Lecture 07 Colonial Singapore

Imperial Defence

Recap• Singapore: Small place in region with much larger

neighbours• Temasek: Some diplomacy but largely responsible for

own defence: Invaded and destroyed late 14th Century• 4 Way Tussle: A forward position for defending the Johor

capital. Became a hotly contested battlefield• Dutch dominance: “Sleepy fishing village” and loss all

significance* What does this additional data tell us about defending a

small, strategic place?

Lessons So Far?

• Small places need external support to see off regional powers (Temasek’s fall, Melaka’s rise)

• Military “strategicness” is not always a good thing: Borrowing first-class power entails borrowing its enemies (4-Way tussle)

• The trouble with being a junior coalition partner (17th Century Singapura)

* Does Singapore still need to borrow power? Is it still militarily strategic? Is it still a junior coalition partner?

• The British Empire: Finally, a power that can and will protect this place!

• The nature of Imperial Defence: Cost-benefit analysis

- Member of the largest empire in history +- Empire with big enemies and big allies -/+- Empire with many far-flung responsibilities -

Colonial Singapore shares interest, not priorities, with London.

Colonial Singapore1819-1963/1971

Periodization

• Early- mid 19th Century: Britannia ruled the waves! “Minor” internal disturbances

• Early 20th Century to eve end of WW1Reliance on superior global coalition/balance of power: Credible ext threats, major int episode

• WWI-WW2: Local defence increases, global situation deteriorates. Singapore contemplates & suffers invasion and conquest

• Outcome: Did we win or lose?

Simplified Pattern

Local defences

Balance of Power

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Objectives

• The importance, limits and dangers of military “strategicness”: When is this good, when is this bad?

• Singapore’s history driven by cycles of global conflict: Arguably more important than cycles of trade

Britannia Rules the Waves!

• Since the Battle of Trafalgar (1803), Royal Navy (RN) ruled the waves. French and Spanish Navies badly mauled in Main Fleet action

Why Raffles could take Java from the French 1811Why Dutch dared not attack Singapore (1819-1824)• Local defence was very weak, but power and

deterrence of RN was just too strong• Singapore protected by the power of the RN,

projected from halfway across the world

Imperial vs Local Defence I:Fleet Dispersal

Imperial vs Local Defence 2:Main Fleet Action

Imperial vs Local Defence:Guerre de Course

Local Defence

• Each colony is responsible for local defence against minor raids, piracy, riots, rebellions etc.

• Aim is to hold on long enough for Main Fleet to destroy enemy main fleet and come to your rescue

• The “period before relief” becomes paramount

Raids, Piracy &Internal Insecurity

• Russians in Vladivostok (1859), French in Saigon (1861) • Pirates attacked shipping just beyond sight of shore!• Chinese secret society riots: 1851 anti-Catholic

(Chinese) riots, Hokkien-Teochew riots (1854). Needed help from soldiers, sailors and the Johor Sultan to suppress (@400- 500 dead per riot)

• Smaller threats will not trigger RN main fleet. Local traders clamour for more local defences BUT do not want to raise taxes to pay for them (Free Trade)

• Haphazard and inadequate defence measures

Increase in Local Defences• Steamship Diana (1837). Normally one patrol

vessel based in Singapore (often out on patrols) from this time on

- Help from European and US ships, Malay rulers• Pickering and the Chinese Protectorate- Secret Societies brought under control• European and Indian troops- Permanent garrison• Fort Palmer, Fort Fullerton, Fort Faber, Fort

Canning

Fort Canning:Internal Security

• Too far inlandto defend harbour

• Fort built after Indian Mutiny of 1857 (Completed 1861)

• European refuge - Chinese Secret Society riots

• Artillery aimedat Chinatown!

•Magazines flooded, wells dry

From Empire to Coalition Partner

• Empire kept expanding colonies and trade- Administrative and political costs of empire- Military resources spread too thin• Gradual demise of 2-power standard- Russian threat contained by Anglo-Japanese

Alliance (1902)- German High Seas Fleet (1890s-1918) built to

challenge RN supremacy- US Navy parity with RN (1919 onwards)

19th Century Anglo-Russian Rivalry

• 1870s onwards: Russia replaces France as main British rival in the world

- Eastern Mediterranean, Central Asia, East Asia- Russian Far East fleet can hit-and-run• Coaling station at Tanjong Pagar an economic

asset but a military target• Triggered first serious effort to bring Singapore’s

defences up to standard

Forts and Coastal Artillery:first Serious Local Defence

Rise of Imperial Germany• Russian threat ended by Russo-Japanese War (1904-5).

Formal settlement in Entente Treaty of 1907.• 3 Lightning victorious wars in 7 years (1863-70): Prussia

beat Denmark, Austria and France• United Germany (1871) strongest and most dynamic

power on European Continent• Bismarck’s Emperors’ League and Triple Alliance. Britain

had no firm major Western ally• Kaiser Wilhelm II and Weltpolitik• German colonialism look menacing. New Guinea &

Pacific islands, Shantung (China), SW and SE Africa

World War One• Britain withdrew all major forces to Europe- German commerce raiding: The Emden attacked Penang but

bypassed Singapore- The Indian Mutiny (Singapore 1915): Only regular army unit in

Singapore rampaged through town killing police and white men. Europeans evacuated to ships

- British authorities helpless! S.O.S. allied ships, armed Japanese community (and others). Johor sent help

• Europe: France, Japan, Russia, China and US supported Britain. Germany and allies defeated. Britain and allies acquired many German colonies

• Europe devastated, Britain exhausted, Singapore prospered tremendously from war supply roles.

Empire expanded considerably but military reduced

Between the Wars• 1921 Washington Naval Conference: US force British

and Japanese to limit navies- US Navy equal with RN. 5:5:3 ratio- British worst off: Anglo-Japanese Alliance terminated.

One-Ocean Navy with Two-Ocean responsibilities• Sembawang Naval Base (1923-?), Gibraltar of the East- RN in Sembawang, RAF in Changi, Tengah and Seletar,

Army around Pasir Panjang- Military spending = 20-25% of Singapore’s GDP• The Great Depression and rise of Fascism in Italy,

Germany and Japan• British, French and Dutch increasingly under pressure.

USA isolationist, USSR’s position unclear

POINTER Malayan Campaign Monograph

Sembawang Naval Base• Base repeatedly reduced in size until it could not support

the RN Main Fleet even if it could come- Japan unlikely to attack UNTIL the fleet cannot come• Air Force built Air Bases all over Malaya:- Need 336 first-line aircraft. Got 100+ mostly obsolete- Like ships, planes suppose to arrive when danger high• Army increased steadilly until there were 4 divisions (under-

strength) in Singapore- No tanks, poorly trained, armed and led, spread out• London: Economic production outrank defence!• Churchill: In the worst case scenario, can depend on US

Pacific War Dec 1941• German success in Mediterranean: Australian

forces and RN trapped in Europe and Africa• US sanctions against Japan:- Leave China or else…- June 1941: Japan decides on war • US Fleet devastated at Pearl Harbour• Singapore: Japan’s priority target in SE Asia • Britain sends scraps. Malaya and Singapore falls

in 70 days!• Singapore’s fate sealed by global trends. Local

weakness direct result of global trends

Lessons of WW2(Revisionist)

• 3 ½ years hell on earth for Singapore• Traditional story: Rise of national consciousness-

We must defend ourselves!• Suspicious minds- There was no way Singapore could possibly take

on a world-class power on its own- Singapore won the war!- Not local effort but “overwhelming force on our

side”. Allies (USA, USSR, Br Empire, France, China) far stronger than Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan).

Conclusions

• A 700 year military history. Teaches us so much more

• Complex relationship between economic “strategicness” and military “strategicness”

• Cycles of conflict always more “unforgiving” than trade cycles?

• How much is Singapore’s security today a result of its own strength/ a result of its membership on the stronger team?