Animportantaspectofmyworkonthisprojectwasanongoing,iterativewritingprocessthroughwhichIpostedreflectionsonIndigenousknowledge,academe,Indigenouslegal-traditions,and

13

decolonizingacademiaonmyblog(https://zoestodd.com)andalsopresentedpublictalksonmythinkingonthesethemesatvariouspublicfora.ThiswasawaytoproduceandsharemyphilosophicalworkwiththepublicsoastomaintainanethicofreciprocitythroughoutmyongoingengagementwiththeseissuesasaMétisscholar.ThisalsowasagenerativespacetoworkthroughdifficultideasandtostrengthenmycontributionstothisprojectwhilealsoensuringthatIwasworkingreciprocallyinapublicintellectionfashion.ResultsAudraTreaties,protocolsandlawsAlongtimeago,alltherosesdied.Manyanimalsdependedontherosesforfood,andtheytriedtofindoutwhosefaultitwas.Thewaawaashkeshiwag(deer)saiditwasthebineshiinyag(littlebirds),whilethebineshiinyagsaidthatalthoughtheyateafewflowers,itwasreallytheaamoog,thebees,whowereresponsible,becausetheyatethepollen.Theaamoogsaidtheytastedsomepollen,butthebutterflieslefttheireggsontheroses,wheretheircaterpillarshatchedandatealltheleaves.Thememenwag(butterflies)saiditwasthewaawaashkeshiwagwhoatethestems,whothenrepliedthatwasWaaboz(rabbit)whoateanddugtheroots,sotheyallgrabbedhistailandbrokeitoff,andpulledonhisearsandbacklegs,lengtheningthemandthreateningtokillthemuntilMukwa(thebear)stoppedthem.Then,theManidooappearedandaskedwhattheproblemwas,andwhentheanimalstoldhim,hesaid"killingtheWaaboozwillnotbringbacktheroses.Youallnoticedthattheroseswereintroubleandyoualldecidedtotakeyourownsharesevenifitmeantkillingtherosesforever.Thereisnohonourinthis.ThisisnotkeepingcreationinbalanceasyouweretoldtodointheBeginningTime".TheManidoobroughttherosesback,butgavethemprotection(thorns)tostoptheanimalsfromeatingthemupentirely;helefttheWaabozashewastoremindthemofthedangerofforgettingthebalance(ParaphrasedfromGeniusz2015,14)Storieslike‘theyeartherosesdied’(Anishinaabeg)offercleartheoriesaboutwhyandhowextinctionhappens:itoccurswhenhumansandotherbeingsfailtoupholdtheirresponsibilitiestoensurethebalanceandongoingco-existenceofallotherbeings.Insomecases,thisinvolvesthedirectbreakingoflaws.Forexample,theAnishinaabethinkersJohnBorrows(2010)andLeanneBetasamosakeSimpson(2014),bothshareastoryinwhichthedeerchoosetowithdrawfromtheirrelationshipswithhumans.Theydosobecausethehumansinquestionhavefailedtotreatthemrespectfullyandhavewastedtheirbodiesbyhuntingmorethanwhattheyneed,renegingonatreaty.Indeed,withinmanyIndigenousknowledgesystems,thedistinctlysocietalrelationshipbetweenhumansandotherbeingsisbasedonspecificlegalorders,treatiesandformalagreements(Watts2016).Thepurposeofthesetreatiesisnotprimarilytodemarcatepossessionsorrights(whichisthecaseinmostcolonialtreaties),butrathertoensuretheco-nourishmentofbeingsandminobimaadiziwin–anAnishinaabemowinwordfor‘goodlife’.AsSenecascholarJohnMohawk(2010,9-10)explains,‘realpeople’whoarerespectfulofnatureknowthatifthepowertosustainlifeisdestroyed,then“theprocessesoflifeonthisplanetmustbeweakened,andifthespiritsofenoughthingsthatproduceLifearedestroyed,allLifeasweknowitmustcease"(Mohawk2010,9-10).

14

Importantly,thesetreatiesmustnotonlybehonouredbutalsoupheldandrenewed.Forinstance,Simpson(2011,109-10)describestheannualmeetingsofherMichiSaagigNishnaabegpeoplewiththefishclansatMnjikkanming.Here,theygatheredtotalk,renewlifeandtotendtreatyrelationships–includingrestrictionsonwhenandwherepeoplecouldfish.Treatiesandagreementscanalsobebrokenindirectly.AsAnishinaabewriterRenéeElizabethMzinegiizhigo-kweBédard(2008,98)contends,thedestructionofrelationshipsortheconsumptionofsourcesofsustenancecan“break…relationshipstootherpartsofCreation”.Fromthisperspective,whatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’occurswhentreaties,protocolsandothernegotiatedagreementsbetweengroupsofhumansandotherbeingsarebroken.ThisexplanatorytheoryjibeswithsomeelementsofWesternscientificaccounts–forinstance,theecologicalideaofbalanceandinteractionamongstdifferentlifeformsandotherelementsofecosystems.However,itisdistinctfromWesternscientificapproachesinthatitunderstandstheserelationshipsinexplicitlymoral,ethical,legalandpoliticalterms.Thissuggeststhatscientificapproachesthatfocusonlyonscientificmanagementofecosystemsbyhumans,andthatignoretheseotherdimensions,areunlikelytobeeffective.Practicesofadherencetoandrenewaloftreatiesorotheragreementscantakeplaceinceremonialformsandactivitiesrelatedtoeverydaysubsistence(forinstance,eating,growingfood,gatheringplantsorhunting),andthetwoshouldnotbetreatedasseparate.Crucially,thesemeansofaddressingextinctionarepreventativeandcontinuous,ratherthanreactionaryorposthoc(i.e.followinganecological‘catastrophy’).Amongstthemostimportantofthesepracticesisthatofthanksgiving,orexpressionsofgratitudetootherbeings.ThisisexemplifiedbytheHaudenosauneeThanksgivingAddress,acollectiveacknowledgementandrecognitionofgratitudeofferedtoallbeingsforcreatingtheconditionsthatsupportongoinglife(Kimmerer2012;Alfred2009;Mohawk2010;Leduc2016).TaiaiakeAlfred(2009)’sversionofthisaddressreflectitsimportanceincreatingcollectiveintentionstoupholdtreatiesandprotocolswithotherbeings,andtoensurethecontinuityoflife:

“wegathertogetherandseethatthecycleoflifecontinues…withourmindsgatheredtogether,wegivethanksandlookforwardtoseeingPlantLifecontinuewithallitsdiversityforgenerationstocome.Nowourmindsareone…sincethebeginningoftime,thegrains,vegetables,beansandberrieshavehelpedthepeoplesurvive.WehonouralloftheFoodPlantstogetherasoneandsendthemgreetingsandthanks.Nowourmindsareone…wegatherourmindstogethertosendgreetingsandthankstoalltheanimallifeintheworld.Wehonourtheirwisdomandtheirstrength.Animalshavemanylessonstoteachushumanbeings,andtheyofferthemselvestousassustenance.Wecoexistwiththemwhereweliveandintheforestsandmountains.WearesogladthattheAnimalsarestillhere,andwehopethatitwillalwaysbeso.Nowourmindsareone…"(Alfred2009,14-16)

Performingthisdailyceremonynotonlyaffirmsandupholdsthesocial,legalandethicalstructuresthatHaudenosauneepeoplesharewithotherbeings;itisalsospirituallynecessaryinordertoensurethedurabilityofthesestructures.BrianRice(2013,309-10)relaysthewarningoftheHaudenosauneeprophetSkanyiatar:io:

15

“ifwestopgivingthankstotheCreatorforthethingshehasgivenus,thecloudswillbestill.Thespiritofthewatersofthespringsandbrookswillnolongerlookafterthemforourbenefit.Thesunwillgodimandthendarknesswillcovertheearth.Agreatsmokewillariseintheairandcoveralltheearth.ThenthepoisonousmonsterscreatedbySawiskerawillappear".

PotawatomischolarRobinWallKimmerer(2013),reflectingontheHaudenosauneeThanksgivingaddress,alsonotesthatperformingtheThanksgivingAddressmakesitpossibleto‘checkin’withotherbeings:

"thanksgivingalsoremindsusofhowtheworldwasmeanttobeinitsoriginalcondition.Wecancomparetherollcallofgiftsbestowedonuswiththeircurrentstatus.Areallthepiecesintheecosystemstillhereanddoingtheirduty?Isthewaterstillsupportinglife?Areallthosebirdsstillhealthy?Whenwecannolongerseethestarsbecauseoflightpollution,thewordsofThanksgivingshouldawakenustoourlossandspurustorestorativeaction.Likethestarsthemselves,thewordscanguideusbackhome"(Kimmerer2013,114)

Kimmereralsofocusesonthe‘HonourableHarvest’,ausuallyunspokensetofrulesthatstructurehercommunity’sapproachtogatheringfood.TheHonourableHarvestisbasedonanumberofprinciples:

“Knowthewaysoftheoneswhotakecareofyou,sothatyoumaytakecareofthem;introduceyourself.Beaccountableastheonewhocomesaskingforlife.Askpermissionbeforetaking.Abidebytheanswer.Nevertakethefirst.Nevertakethelast.Takeonlywhatyouneed.Takeonlythatwhichisgiven.Nevertakemorethanhalf.Leavesomeforothers.Harvestinawaythatminimizesharm.Useitrespectfully.Neverwastewhatyouhavetaken.Share.Givethanksforwhatyouhavebeengiven.Giveagift,inreciprocityforwhatyouhavetaken.Sustaintheoneswhosustainyouandtheearthwilllastforever"(Kimmerer2013,183).

Eachoftheseprinciplesensuresthatthepracticeofharvestingandeatingiswovenintoaprocessofreciprocalgift-givingthatensurestheco-existenceofeachbeing.Importantly,theethosoftheHonourableHarvestisnotsimplyasetofprohibitions;italsoofferspositiveprescriptions:"Doeatfoodthatishonourablyharvested,andcelebrateeverymouthful.Dousetechnologiesthatminimizeharm;dotakewhatisgiven”(Kimmerer2013,187).Indeed,upholdingprotocolsandagreementsinvolveseatingplantsandanimalsaswellasrestrainingconsumption:“healersknowthatplantswilldisappearifonetakestoomuch,andalsoifonedoesnotusethematall"(Simpson2011,105).Anotherimportantexampleofeverydayceremonialpracticeistheofferingofasemaa(tobacco)whenmakingarequest–forinstance,beforeaskinganElderforastory,ahealerformedicine,oraplantpermissiontoharvestit.ThelateAnishinaabeElderKeewaydinoquay(quotedinGeniusz200958-61)statesthat

"wheneveritseemstohumankindthatitisnecessarytochangeabalanceforsomedesirableend,whichthehumanbelievesisagoodone,thenweneedtospeaktotheseotherbeings…[weshould]nevertakeaplantforhealingwithoutfirsttalkingtothespecies

16

andthentotheparticularplants,askingfortheirpermission,andaskingthattheypleasegivehealing…thenyoupromisethatyouwon'ttakesomuchofitthatitsgrandchildrenwon'tliveafterit."

Thepracticeofofferingasemaa(andsometimessongsorevencommunalfeasts),makesitpossibletoachieveaconsensualrelationshipwiththeplant,mindfulofitscontinualco-flourishing.Crucially,thispracticedoesnotgiveapersonlicensetotakefromtheplant:theplantcanalwaysrefusepermission.Thismayoccurinsubtleways(forinstance,theplantmayphysicallyresistcollection),oritshealingqualitiesmayfailiftheagreementwiththeplantisnothonoured.Bymaintainingthispractice,peoplecanupholdtheirresponsibilitiestotheongoingsurvivalofplantsandotherbeings.Accordingtoastorysharedbyhergrandmother,ElderLena(quotedinKimmerer2013,157)statesthat“ifweuseaplantrespectfullyitwillstaywithusandflourish.Ifweignoreit,itwillgoaway.Ifyoudon'tgiveitrespectitwillleaveus"(Kimmerer2013,157).So,theupholdingofprotocolsisnotamereactofpoliteness–itdirectlyaffectsthesurvivalofbothparties.Dailypracticesofsubsistenceonspecificlandsalsohelptoupholdagreementsbetweenhumansandotherbeings.PotawatomischolarKylePowysWhytepointsoutthatWesternconservationists’gazesareoftentrainedon‘exotic’speciesdistributedacrosswidespaces(forinstance,elephantsandpolarbears)withoutlittleattentiontotheirrelationshipswithspecifichumancommunitiesandlands.Incontrast,heargues,Indigenousconservationiststendtofocuson“sustainingparticularplantsandanimalswhoselivesareentangledlocally–andoftenovermanygenerations–inecological,culturalandeconomicrelationshipswithhumansocietiesandothernonhumanspecies”(Whyte2016,2).Thisalsoinvolvesgrowing,huntingandharvestingfoodsthatcontributetotheco-flourishingofthatplace.Forinstance,withinHaudenosauneeknowledge,the‘threesisters’–squash,beansandcorn–formthebasisofthetraditionaldiet.Theyofferanethicforcoexistence,expressedinaparticularmodeoffarming:whenthesethreeplantsaregrowntogether,eachaidstheothers’growthandflourishingbysharingnutrients,providingshade,orofferingastalkonwhichvinescanclimb.Importantly,itisalsothrougheverydayprocessesofhunting,fishingandgatheringthatthewithdrawalofplantsoranimalsisoftendetected.Forinstance,AnishinaabegwriterLianneLeddy(2013,127-8)quotesanEldernamedJuniorinhercommunityofSerpentRiverFirstNation:

"Allourfisharegone.Ourriversareneverevergoingtocomebacktowhattheywas.Never.Imean,IusedtobeabletogofishingdowntheSerpentRiverdownbythehighwayoverthereandcatchallkindsoffish.Everytimeyou'dputthelineinthewater.It'snothingnow".

AnishinaabeandHaudenosauneeresponsestoquickeningpatternsofextinctionoftenincludeceremonyandtheuseoftraditionaltechnologiestocontinuesubsistencepractices.Forinstance,Whyte(2016)describestherestorationofNmé(lakesturgeon)intheGreatLakesbytheLittleRiverBandofOttawaIndians,3whichinvolvedapipeceremony,feast,educationaboutOttawatraditionsandtheceremonialreleaseofyoungNmérearedinstreamsidefacilities,allfocusedonthesovereigntyoftheband(Whyte2016,5).Inthismodeofresponsetothethreatofextinctioncausedbyoverfishingandindustrialpollution,thereisaclearefforttorestoreandupholdeveryday,ceremonialrelationswithsturgeoninthecontextofIndigenoussovereignty.

3 Pleasenotethattheterm‘Indians’isthelegalandformaltermusedtodescribeIndigenouspeoplesintheUnitedStates.

17

Cycles,returnandresurgenceWhereasWesternscienceframes‘extinction’asaunique,irreversibleeventwithinalinearmodeloftime,formanyIndigenousthinkersitispartofacycleofcleansingthroughwhichtheEarthself-renews.Forinstance,SheridanandLongboat(2006)comparetherecoveryoftheplantssurroundingtheSudburynickelsmeltersinthe1970stothedefoliationoftheregionduringtheperiodoftheWisconsinGlacier.Accordingtotheseauthors,lichenfirstemergedonthepre-Cambrianrocks,followedbyblueberrieswhich‘mothered’whitepinesbackintoexistence.Inthisway,lifeforms‘shape-shift’inordertorestoreoneanother.Storieslikethisonedemonstratedeep-seatedexperienceofperiodsofwidespreadextirpationsandecologicalcollapseembodiedinthelandandorally-transmittedmemory.Manystoriesofdestructionandrenewaltakeplacewithinacosmologicalregister.Forinstance,Mohawk’s(2010)workisdeeplyinfluencedbyastorysharedbyHopiElderThomasBanyacya.Thisstoryspeaksofpreviousworldsthatweredestroyedbecausethepeoplewantedmoreandmorematerialgoodsand,inseekingthem,gaveuptheirrelationshipswithnatureandthesacred.Thiscausedthespiritsofnature,disgustedbythisbehaviour,tobringaboutagreatpurificationinvolvingwidespreadfiresandflooding.Thissamepatternrepeatedthreetimes,producingtoday’sworld,thefourth.ForMohawk,thisstoryencapsulatestheideathatcurrentecologicalcollapse–potentiallyincludingnotonlyclimatechangebutalsoextinction–arepartofthecyclesofearth’spurification.Similarly,AnishinaabescholarandactivistWinonaLaduke(1994)drawsonanEasternCreeandInnustoryaboutagreatfloodthatwassentbyCreatorwhenthepeople,animalsandallofCreationweremisbehaving.Afterthisflood,therewasnothingleftexceptforafewanimalsandtheFirstPersonWesakejack,whoremadetheearthwithsomemudcollectedbythemuskrat.4Fromthisperspective,globalpatternsofextinction,alongwithclimatechange,large-scaletoxificationandotherecologicalarenottheirreversibleendtolifeitself(althoughperhapsforsomelifeforms),butratherthepreludetoplanetaryrenewal.ThisdoesnotrelieveWesternsocietyofitsculpabilityindrivingpatternsofextinction,ortheresponsibilitytoaddressit;onthecontrary,thesestoriessuggestearthrepelstheformsofsocial,politicalandeconomicorderthatunderpinit.AsimilartheoryiscentraltoHaudenosauneecosmology,andisreflectedinparticularinstoriesaboutthebrothersSaplingandFlint,thegrandsonsofSkyWoman(thefirsthuman).SkyWoman’sdaughter,BuddingFlowers,marriedaGreatTurtleandbecamepregnantwithSaplingandFlint,whokilledherbyemergingintotheworldthroughherarmpit.AccordingtoTimLeduc(2016,193),“Flintwasbornwithadarkpowerthathisgrandmotherrecognizedwhenheshowedheranarrowandsaid,'Icanstopanythingfromgrowingorlivingandbringdarknesswiththisweapon".However,Saplingwasbornwithimmensecreativepotential,capableofconvertinghisbrother’sactsofdestructionintoburstsofrenewal.WithinHaudenosauneecosmology,planetaryrupturessuchasextinctionaretheworkofFlintandhisgrandmother,SkyWoman,whoconstantlyattempttoundothecreativeimpulseofSapling.Fromthisperspective,extinctionisnotlinearbutratherdecidedlycyclicaland,providedthatcosmologicalorderisrestored,maybefollowedbyperiodsofrenewal.ForSheridanandLongboat(2006),thisdialecticisexplainedbytheideathatthebeginning,ororigin, 4 ThisstoryhasresonanceswithHaudenosauneecreationstories,inwhich,afterthefallofSkyWomanfromSkyworld,MuskratdivestothebottomoftheprimordialwatertogathermudfromwhichTurtleIslandiscreated

18

isalwaysthereandneverleaves,makingitpossibleforearthto‘returnforever’inthealternatingpowersofSaplingandFlint.RenewalandrestorationplayimportantrolesinHaudenosauneeandAnishinaabegstoriesofextinctionandotherformsoflarge-scaleecologicaldestruction“putdystopiainperspectiveasjustabrief,yethighlydisruptive,historicalmomentforus"(Whyte2016,3).IncontrasttopopularWesternnarrativesthatframeextinctioninapocalyptictermsandseektocontrolit,thisapproachemphasizespracticesthatsupportresurgence–ofIndigenouspeoplesandalloftheirrelations.ForKimmerer(2013,328),thismeansmorethansimplygrievingforlostrelationsorhaltingdestructivebehaviours–thereneedstobeaneffortto“onceagainenterintopositive,creativerelationshipwiththemore-than-humanworld,meetingresponsibilitiesthataresimultaneouslymaterialandspiritual”.Echoingthisidea,Simpsonpromotesanethosorientedtowardstheproductionofmorelife–bothIndigenousandmore-than-human.Shecontendsthat:

“Colonialismhasonlycreatedalossoflifeintermsofextinctandendangeredspeciesofanimalsandplants,andadrasticandtraumaticdeclineinthequalityoflifeforthefractionofNishnaabegthatsurvivedtheoriginalconquest…Resurgencemovementsthen,mustbemovementstocreatemorelife,propellife,nurturelife,motion,presenceandemergence"(Simpson2011,143)

Indeed,muchofAnishinaabeandHaudenosauneethoughtrelatedtoextinctionisdeeplyfuture-oriented.Forinstance,theupholdingofprotocolsdiscussedaboveiscloselyrelatedtocareforfuturegenerationsnotonlyofhumans,butalsooftheplantsoranimalsthatoneisgathering.AsHaudenosauneeauthorSusanM.Hillavers,

“theOriginalInstructionsoutlinethatourprimaryresponsibilityisnotforthesurvivalofthepeoplecurrentlyalivebutforthecontinuationofalllifesothatthefuturegenerationswillbeadequatelyprovidedwithalltheyneedtosurvive…theresponsibilitytothefutureisthesourceofthelandandenvironmentalethics"(Hill2008,29)

TheFirstPersonSkyWomanmodelsthisethic:whenshefelltowhatwouldbecometheearth,shewaspregnant,andherworktoestablishTurtleIslandwasundertakennotonlytoensureflourishinginhertime,butalsoformanyfurthergenerations(Kimmerer2013).ForMohawk(2010),therelationshipwithfuturegenerationssolidifiesone’stiestolandandplace;hepointsoutthathumanbodieswereonceunborn,andarecomposedofmatterthatwasoncepartofsoil,rocks,ocean,plantsandotheranimals.Fromthisperspective,careorconcernforone’sflourishingmustextendtoincludethesemore-than-humanandnot-yet-bornbeings.Forthisreason,Whyte(2016)countstheabilitytoplanforsovereignfuturesasoneofthemostimportantaspectsofIndigenousself-governanceinthefaceoflarge-scaleecologicalchange.Thesestories,andtheethicstheyembody,offerapowerfulmodeofresponsetoextinction:resurgence,thevisioningofmultiplefutures,derivingwisdomfromstoriesofpreviousdestruction,andattentiontothecyclesandalternationsofcreativityanddestruction.

19

ResultsZoeIpresentmyfindingsbelow,organizedaroundseveralkeyspeciesthroughwhichIgeneratedmyunderstandingsofMétisandMétis-Creerelationshipstoextinctionandthedisappearanceandabsencingofmore-than-humanbeingsfromprairielifeandworlds.Thesekeyspecies/beingsaroundwhomIgeneratethinkingforthisreportarenamewak(sturgeon),paskwamostos(bison),anddinosaurs.namêw(sturgeon)

(photocredit:ZoeTodd,digitalillustration,2017)

Lakesturgeon(PlainsCreename:namêw)(latinname:Acipenserfulvescens)isconsideredathreatenedspeciesinAlberta(GovernmentofAlberta2014:1).Sturgeon,however,isdeeplypresentinthetoponomyofAlbertaandSaskatchewan,whichisevidentthroughplace-namesthatacknowledgethepriorabundanceandimportanceofthisfishspeciestoprairieIndigenouslivesandlivelihoods.Forexample,intheEdmontonregion,numerousplace-namesreferencethisfish,bothinEnglishandnehiyawewin(PlainsCree,Ydialect)derivedterms.NorthwestofEdmonton,thetownofNamaoreferenceslakesturgeon.TheadjacentCanadianForcesBaseNamaoalsoincorporatesthisonce-abundantfishintoitsnomenclature.SturgeonCountyisthenamefortheregionthatincorporatesthecityofSt.Albert,whichwasanimportantMétissettlementintheregioninthe19thcentury(Iseke-Barnes2009).InnorthernAlbertathetownofSturgeonLakeandnearbySturgeonLakeIndianReserve154acknowledgelakesturgeon.Namêw(sturgeon)aredeeplytiedtowîsahkîcâck,ElderBrother,whoisanimportantfigureinnehiyaw(Cree)cosmology,law,andphilosophy.WîsahkîcâckandhisstoriesareintegraltoPlainsCreelaw,asPlainsCreescholarRobertAlexanderInnes(2013:8)explainsinhisworkonkinshiprelationsandlawinhishomecommunityofCowessessFirstNationinSaskatchewan:

“ForCowessesspeople,thesevaluesareembeddedinthestoriesofElderBrother.WîsahêcâhkandNanubush,inCreeandOjibwe/Saulteauxoralstoriesrespectively,arealso

20

knownbythekinshiptermElderBrother.TheElderBrotherstoriesaswellasothersaretoldinthewintertimebyskilledstorytellers.Storytellerswerevaluedbythewaytheydeliveredastoryandhowtheywereabletoadaptorprovideatwistandstillmaintainthestory’sintegrity.ElderBrotherstoriescontainspiritualbeings,andthoughthereissomedebateamongsomescholarsaboutwhetherElderBrotherisaspiritbeing...thisisnotofgreatconcerntoCreeofOjbwepeople.Thesestoriesfallwithintwomaincategories--âtayôhkêwinaandâcimowina--whichcontainmanystoriesofdifferentspiritbeings...TheElderBrotherstoriesalongwithotherstories,formthebasisoftheLawofthePeoplethatguidedpeople’ssocialinteractionwithallofcreation,includingkinshippractices.”

CreelanguagescholarSolomonRattsharesatellingofthefirststoryofwîsahkîcâckstorycycle:the‘RollingHead’story(Ratt2016).5Inthisstory,weareintroducedtohowthesturgeoncametobe.Sturgeonis,infact,thetransformedentitythatresultswhenwîsahkîcâck’smother,whohasturnedintoaRollingHeadwhopursueswîsahkîcâckandhisbrotheracross,isstoppedthroughtheeffortsofwîsahkîcâck,hisbrother,andtheteachingsandmaterialsimpartedbytheirfather:

“AssoonaswîsahkîcâcksawRollingHeadinthewaterheshotitwithanarrowandpronounced:

“Fromthisdayforthyoushallbea‘namêw,’sturgeon,providingfoodforthepeopletocome.””(Ratt2016)

Whensturgeon/namewisrelatedsodeeplytotheworkandactionsofwîsahkîcâckhimself,whoimparteduponsturgeontheresponsibilityoffeedingpeople,thequestionofthelossofsturgeoninprairiewatershedsthroughover-fishingandenvironmentalimpactsaccruingfromthefurtradeandothercolonialmachinationstakesonalegal-ethicalandphilosophical/metaphysicalweight.AccordingtofisheriesbiologistOwenWatkins,lakesturgeonwereconsideredlargelyextirpatedintheNorthSaskatchewanwatershedinEdmontoninthemid-twentiethcentury:

“"Inthe1940s,thepopulationwasoverharvestedandinthe1950sthecityofEdmontonwasamajorcontributorofwastewatertotheNorthSaskatchewanRiverandnutrientlevelsreachedprettymuchthehighestrecordsbackthen,"WatkinssaidinaninterviewwithCBCRadio'sEdmontonAM.”(Snowdon2016)

Thisregionallossofsturgeon,andindeedotherprairiemore-than-humanbeings,mustbeunderstoodbeyondtheeuro-westernextinctionandwildlifeconservationparadigmswhichaccordtospeciessolelyecological-scientific(andoccasionally,economic)weight.TolosesturgeonintheprairiesistoalsoloseanagentwhoseresponsibilitieswerenotonlyaffordedbywîsahkîcâckbutwhicharealsodeeplyinterwovenwithCreelegaltraditions.Extinction,extirpation,andspecieslossmatterthereforefromnotonlyanecologicalstandpointbutalsofromtheperspectiveofIndigenouslegaltraditionswhichincorporatemore-than-humanbeingsintheirconceptualizationsofhumanandmore-than-humanethics,kinship,responsibility,andobligations.

5GratitudetoChelseaVowelfordirectingmetothisstorycycle.

21

paskwâmostos(bison)

(photocredit:ZoeTodd.TakenattheMuseumofNature,Ottawa,November2016)

Thereisextensiveresearchonthedeliberateerasureofplainsbison(Bisonbisonbison),orbuffalo,asameansthroughwhichtodispossessIndigenouspeoplesonthePlainsintheUSAandCanada(Daschuk2013;Dumont2015;Hubbard2013).Inhershortfilm‘BuffaloCalling’,IndigenousfilmmakerandscholarTashaHubbardexploresthenarrativeofthelastbuffaloherdinCanada--tellingastorythatspansfromthe1850stotoday(CineslasAmericas2014).Inthepiece,sheexplicitlychoosestoallowthebisontonarratethestorythroughtheirownvocalizations(ibid),amovewhichHubbardarticulatesisnecessaryinordertocentrethevoiceofthebisonthemselves.MétispoetMarilynDumontexplorestheintrinsicrelationshipbetweenMétislifeandlivelihoodsandthebisontheysharedtimeandspacewithinthe18thand19thcenturiesontheCanadianPlains.InLesAnimaux,apoeminhercollectionThePemmicanEaters,Dumont(2015:14-15)offersthefollowing:

“gone,unclethey’regone andsomethinginusgoestoofollowingafter lesanimaux,thosewhoyou“called”asiftheywereyourbrother lesanimaux,thosewhoyoucalledmonfrèreandherdedwiththeirgreatbeards lesanimaux,thebrothersthathaveleftusthehavemovedtoanotherplain,

uncle,onthelasthuntinsteadofseeingamovingseaofbrownbacks,aripplinggroundnow,youseeonlyafewstumpsfeedingongrasses

now,theirgreatsizeisswallowedbythebiggerprairieprairiethatonceteemedlikeitcouldn’tholdalllesanimaux,theirsoundlikedistantthunderwillneverreachyourearsagainuncle,howsadthatdaywhennoonespokeofthemasifspeakingtheirname

22

couldsliceanarmfromone’sownbodybecausetheywereyou”

InMétislegal-ethicalpraxiswedrawuponanehiyawCreelegalprinciple:wahkohtowin.WahkothowinisdefinedbyMétisscholarBrendaMacDougall(2011:xxx)as:

“aworldviewthatprivilegedrelatednesstoland,people(living,ancestralandthosetocome),thespiritworld,andcreaturesinhabitingthespace.Inshort,thisworldview,wahkootowin,ispredicateduponaspecificAboriginalnotionanddefinitionoffamilyasabroadlyconceivedsenseofrelatednessofallbeings,humanandnon-human,livinganddead,physicalandspiritual’”

AsDumont’sworkdemonstrates,thebisonoftheRedRiverMétishomeland(andhomelandofmanyotherIndigenousnationsonthePlains,includingAnishinaabeg,neyihawak,Nakota,Dakota,Lakota,Saulteaux,Blackfoot,Deneandothers)weremorethanmeresustenancetoMétishunters.Bison,knownbytheirneyiyawewin(PlainsCree,y-dialect)name,paskwâmostos,werekin.Bisonwerebrothers/frereswhonourishedMétisbodiesandlegal-ethicalresponsibilitiestoland,time,space,andotherhuman/nonhumankin.Despitefacingcomplexcolonialpressuresinthe19thcentury,Hubbard’s(2013)worksopoignantlydemonstratesthatneitherthebisonnortheirhumankinwereentirelyremovedordispossessedfromprairieworlds.Instead,MétisandotherIndigenousnationswhoco-constitutelifewithbisoncontinuetore-assertpluralknowledgesystemsacrosstheplains,insistentlycentringnotionslikewahkohtowininsubvertingcolonialparadigmswhichsoughttovanishIndigenousprairiehumanandnon-humankinalike.DinosaursInatalkdeliveredatCongressoftheHumanitiesinCalgaryin2016,BlackfootphilosopherLeroyLittleBearcontextualizesBlackfootcosmologicalperspectivesonhuman-environmentalrelations,relationality,andextinction.Inthistalk,hesharedthefollowingstory:

“Weashumansliveinaverynarrowspectrumofidealconditions.Thoseidealconditionshavetobethereforustoexist.That’swhyit’sveryimportanttotalkaboutecology,therelationship.Ifthoseidealconditionsarenotthere,youandIarenotgoingtolastforverylong.JusttextNeanderthal.Askthedinosaurs.Whathappenedtothem?Weaskedoneofourelders‘whydidthosedinosaursdisappear?’.Hethoughtaboutitforawhileandhesaid‘maybetheydidn’tdotheirceremonies.’”–LeroyLittleBear,2016

Thistalk,andspecificallythisstory,istheentry-pointwhichbroughtmeintostudiesofextinctioninrelationtoMétisphilosophiesandcosmology.InarticulatinghisperspectivesonBlackfootcosmologyanditsinsightsonproperrelationsbetweenhumansandnonhumansthroughthegreatsweepofearthlyexistence,LittleBeartaughtmethatIcanandshouldreturntoRedRiverMétisnarrativesthatunderpinourveryexistenceintheprairies.Specifically,hisworkencouragedmetoturntotheMétisprincipleofwahkohtowinasatheoreticalguideinthinkingthroughMétisentanglementsintheglobalextinctioncrisis.AsoneofseveralIndigenousnationsdeeplyimpactedbysettlercolonialeffortstoeradicatebisononthePlains,wesawourlegal-ethicalstructureschallengedbythelossofbison-as-kin(Dumont2015),asarticulatedabove.However,inadditiontokeenandvisceralexperiencesofrecentlossesofbison-kin,RedRiverMétispeoplesalsoowe

23

reciprocalresponsibilitiestothoseordersofbeingandexistencewhomanifestedwithin,andshaped,theprairieslongbeforehumanhabitation.Specifically,Métismustcontendwithresponsibilitiestolong-agodinosaursanddinosaur-erabeingswhosepressurizedandliquefiedremainsnowmanifestashydrocarbonsminedandextractedasoil,gas,andbitumen(Todd2017a).Inthissense,LittleBear’sworkremindsprairieIndigenousscholarstoremembertoexpandlegal-ethicalthinkingbeyondhumantimeframes,andtoconsideraswellthelivesandlossesofthosebeingswhoexistedandlabouredwithincontemporaryprairie-scapessomemillionsofyearsago.Results:Pitseolak

ᓄᖑᕕᒃᑐᑦ: Nunguviktut ThisoverviewofInuitperspectiveson"extinction,"asunderstoodinWesternliterature,islargelyinformedbymyinterpersonalinteractionswithintheInuitcommunityinNunavut,inparticularIqaluit.ThisisthecommunitywhereIgrewupandenjoyedalargepartofmyadultlife,beforebeingtrainedinWesternscholarlytraditioninSouthernCanada.Thislineofpersonalgrowthhasmademyinsightsincreasinglycomplexandnuanced,withaneyetohowInuitknowledgescomplement,contradict,andoftentimesincludeaspectsthatWesternscientificknowledgehasyettocatchupwith.Suchwerethefindingsresultingfromengagingwiththeconceptof"extinction"throughInuiteyes.Iherebyhighlightthefindings,organizedintosectionsthatprogressivelyportraythemainideasthateachparagraphintroduces."Extinction"inholisticcontext:naturalorderandtraditionalknowledge

AsIventuredintodiscoveringtheliteraturewrittenbyInuitonwhat"extinction"meanstomypeople,IquicklyrealizedthatthepremisewithwhichIstartedthisinvestigationwashighlyWestern-based:theexpectationthataperspectivewouldbedocumentedandlegitimatedthroughwrittentext,whichwouldcountas'rigorous'knowledge.Therewerenoscholarlywritingsspecificallyonthetopicof"extinction,"butneitherwerethereanystoriesorlegendsthatwouldfocusonit,asunderstoodintheWesternworld.Ineededanalternativetoconsider"extinction":ifInuitwerenotdiscussingornarratinganyworldviewsabouttheendofexistenceorextinction,then,perhaps,IcoulddiscoverwhatInuitmeanabouthowtheworldbecameandhowwecarefortheworld,sothatthenaturalordercouldbemaintained.Withthisnewpremiseinmind,myinvestigationrequiredmetoseekouttheknowledgesthathavesustainedoursurvivalasapeople,suchasournaturallawsthatgovernthewaywelivewiththeanimals,includingharvestingthemforourfoodsecurity.ThisapproachallowedmetobeginunderstandingtheconceptofextinctioninspecificInuitcontext.AnimalsatthecentreofInuitwayofbeing

ᓄᖑᕕᒃᑐᑦ(nunguviktut)istheInuktuncorrespondentfor"extinct,"usedbytheInuitinNunavut."Nungu"means"allgone."WhenInuitthinkofextinction,theyspeakofconcernfortheanimalsdisappearing.Buttheyalsothinkoftheirlanguageandculturedisappearing.ItiswithinthislargercontextthatIwasabletotracktheconceptofextinctionandtopersonallyengagewiththe

24

worldviewofmypeoplethroughourstories,mythsandlegendsthatdealinonewayoranotherwiththeinterconnectionbetweenanimals,land,language,andculture. Itseemsthatourrelationshipstoanimalsfirstbeginsbysimplyrecognizingthemasalive.Inuitviewsonextinctioncanbegleanedfromourconnectiontothelandandanimals.ᐆᒪᔪᖅ(uumajuq)isthewordfor"animal"inInuktun,whichmeans"itisalive."UnderstandinganimalsaslivingbeingsoffersusaglimpseintotheInuitworldviewoftheirrelationshipwiththeEarth'snaturalelements:land(Nuna),water(Tagiu),andsky(Sila). MyWesternscholarlytraininginitiallyhadmedisappointedatthelackofInuitliteratureonextinction.ButenteringmypositionasanInukinmyhomecommunityallowedmetoimmersemyselfintoouroralhistoryandtogobeyondthestrictfocusonextinction,todiscoveralarger,holisticcontextinwhichInuitrespondtoandbuildknowledgearoundtheideaofextinction.Thatmeantreconnectingwithaspiritualworldthathadtakenabackseattotheworldof'reason'and'commonsense'Iwastaughtinformaleducation,whetherupNorthordownSouth.Ihavehadtheopportunitytorecollect,discover,andbuilduponwhatEldershavebeentryingtotellus―we,asthenextgenerationofInuit,aredecisionmakers,butwecarrytheresponsibilitynottoforgetaboutoursocietalvaluesandtobeproudofwhoweare.Wehaveresponsibilitiestotakecareofeachotherandwemustcareforourlandandanimals.Otherwise,allisgone("nungu"). Frompresenttopast:connectionbetweeneconomicdevelopment–extinction–colonizationForgettingaboutthevalueofwhoweare―animals,land,water,andskyincluded―wouldtranslateintoarealthreattoourInuitexistence(ourlands,language,cultureandwayoflife).Assuch,InuitElderswoulddescribetheworryandconcernaboutminingdevelopmentandthethreatontheabilityforInuittocontinuetohunttheanimalsthatfeedandsustainourculture.Whetherthroughexpressionslikewildlifemanagementormininganddevelopmentpublichearingsandconsultations,Inuitconsistentlyworryabouttheirwayoflife.InuitEldershavelivedthroughtheexperienceofcolonizationthatleftthemwithoutavoice,powerlesstoitseffects.Inaway,colonizationalmostmeanttheextinctionoftheirvoices,and,throughthem,ofourwayoflife.Inthatneed,theywoulddescribetheirwayoflifebeforecolonization,aboutlivingonthelandandcaringforeachother,abouthowwetreatouranimals.Inuitsocietalvaluesornaturallawsrequireustoincorporatetraditionalknowledgeintoourpresentdecision-making.Thefundamentalmessageintraditionalknowledge,whichanchorstheideaof"extinction,"isthatweareforgettingabouttherelationshipswithourland,water,andsky,andthatwearelosingcontroloverouraffairsandabilitytomakedecisionsthatareconsistentwithourvalues.Internationalengagementinsupportofpreventingextinction

Inuitarevocal,insistentandcommittedtohavingourvoiceheard.RecognizingtheoftenneocolonialinterestsofCanadianstateandcorporations,whichalsobenefitfromthesupportofselectterritorialdecision-makers,Inuithaveengagedwithinternationalaudiencesandregulatorybodies.Thestrategyrevolvesaroundframingtraditionalknowledgeasscientificknowledge.Forthepurposesofthisinvestigation,thismeanslegitimizingtraditionalknowledgeasthemediumthroughwhichInuit

25

canvoiceextinctionmatters.SheilaWattCloutier,renownedInuitclimateactivist,hasaskedtheworldtolistentous,sincewe,theInuit,aretheexperts.Our"righttobecold,"asCloutierputsit,isamessagetotheworldthatwehavearighttolifeandthatwemustpayattentiontowhereknowledgecomesfrom.Inotherwords,wehavetherightnottodisappear.Reflections

TheInuittraditionofworkingwithotherstobridgeknowledgesandtomakegooddecisions,thatworkforus,hasresultedinourreputationforbeingwelcomingandwillingtobepragmatic.6 Butarewe,asapeople,toowelcoming?Howprincipledisthispragmatism?Willourtraditionalknowledgefindanactivevoiceindecision-making?Westerndecision-makingrequires'rigorous'scientificevidence.HowdoesInuitpragmatismindecision-makingreconcilescientificknowledgewithtraditionalknowledge?Similarly,andmoreimportantly(givengovernancestructuresandthefederal-territorialrelation),isthescientificandacademiccommunityyettorespectenoughandtounderstandhowourholisticknowledgerelatedtoextinctionislegitimateindecision-makingthataffectsus,and,byextension,therestoftheworld?

Allindicationsappeartothescientificcommunityafailinggrade.Inuittraditionalknowledgepresentlyisusedtomerelysupportscientificresearch.Thereislittle,ifany,tracethatothersperceiveInuittraditionalknowledgeaslegitimate.AsevidencedthroughtheoralhistoryofInuitdescribingwherethe'lost'Franklinshipswere,ittookWesternscience200yearsoftechnologicaldevelopmenttorealizethatwhatInuithavesaidistrue.Butdowehave200moreyearsonthisplanet?StateofKnowledgeOurresearchshowsthatthereisasubstantialgapinliteratureontheconceptof‘extinction’specifically,inbothTEKandIndigenoussources,althoughthereareimportantdifferencesinthereasonsforthesegaps.Inthefirstcase,thelackoffocusonextinctionisduetotheprevalenceofmainstream,policy-friendlytermssuchas‘conservation’,‘biodiversityloss’and‘biodiversitymanagement’.Althoughthesetermsarerelatedtotheissueofextinction,theyelideitwithspecificunderstandingswhattheconceptmeansandhowitshouldberespondedto,whichcancrowdoutalternativeideasrootedinpluralIndigenousknowledgesystems(Mitchell2016).InthecaseofIndigenousknowledgesystems,theconceptofextinctionappearsnottobereferencedoftenbecauseitmaycorrespondwiththewaysthattheseknowledgesystemsunderstandtherelationsbetweenspecifichumancommunitiesandotherbeings.ThisdoesnotsuggestthatIndigenousknowledgesystemslackconceptsandframeworksforrespondingtothephenomenonthatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’.Instead,itreflectsthefactthattherearemultiplewaysofunderstandingthisphenomenonthatneedtobehonouredandunderstoodintheirownright,ratherthanincomparisontoWesternscientificunderstandings.

6 Kuptanacallsit"principledpragmatism"―Kuptana,R.(2014).IndigenousPeoplesinCanada:Politics,PolicyandHumanRightsbasedApproachestoDevelopmentandRelationship-Building.TextfromalecturegivenatTrentUniversity's50thAnniversary,August08.https://www.facebook.com/notes/10152653528630909/

26

AnothersignificantgapintheliteratureonTEKisthatthereisagreatdealofresearchinwhichnon-Indigenousprimaryinvestigators/correspondingauthorscollaboratewithIndigenousco-researchersand/orcommunitiestoanswerquestionsrelatedtoWesternscientificstrategiesforbiodiversitymanagement.However,thereisfarlessworkorientedtowardsprojectsthatcentermodesofresponsivenesstoextinctionrootedinIndigenousknowledgesystemsorneedsarisingfromspecificcommunities.ThisfurtherconfirmsDeborahMcGregor’s(2005)critiqueofTEK,whichsuggeststhatitgeneratesacolonizingloop:itstartsinWesternparadigms,gathersknowledgefromIndigenouscommunities,thentranslatesthatknowledgebackintoWesternframeworksinordertoenhanceWesternformsofmanagement.ThereisalsoasignificantdifferencebetweenhowWesternandpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsengagewithknowledgerelatedtowhatWesternsciencecalls‘extinction’.Westernscientificapproachesfocussignificantlyonquantitativeorempiricalanalyses-thatis,theyvalueIndigenousknowledgeasasourceof‘data’relatedto,forinstance,changesinpopulations,thatcouldbeusedtotestWesterntheories.Incontrast,theIndigenoussourcesonwhichwedrewofferedsignificanttheorizationsofwhat‘extinction’is,howitcomesaboutandhowtorespondtoit.Thesetheorizationsoftentaketheformofstories(Million2004)thatembodyprocessesoflearning,experimentationwithin(notseparatefrom)one’slivedworldandthegenerationofcollectivewisdomovertensofthousandsofyears(Johnston2010;Atleo2012).Wenotethatthereisastrong(ifsmall)bodyofworkbyIndigenousauthorsthatcritiquesTEK(e.g.McGregor,Whyte).ThisworkiscrucialtodisruptingscientificframeworksthateraseorobscureIndigenousperspectivesonextinction.Oneofthestrengthswediscoveredthroughthisresearch,however,isthatthereisaveryrichbodyofmaterialthatcentresIndigenousknowledgeofhuman-environmentalandhuman/nonhumanrelationsindynamicways.ThisworkisbeingincorporatedintoIndigenouslegalstudiesscholarship(see:Borrows2010;Napoleon2007),artandfilm(Hubbard2013),oralhistoryandlanguagework(Ratt2016),amongotherendeavours.WeproposethatanongoingcommitmenttodecolonizingwesternacademicpraxisisnecessarywhenscholarsengagepluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsinCanadianresearchonextinction.ImplementingtherecommendationsofRCAP(1996)andtheTRC(2015)regardingfulsomeandethicalnation-to-nationrelationsbetweenIndigenouspeoplesandCanadianlegal-governmentandacademicbodieswillensurethattheworkbeingdonebyIndigenouspeoplesonIndigenousknowledgewillberobustlyandmeaningfullyengagedinbroaderconversationsinCanada,withaviewtodismantlinglegaciesofsettlercolonialerasureanddispossessionofIndigenouslaws,languages,land,andlivelihoods.KnowledgemobilizationWeareplanningaKnowledgemobilizationworkshoptobeheldatCarletonUniversityinJanuary,2018.Throughthisworkshop,weaimtodisseminatethefindingsfromour2017researchonexistingmaterialsregardingIndigenousontologies,epistemologies,andpluralknowledgesofextinctioninaninter-generationalandcommunity-orientedway.ThismeetingwillengageIndigenouselders--FirstNations,Inuit,andMétis--andIndigenousyouthartiststodiscussthepreliminaryfindingsofourKnowledgeSynthesisreportresearch.ThisworkshopisalsoanopportunitytoconsultonandengageourproposedKnowledgeMobilizationoutput,whichisachildren’sbookonIndigenousperspectivesonextinction.

27

Ourproposedchildren’sbookonIndigenousperspectivesonextinctionisanefforttoaddressthefactthatknowledgemobilizationcanandshouldbeinter-generational,andthatworkingwithartistsandstorytellerstocommunicateIndigenouscosmologiesandphilosophiesisapowerfulwaytomovebeyondtheconfinesofthetypicalresearchoutputframework.ConclusionZoeHere,intheconclusiontothisreport,wedrawonandincorporateapieceToddwroteinApril2017regardingthenotionof‘Indigenousstories,knowledge,legaltraditions,ontologies,epistemologiesasuncededterritory’(Todd2017b).InevaluatinghowAboriginal/IndigenousknowledgesystemsinCanadacancontributetointerdisciplinaryresearchontheglobalextinctioncrisis,wequicklyrealizedthatwehadtoalsoattendtostructuresofknowledgeproductioninCanada.InherseminaltextMohawkInterruptus,Dr.AudraSimpson(2014)talksaboutthe‘scenesofapprehension’throughwhichanthropology(throughitstechnologiesandtoolsofethnography)yearnsfor,captures,andtaxonomizesIndigenousbodiesandstories.Throughthecourseofourresearchforthisreport,webegantoqueryandtroublethecurrentpowerrelationsofmobilizationofIndigenousknowledgeinacademeinCanada,specificallyinrelationtoIndigenousperspectivesonextinction.AsSimpson’sworkteachesus,theapprehensionofIndigenousknowledgesbynon-IndigenousscholarsinNorthAmericanacademeisfraughtwith,anddrivenby,thepowerdynamicsofsettlercolonialismandwhitesupremacy—arelationshipandproblematicwhichAustralianIndigenousscholarDr.AileenMoreton-Robinson(2015)elegantlyillustratesinhertheoryof‘whitepossessiveness’.ThroughthecolonialencounterinAustralia,theinter-relatedforcesofsettlercoloniallegalframeworksof‘property’and‘possession’notonlyworkedtodispossessIndigenouslandbutalso,asMoreton-Robinsonpointsout(2015:475),operatedandcontinuetooperatetoconstructIndigenousontologiesandepistemologiesaswhitepossessions:

“The“Aborigine”isinventedasawhitepossessionbeingaccordedthenecessaryprescribedracializedattributeswithinracializeddiscourse.Whenracializeddiscourseconstitutesanddefinesthe“Aborigine,”,itisproducingthroughknowledgeasubjectofitsownmaking,onethatitinterpretsforitself.ThisprocessviolatesthesubjectivityofGooriesandKooriesbydisavowinganytraceofourontologicalandepistemologicalexistence.Inthisway“Abrogines”areconstitutedinanddeployedbyracializeddiscourseaswhitesocialconstructsandepistemologicalpossessions.ThisAboriginehasfunctioneddiscursivelyintheprintmediafortwocenturieswithnewracializedattributesaddedasthedisciplinaryknowledgesofLaw,Science,andAnthropologygrewwithinthenewnation.”

Moreton-Robinson’sargumentisanaptguideforevaluatingrelationshipsofpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemstotheCanadianacademytoday.InadditiontoevaluatingavailablematerialstoassessthecurrentstateofresearchonextinctioninCanada,wealsohadtoreckonwiththepoliticalandstructuralaspectsofwhere,when,why,andhowspecificknowledgesarebrought(ornotbrought)tobearonthequestionoftheglobalextinctioncrisis.Moreover,asweanalyzedcurrentavailablematerialsonIndigenousperspectivesonextinctionwithaviewtobringingthisworkinto

28

conversationwithbroaderCanadianecological,academic,andpoliticaldiscourses,werealizedthatItbecomesdifficultto‘Indigenize’theacademyinCanada.Incurrent‘Indigenization’andreconciliationframeworksinCanadianacademe,wecontendthatIndigenousthinkersandknowledgesystemsarebeing,effectively,‘ceded’spacebyinstitutionswhichoperateaswhatanthropologistsKarenBrodkin,SandraMorgen,andJanisHutchinsonterm‘whitepublicspace’(Brodkinetal.2011).However,whenpluralIndigenousknowledgesystems,astheyareunderstoodincolonialdisciplinesandacademicinstitutions,areawhitepossessionasMoreton-Robinsonpointsout,thenso-called‘Indigenization’ofacademethroughIndigenousknowledge(butwithoutanycommitmenttohireandsupportIndigenousbodiesandcommunitiesbothwithinandbeyondacademe)issimplyare-calibrationofongoingwhitepossessissivelogics.Inotherwords,inordertobringtheinsightofpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsintoscholarlyconversationsinCanadaabouttheglobalextinctioncrisis,wemustalsoattendtothespecificlegal-ethicalpositionsbetweenIndigenousnationsvis-a-vistheUniversityandconcomitantscholarlyandresearchagenciesinthecontextofcolonization.SoafurtherquestioninoureffortstoengageourresearchonIndigenousperspectivesonextinctionbecomes:withinwhoselegalframeworksareUniversities‘Indigenizing’and/orincorporatingIndigenousknowledgeintotheirpraxis?IfwearetalkingsolelyaboutEuro-Westerncommonlawandcivillaw—modeledonBritishandFrenchjurisprudence—thenwearelimitedtoverynarrowunderstandingsofwhat‘Indigenizing’oreven‘academy’mean.But,ifwetakeseriouslythecallsfromtheTruthandReconciliationCommissiontorobustlyengagelegalplurality,thenwehavetoask:whatwouldIndigenizationofacadememeanifitwerefirmlyoperatingasanation-to-nationrelationship,oneinformedbyIndigenouslegaltraditionsandonewhichisattentivetothespecificlawsandtraditionsoftheterritoriesthateachCanadianuniversityoccupies?InCalltoAction45oftheTRCExecutiveSummary,theTRCcallsuponCanadatoimplementaRoyalProclamationofReconciliation,whichmustadheretospecificcommitments,includingthefollowingcommitment:

“iv.ReconcileAboriginalandCrownconstitutionalandlegalorderstoensurethatAboriginalpeoplesarefullpartnersinConfederation,includingtherecognitionandintegrationofIndigenouslawsandlegaltraditionsinnegotiationandimplementationprocessesinvolvingTreaties,landclaims,andotherconstructiveagreements.”

Itisthereforenecessarytorethinkhowweunderstandthisideaofcessionwithinacademe.Non-Indigenousscholarsarenotsharingorcedingspacewith/toIndigenousintellectuals.Indigenousknowledgeisunceded.Itisuncededbecausetherewasneverareciprocalandaccountableframeworktonegotiateitsentryinto,andreificationwithin,thesespacestobeginwith.AndasMoreton-Robinson(2015)pointsout,muchofthisknowledgewasinfactstolenwithintherubricsofwhitepossessivenessandBritish-derivedproperty-obsessedcommonlaw.ThoughwehavepoliciesonhowtoIndigenizetheacademyandtoincorporatesomeaspectsofIndigenousknowledgesystemsinacademicparadigms,andthoughwehavesomedirectionfromscholarlybodiesregardinghowtocorrectpastwrongscommittedbyresearchersinextractingknowledge(andtissuesandstoriesandlawsandimagesandsongs)fromsovereignIndigenousNationsandPeoples,wemustrememberthatthesecorrectivepoliciesarenotTreaties.TheyarenotadequateorevenappropriateproxiesforthebiggerconversationsthatmusttakeplaceregardingtheroleofUniversitiesandacademic/researchagenciesinhonouringtheirreciprocalresponsibilities

29

tothosepeopleswhoseterritoriestheyoccupyandwhoseresourcesheatandlighttheirbuildings.WemustengagewiththeadmittedlydifficultquestionofwhatrelationshipsandobligationsmakeuptheacademythatisbuiltonoftenunacknowledgedIndigenouslandsandlabour.So,Canada’sTri-CouncilPolicyStatement(TCPS22014),variousuniversityframeworksonIndigenization,andmyriadworkplaceequitypoliciesandprotocolsarenotTreatiesorthegroundinguponwhichtobuildnation-to-nationacademicrelationships.Thesepolicies,developedwithintheeuro-westernlawsoftheCanadiannation-state,areimportant.However,theyarenotstand-insforthemuchbroaderdiscussionsandnegotiationsthatneedtotakeplaceinordertosituatescholarshipwithinthecontextoflegalpluralitiesthatshapethiscountry.JustasAchilleMbembe(2015)urgesoppressedscholarstoturntheirbacksontheuniversalizingsweepoftheEuro-westernuniversity,weargueherethatIndigenouslegalpluralitiesandpluralIndigenousknowledgesystemsareanabsolutenecessarypointofinterrogationandre-negotiationofMbembe’smodelofthedecolonizingpluriversity.So,notonlydomanyuniversitiesacrossthecountryoccupyuncededterritory,theyalsocurrentlymobilizethewhitepossessionofuncededknowledge.WhatisclearfromourresearchintocurrentacademicdiscoursesofIndigenousknowledgesoftheconceptofextinction--aconceptthathasbeenappliedbycolonialagentstodescribeandcategorizeIndigenouspeoplesandlanguagesineffortstodisappearthemfromcontemporaryCanadiansocio-politicalstructures--isthatitwillrequiremuchmorethansomeaspirationalpromisesto‘honourIndigenousknowledge’todismantlecolonialstructuresandurgesthatdrivetheongoingviolationofuncededIndigenousknowledges.Inotherwords,inordertomeaningfullyaddressissuessuchastheglobalextinctioncrisisandthedynamicperspectivesthatIndigenousknowledgesystemsbringtobearonsuchglobalquestions,academicinstitutionsinCanadamustworktonegotiatereciprocalresearchrelationshipsonanation-to-nationbasis,acrossdynamicandmeaningfulIndigenouslegalpluralities.Andtheserelationshipsmustholdweight.ReferencesandbibliographyAlfred,Taiaiake,2008."OpeningWords"inLeanneSimpson,ed.LightingtheEighthFire:theLiberation,ResurgenceandProtectionofIndigenousNations.Winnipeg:ArbeiterRing,pp.9-13.Barnosky,AnthonyD.,NicholasMatzke,SusumuTomiya,GuinevereO.U.Wogan,BrianSwartz,TiagoB.Quental,CharlesMarshall,JennyL.McGuire,EmilyL.Lindsey,KaitlinC.Maguire,BenMerseyandElizabethA.Ferrer,2011."HastheEarth'sSixthMassExtinctionAlreadyArrived?"Nature,Vol.471:51-70.Beier,J.Marshall,2005.InternationalRelationsinUncommonPlaces.Basingstoke:Palgrave.Berkes,Fikret.2008.Sacredecology:Traditionalecologicalknowledgeandresourcemanagement.NewYork:Routledge.

Blaser,Mario,2009."TheThreatoftheYrno:ThePoliticalOntologyofaSustainableHuntingProgram"AmericanAnthropologist,Vol.11,No.1:10-20.Borrows,John(Kegedonce),2010.DrawingOutLaw:ASpirit'sGuide.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress.

30

Brodkin,Karen,Morgen,SandraandJanisHutchinson.(2011).AnthropologyasWhitePublicSpace?,AmericanAnthropologist113(4):545–556.Cajete,Gregory.2000.NativeScience:NaturalLawsofInterdependence.SantaFe:ClearLightPublishers.CineslasAmericas.2014.‘BuffaloCallingafilmbyTashaHubbard’.AccessedSeptember8,2017https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=no1MYbYkTgYCalhoun,J,2002.‘Salvageethnography’.P.46inDictionaryofSocialSciences.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Cooper,JamesFenimore,1993[1826].TheLastoftheMohicans.Ware:WordsworthClassics.Coulthard,Glen.2014.RedSkin,WhiteMasks:RejectingtheColonialPoliticsofRecognition,Minneapolis,UniversityofMinnesotaPress.Cruikshank,Julie,2004."UsesandAbusesof'TraditionalKnowledge':PerspectivesfromtheYukonTerritory"inDavidG.AndersonandMarkNuttall(eds.)CultivatingArcticLandscapes:KnowingandManagingAnimalsintheCircumpolarNorth.London:BerghahnBooks:17-32.Daschuk,James.2013.ClearingthePlains:Disease,PoliticsofStarvation,andtheLossofAboriginalLife.Regina:UniversityofReginaPress.DelaCadena,Marisol,2010."IndigenousCosmopoliticsintheAndes:ConceptualReflectionsBeyond'Politics'"CulturalAnthropology,Vol.25,No.2:334-70.DeloriaJr.,Vine,2012.TheMetaphysicsofModernExistence.Golden,CO:FulcrumPublishing.Donald,Dwayne.2009.“Forts,Curriculum,andIndigenousMetissage:ImaginingDecolonizationofAboriginal-CanadianRelationsinEducationalContexts.”FirstNationsPerspectives21:1-24.Dumont,Marilyn.2015.ThePemmicanEaters:Poems.Toronto:ECWPress.Geniusz,MarySiisip,2015.PlantsHavesoMuchtoGiveUs,AllWeHavetoDoisAsk.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.Fienup-Riordan,Ann.1990.“OriginalEcologists?TheRelationshipbetweenYup’ikEskimosandAnimals.”Pp.167-191inEskimoEssays.NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress.Geniusz,WendyMakoons,2009.OurKnowledgeisNotPrimitive:DecolonizingBotanicalAnishinaabeTeachings.Syracuse:SyracuseUniversityPress.GovernmentofAlberta,2014.“SpeciesatRisk”.AlbertaEnvironmentandParks.AccessedSeptember9,2017http://aep.alberta.ca/fish-wildlife/species-at-risk/documents/SpeciesAssessedConservation-2014a.pdfHill,SusanM.,2008."Chapter1"inLeanneSimpson,ed.LightingtheEighthFire:theLiberation,ResurgenceandProtectionofIndigenousNations.Winnipeg:ArbeiterRing,pp.23-45.Howitt,RichardandSandraSuchet-Pearson,2006."RethinkingtheBuildingBlocks:OntologicalPluralismandtheIdeaof'Management'"GeografiskaAnnaler,SeriesB,Vol.88:323-35.

31

Hubbard,Tasha,2013.BuffaloCalling,animatedshort.TashaHubbard,Director.http://femfilm.ca/film_search.php?film=hubbard-buffalo&lang=eInnes,RobertAlexander,2013.ElderBrotherandtheLawofthePeople.Winnipeg:UniversityofManitobaPress.InternationalLabourOrganisation(1989).Convention169:IndigenousandTribalPeoplesConvention.Available.Online:http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C169.Accessed08September2016.Iseke-Barnes,Judy,2009.“GrandmothersoftheMétisNation”,NativeStudiesReview18(2):25-60.Kari-Oca,1992.IndigenousPeoplesEarthCharterKari-OcaConference.Available.Online.Available:http://www.dialoguebetweennations.com/IR/english/KariOcaKimberley/KOCharter.htmlAccessed08September2016.Kimmerer,RobinWall,2013.BraidingSweetgrass:IndigenousWisdom,ScientificKnowledgeandtheTeachingsofPlants.Minneapolis:MilkweedEditionsKohn,Eduardo,2013.HowForestsThink.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Kolbert,Elizabeth.TheSixthExtinction:anUnnaturalHistory.NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany.Kuokannen,Rauna,2007.ReshapingtheUniversity:Responsibility,IndigenousEpistemes,andtheLogicoftheGift.Vancouver,BC:UBCPress.Laduke,Winona,1999.AllOurRelations.Cambridge,MA:SouthEndPress.Leduc,TimothyB.,2016.ACanadianClimateofMind.Montreal:McGill-Queen'sUniversityPress.Leonard,WesleyL.,2011.“Challenging“Extinction”throughModernMiamiLanguagePractices”.AmericanIndianCultureandResearchJournal35(2):135-160.LittleBear,Leroy.2016.“BigThinking-LeroyLittleBear:Blackfootmetaphysics‘waitinginthewings’”.CongressoftheHumanitiesandSocialSciences,Calgary.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_txPA8CiA4MacDougall,Brenda.2011.OneoftheFamily:MetiscultureinNineteenthCenturyNorthwesternSaskatchewan.Vancouver:UBCPress.Mbembe,Achille.2015.“DecolonizingKnowledgeandtheQuestionoftheArchive.”Lecture.May2,2015attheWitsInstituteforSocialandEconomicResearch.RetrievedOctober05,2016.(http://wiser.wits.ac.za/system/files/Achille%20Mbembe%20-%20Decolonizing%20Knowledge%20and%20the%20Question%20of%20the%20Archive.pdf).McCallum,MaryJaneLogan,2017.“Starvation,Experimentation,Segregation,andTrauma:WordsforReadingIndigenousHealthHistory.”TheCanadianHIstoricalReview98(1):96-113.McGregor,Deborah,2005."TraditionalEcologicalKnowledge:AnAnishinabeWoman'sPerspective"Atlantis,Vol.29,No.2,pp.103-09.

32

Metallic,Fred(Gopit),2008."StrengtheningourRelationsinGespe'gewa'gi,theSeventhDistrictofMi'gma'gi"inLeanneSimpson,ed.LightingtheEighthFire:theLiberation,ResurgenceandProtectionofIndigenousNations.Winnipeg:ArbeiterRingpp.59-71.Million,Dian,2014."ThereisaRiverinMe:TheoryfromLife"inAudraSimpsonandAndreaSmith,eds,TheorizingNativeStudies.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,pp.31-42.Mitchell,Audra,2015.“BeyondSpeciesandDiversity:ProblematizingExtinctionTheory,CultureandSociety.OnlineFirst:http://tcs.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/12/01/0263276415619219.abstractMitchell,Audra,2016.“IsIRGoingExtinct?”EuropeanJournalofInternationalRelations.OnlineFirst:http://ejt.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/02/26/1354066116632853.abstractMohawk,John,2010(ed.JoseBarreiro).ThinkinginIndian:AJohnMohawkReader.Golden,Co.:FulcrumPublishing.Moreton-Robinson,Aileen.2015.“RaceMatters:the‘Aborigine’asWhitePossession”.Pp.467-486inTheWorldofIndigenousNorthAmerica,RobertWarrior,ed.NewYork:Routledge.Nadasdy,Paul,2007.HuntersandBureaucrats:Power,KnowledgeandAboriginal-StateRelationsintheSouthwestYukon.Vancouver,BC:UBCPress.NagoyaProtocol,2011.AccesstoGeneticResourcesandtheFairandEquitableSharingofBenefitsArisingfromtheirUtilizationtotheConventionOnBiologicalDiversity.Available.Online:https://www.cbd.int/abs/doc/protocol/nagoya-protocol-en.pdf.Accessed22December2015.Napoleon,Val.2007.“ThinkingAboutIndigenousLegalOrders.”ResearchPaperfortheNationalCentreforFirstNationsGovernance.RetrievedJune05,2014(http://fngovernance.org/ncfng_research/val_napoleon.pdf).NewfoundlandandLabradorHeritageWebSite,2017.“DisappearanceoftheBeothuk”.AccessedSeptember9,2017:http://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/aboriginal/beothuk-disappearance.phpNieoczym,Adrian,2017.“SinixtFirstNationnotextinctafterall,courtrules”,CBCNews.AccessedSeptember9,2017:http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/sinixt-first-nation-not-extinct-after-all-court-rules-1.4043184Ratt,Solomon.2016.“SolomonRatt:cihcipiscikwân/RollingHead(th-dialect)”.CreeLiteracyNetwork.AccessedSeptember9,2017:http://creeliteracy.org/2016/03/09/solomon-ratt-rolling-head-th-dialect/Régnier,Claire,GuillaumeAchas,AmauryLambert,RobertH.Cowei,PhilippeCouchetandBenoitFontaine,2015."MassExtinctioninPoorlyKnownTaxa"PNAS,Vol.112,No.25:7761-7766.Rice,Brian,TheRotinonshonni:AtraditionalIroquoianHistorythroughtheEyesofTeharonhia:wakoandSawiskera,NewYork:SyracuseUniversityPress,2013)Rose,DeborahBird,2011.WildDogDreaming:LoveandExtinction.CharlottesvilleandLondon:UniversityofVirginiaPress.

33

RoyalCommissiononAboriginalPeoples(RCAP).1996.“Volume1:LookingForward,LookingBack.”Ottawa:RoyalCommissiononAboriginalPeoples.RetrievedNovember05,2016(http://data2.archives.ca/e/e448/e011188230-01.pdf).Sandlos,George.2007.HuntersattheMargin:NativePeopleandWildlifeConservationintheNorthwestTerritories.Vancouver:UBCPress.SantaCruz,2014.DeclarationofSantaCruz:ForaNewWorldforLivingWell.Available.Online:http://wphna.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/201406_G77_Declaration_of_Santa_Cruz.pdf.Accessed08September2016.Smith,LindaTuhiwai,2012.DecolonizingMethodologies:ResearchandIndigenousPeoples(SecondEdition).London:Zed.Simpson,Audra,2014.MohawkInterruptus:PoliticalLifeAcrosstheBordersofSettlerStates.Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2014.Simpson,Audra.2016."Consent’sRevenge."CulturalAnthropology31,no.3(2016):326–333.Simpson,Leanne,2011.DancingonourTurtle'sBack:StoriesofAnishinaabegRe-creation,ResurgenceandaNewEmergence.Winnipeg:ARPBooks.Snowdon,Wallis,2016.“SturgeonmakeacomebackintheNorthSaskatchewanriver”.CBCNews,AccessedSeptember9,2017:http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/sturgeon-north-saskatchewan-river-comeback-1.3649674Stewart-Harawira,Makere,2012."ReturningtheSacred:IndigenousOntologiesinPerilousTimes"inLewisWilliams,RoseRobertsandAlastairMcIntosh(eds.)RadicalHumanEcology:InterculturalandIndigenousApproaches.London:Ashgate:73-88.TallBear,Kim,2015."DisruptingLife/Not-life:aFeminist-IndigenoustakeonNewMaterialismandInter-speciesthinking"DimensionsofPoliticalEcologyKeynoteAddress,UniversityofKentucky,27-28February2015.Online.Available:https://wordpress.com/read/post/feed/4230630/755254531.Accessed15January2016.TCPS2(2014).Tri-CouncilPolicyStatement:EthicalConductforResearchInvolvingHumans.PanelonResearchEthics(PRE).AccessedSeptember10,2017:http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique/initiatives/tcps2-eptc2/Default/Todd,Zoe,2014.“AnIndigenousFeminist’sTakeontheOntologicalTurn:‘Ontology’isJustAnotherWordforColonization”.Online.Available:https://zoeandthecity.wordpress.com/2014/10/24/an-indigenous-feminists-take-ontheontological-turn-ontology-is-just-another-word-for-colonialism/.Accessed15January2016.Todd,Zoe,2017a.“Fish,KinandHope:TendingtoWaterViolationsinamiskwaciwâskahikanandTreatySixTerritory”.Afterall:aJournalofContemporaryArt,Context,andEnquiry43:95-99.Todd,Zoe,2017b.“Indigenousstories,knowledge,legaltraditions,ontologies,epistemologiesasuncededterritory(or:HandsOffofOurTeachings)”.Blogpost.AccessedSeptember9,2017.

34

https://zoestodd.com/2017/04/27/indigenous-stories-knowledge-legal-traditions-ontologies-epistemologies-as-unceded-territory-or-hands-off-of-our-teachings/TruthandReconciliationCommissionofCanada.2015.“HonouringtheTruth,ReconcilingfortheFuture:SummaryoftheFinalReportoftheTruthandReconciliationCommissionofCanada.”TruthandReconciliationCommissionofCanada.RetrievedAugust07,2015(http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf).UmeekE.RichardAtleo,2011.PrinciplesofTsawalk:AnIndigenousApproachtoGlobalCrisis.VancouverandToronto:UniversityofBritishColumbiaPress.Watson,AnnetteandOrvilleH.Huntington,2008."They'rehere-Icanfeelthem:theEpistemicSpaceofIndigenousandWesternKnowledges"SocialandCulturalGeography,Vol.9,No.3:257-81.Watts,Vanessa,2013."IndigenousPlace-ThoughtandAgencyAmongstHumansandNonhumans(FirstWomanandSkyWomangoonaEuropeanWorldTour!)"Decolonization:Indigeneity,EducationandSociety,Vol.2,No.1,pp.20-34.Watts,Vanessa,2016."SmudgeThis:Assimilation,State-favouredCommunitiesandtheDenialofIndigenousSpiritualLives"JournalofChild,YouthandFamilyStudies,Vol.7,No.1,pp148-70.Wolfe,Patrick.1999.SettlerColonialismandtheTransformationofAnthropology:thePoliticsandPoeticsofanEthnographicEvent.London:Cassell.WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(WIPO),2014.IntergovernmentalPropertyandGeneticResources,TraditionalKnowledgeandFolklore:TheProtectionofTraditionalKnowledge:DraftArticles.Available.Online:http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/tk/en/wipo_grtkf_ic_27/wipo_grtkf_ic_27_4.pdf.Accessed08September2015.Whyte,KylePowys,2016."OurAncestors'DystopiaNow:IndigenousConservationandtheAnthropocene"inUrsulaHeise,JonChristensenandMichelleNieman,TheRoutledgeCompaniontotheEnvironmentalHumanities.NewYork:Routledge,pp.1-10.