Sriram Sample Material

SAMPLE MATERIAL FOR IIT HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ENTRANCE EXAMINATION

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

Organization Name

Founded on

Objective Headquarters Director General

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

December 27, 1945

It was established to promote International Monetary cooperation, exchange stability and orderly exchange arrangements, to foster economic growth and high levels of employment, and to provide temporary financial assistance to countries to help ease balance of payment adjustment.

Washington D.C., U.S.A

Dominique Strausskahn

The Food and Agriculture

1945 The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developing and developed countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy.FAO helps developing countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and ensure good nutrition for all.

Rome, Italy Dr. Jacques Diouf of Senegal

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

December 1944

International Civil Aviation Organisation was set up as a means to secure international co-operation to highest possible degree of uniformity in regulation and standards, procedures and organization regarding civil aviation matters.The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) was established in 1944 by 52 nations whose aim was to assure the safe, orderly, and economic development of international air transport.

Montreal, Canada

Roberto Kobeh Gonzalez

© SRIRAM ACADEMY. www.iithsee.com 1


United Nations Educational, scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

November 16, 1945

UNESCO promotes international co-operation among its 192 (As of March 2007) member states and six Associate Members in the fields of education, science, culture and communication.

Paris, France Koichiro Matsuura

World Health Organisation (WHO)

April 7, 1948

WHO’s objective, as set out in its Constitution, is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health. The Constitution defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity.Director-General-The organization is headed by the Director-General, who is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Executive Board.

Geneva, Switzerland

Dr. Margaret Chan

International Labour Organisation

1919 The main purposes of the ILO are to contribute to the establishment of lasting peace by promoting social justice; to improve, through international action, labour conditions and living standards and to promote economic and social stability.

Geneva, Switzerland

Juan Somavia

International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA)

July 29, 1957

As an independent international organization related to United Nations System. The IAEA’s relationship with the UN is regulated by special Agreement. In terms of its statute, the IAEA reports annually to the UN General Assembly and when appropriate, to the Security Council regarding non-compliance by states with their safeguards obligations as well as on matters relating to international peace and security.

Vienna, Austria

Dr. Mohammed Elbaradei



United Nations Organisation (UNO)

October 24, 1945

The current United Nations emblem was approved on December 07, 1946. The design is “a map of the world representing an azimuthal equidistant projection centred on the north pole, inscribed in a wreath conssting of crossed conventionalized branches of the Olive tree, in gold on a field of smoke-blue with all water areas in white. The projection of the map extends to 60 degrees south latitude and includes five concentric circles. Olive branches symbolize peace. The world map depicts the area of concern to the United Nations in achieving its main purpose, peace and security.

New York Sheikha Haya Rashed

Universal Postal Union

1874 In 1874, delegates from 22 countries met in Berne, Switzerland, for the first International Postal Congress and adopted the Berne Treaty. The treaty, which came nto force on July 1, 1875 for mally established the General Postal Union. At the second International Postal Congress, held in Paris in 1878, the General Postal Union became the Universal Postal Union (UPU)

Berne, Switzerland

Edouard Dayan

World Intellectual Poperty Organisation (WIPO)

July 14, 1967

Geneva, Switzerland

Kamil Idris



European Union (EU)

1957 It was formed as European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome among six European countries. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty established the current legal framework.Founder Countries—(i) Belgium (ii) France, (iii) Germany, (iv) Italy, (v) Luxembourg (vi) Netherlands.Functions—(i) The European Union creates a single market by a system of Laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement, of people, goods, services and capital.(ii) It maintains a common trade policy, agricultural and fisheries policies and a regional development policy.Population of the EU Countries—The combined population of all 27 member countries has been estimated at 495, 128, 529 in January 2007.Europe Day: 9 MayThe ideas behind the European Union were first put forward on May 9, 1950 by French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman. So 9 may is celebtrated as the EU’s birthday

Hans Gert Pottering

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

History of Global Warming and its Impact

Around 1980’s the world scientific community started realizing that tree plantation alone is not going to mitigate the vast amount of polluters being released to the atmosphere by progressively increasing industrial activity. This led to the emergency of a new concept of global climate change and its effect on our life. Researchers began voicing concern about the likely consequences of the increasing levels of Carbon-dioxide (CO2) and other so-called heat trapping Green House Gases (GHG): like Methane (CH4)/ Nitrous oxide (NOx)/ Ozone (O3)/ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They started projecting grim scenarios: these rising



emission levels would make the earth hotter, melt ice caps, raise sea levels, submerge islands and low lying coastal tracks around the world, cause loss of biodiversity; drastic change in weather pattern will reduce food production and shortage of fresh water supply and so on. This is now an international buzzword called Global Warming.

Our Sun plays the most dominant role in designing the global temperature. The earth’s temperature is determined by the difference between the warmth it receives from the sun and the heat losses radiated from the earth’s surface to outer space. In normal natural environment solar radiation penetrates through earth’s atmosphere to heat the surface of earth. In this process one third of the solar radiation is reflected back into empty space above the atmosphere and rest of it is absorbed within atmosphere, ocean, ice, land and biota. Thus, atmosphere functions as a ‘garden green-house’ and insulated the earth from the vagaries of extreme temperature

This is known as ‘Normal Energy Balance’.

In fact this inherent presence of greenhouse mechanism in earth has facilitated to make it pleasantly habitable. Without this effect the average temperature in the earth would have been 33ºC colder and the life as we know it would not exist.

The molecules of different gases have varying capabilities in the ‘greenhouse effect’. A molecule of Methane, the major component in natural gas, for example, is 30 times more effective than a molecule of carbon dioxide. The problem with CO2 is that it is the most abundant in the earth’s atmosphere. Besides, it is being released in ever greater quantities with increased fossil fuel combustion to create energy for industry, home and transport, coupled with burning of forests to provide more land for agriculture. Naturally the global temperature is progressively rising with the quantum-increase of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere on account of such human activities (Table 2.) The enhanced level of GHG has led to the average global surface temperature increasing by about 0.3 to 0.6ºC over the last 100 years (The global temperature record keeping began in 1860). The temperatures in late 1990’s were about 0.6ºC above those at the end of last century. Similarly global sea level has risen by 100-125 mm in the same period.It is estimate that if the CO2 emissions continue to grow at the present rate (2% per year), the average global temperature by 2100 may rise any where between 1ºC to 3.5ºC (around 6.4ºC in polar region due to emergence of hole in ozone layer in stratosphere, which acts as Sun Screen). The best guess is a 2ºC rise, which will be enough to drown island nations like Maldives and low lying Bangladesh. About 7.1 million people in India would be affected by submergence of coastal lands if



temperatures rise by 2ºC. The economic loss, quite naturally, would be high in urban centers such as Mumbai and Chennai. The most visible direct impact of such climate change in India that is being attributed to global warming is total melting of Natural Shivalingam in sacred Amarnath Cave (Jammu) by July 1, 2007. Normally it lasts for another 2 months (till Mid-August) and every year 5-6 lakh Indians visit this shrine to seek its blessings. Its untimely shrinkage was noticed in 2006. Last year on June 9, 2007 it had attained 12 feet height, but within 10-15 days it started shrinking to ultimate melting by first July 2007.In the present scenario, it is estimated that the developed countries continue to emit 70% of global CO2 emissions and have been responsible for 85% of the cumulated emissions from pre-industrial period, to about 70% from 1950 onwards. In short, the global warming started with the onset of Industrial Revolution in Europe and other countries. The rapid increase of population (present world population is over 6300 million with consequent development of technology and flourishing of industry all over the world, have worsened the situation, resulting in the faster warming of the globe.

Table 1 : History of Global WarmingS. No.

Year Observation and Mitigation Steps

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

1750

1898

1955

1988

1989(Feb)

1992

1995

1997

Prior to Industrial Revolution, the atmosphere held 280 parts per million (ppm) of heat trapping Carbon-dioxide (CO2): determined through later research.Svante Ahrrenius, a Swedish scientists warned that CO2 emission from coal and oil burning could warm the planet.Charles Keeling, a US Scientists finds that the atmospheric CO2 has risen to 315 ppm. Afforestation programmes gain momentum all over the world to function as a Carbon-sink.NASA scientist James Hansen tells US Congress that Global Warming has already commenced. A scientific under standing started emerging that mere afforestation programmes will not be sufficient to check this warming phenomenon.TERI (India) organized “International Conference on Global Warming and Climate Change: Perspective From Developing Countries.” A pioneering step that generated international awareness: Climate Treaty sets voluntary goals to lower CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions: Kyoto ConferenceThe scientific panel of United Nation finds evidence of man-made emissions affecting world climate.Treaty parties approve Kyoto Protocol mandating emission cuts by industrial nations. An approach rejected in advance by US Senate.Warmest year globally since record-keeping began in 19th

Century.UN scientific panel concludes most warming likely due to



9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

1998

2001

2004

2005

2007

man-made emissions. President Bush renounces Kyoto Protocol.CO2 level reaches record 379 ppm. Russia ratifies Kyoto Protocol. India accepted this on 16.2.2002.Kyoto Protocol takes effect on February 16. It is the first “legally binding global plan to tackle climate change.” It requires developed-nations to cut emissions of green house gases, especially CO2 reduction by 5.2% below 1990 level by 2008-12.Paris Conference: Over next 90 years global temperature may risely 1.1 to 6.4ºC, consequently melting of ice in Arctic and Antartic sea will raise sea levels affecting millions of coastal population, cyclones will intensify, drastic change in weather would affect food-production and shortage of fresh water supply will increase malnutrition and increase diseases.

Table 2 : Relative Contribution of Man-made Greenhouse Gases to Global Warming (1987)S. No.

Name Source of Generation Contribution percentage

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Electricity 16Deforestation 13Others 26

2. Methane (CH4) Coal Mines, Cattle and organic decomposition

15

3. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Aerosol propellants, solvents and refrigerants

24

4. Nitrous Oxide (NOx) Combustion and Nitrogenous fertilizer, and tropospheric ozone (O3) formed from the resultant emissions of hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen

6

Total 100

1. Ministry of Environment and Forestry - Serves as the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP), Colombo, and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and for the follow-up of the United Nations’ Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).



2. Biosphere Reserves - Are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems which are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.

3. Wetlands- Are lands midway between terrestrial and aquatic system where land is covered by shallow water and the water table is usually near the surface. These are life support systems for people living around these areas, plus they are effective for flood control, waste water treatment and serve as a winter choice for a variety of birds for shelter and breeding.

a) Ramsar Convention - Defines wetlands as areas of marsh, peat lands, artificial or natural, brackish or salt marine water with the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres. Mangroves, corals, estuaries, lakes, etc. are covered under this.

b) Number of wetlands identified for inclusion in National Conservation Programme shot up from 27 to 94 identified islands since 1987, distributed in 24 States.

However, in the Indian context, paddy fields are not to be viewed as covered by this definition. Government of India has taken various steps for controlling of shrinkage of wetlands, management, and identification of wetlands for conservation under National Wetland Conservation Programme.An inter-governmental treaty was signed during a convention on Wetlands, in Ramsar, Iran in 1971, which provides the framework for National Action and International Cooperation for the Conservation and wide use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently, 154 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1669 wetland sites, total of 151.07 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance.

Ecological SignificanceWetlands are among the world’s most productive environments. They are cradles of biological diversity, providing the water and primary productivity upon which large numbers of plant and animal species depend for survival. They are also important locations of plant genetic diversity and support large numbers of bird, mammal, reptile, amphibian, fish and invertebrate species. Wetlands provide tremendous economic benefits through much of the world they have a crucial role as a source of clean water for dependent human populations. Unfortunately they are also among the world’s most threatened ecosystems, owing mainly to continued drainage, pollution, over-exploitation or other unsustainable uses of their resources.The threats to wetlands are manifold. The faunal resources are mostly over-exploited. In rural areas, the wetlands are converted for agriculture and aquaculture. Because of formation of wetlands, habitat shrinks. In urban areas construction of buildings reduces wetlands. Tremendous anthropogenic pressure also results in rapid destruction of habitat. Uncontrolled siltation of rivers and wetlands reduces the water holding capacity, which reduces the amount of available water during dry period. Discharge of freshwater and industrial effluents into reservoirs, altering the water quality as well as the natural population of several sensitive species, accelerated eutrophication of natural wetlands due to surface run-ff and uncontrolled growth of weeds results in consequent decay.

Wetlands in IndiaThey are distributed in different geographical regions ranging from Himalayas to Deccan plateau. The variability in climatic conditions and changing topography is responsible for significant diversity. They are classified into different types based on their origin, vegetation, nutrient status, thermal characteristics. India has twelve different types of wetlands. They are:



Glaciatic Wetlands – Tso Morari in J&K, Chandertal in H.P, Tactonic Wetlands – Khajjiar in H.P and Nainital & Bhimtal in Uttaranchal, Oxbow Wetlands – Dal, Wullar in J&K and Loktak lake in Manipur and some of

the wetlands in the river plains of Brahmaputra and Indogangetic region. Deepar Beel in Assam, Kabar in Bihar and Surahtal in U.P.

Lagoons – Chilka in Orissa Crater wetlands – Lonar lake in Maharashtra Salt water Wetlands – Pangong Tso in J&K and Sambhar in Rajasthan Urban Wetlands – Dal lake in J&K, Nainital in Uttaranchal & Bhoj in Madhya

Pradesh Pons/Tanks: Man-male Wetlands – Harike in Punjab and Pong Dam,

Himachal Pradesh Reservoirs – Idukki, Hirakud Dam, Bhakra-Nangal, Govind-Sagar Mangrove – Bhitarkanika, Orissa Coral reefs – Lakshadweep Creeks – Thane Creek, Maharashtra Sea grasses, estuaries, thermal springs are some of the other kinds of wetlands

in the country.

National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)The country had only 94wetland areas till 1987. 24 States have been covered under NWCP, for conservation purpose Rs.6.8 crores were spent in the Eighth Plan and Rs.30 crores in Ninth Plan. In the Eleventh Plan, this amount has been increased seven times. The government is determined to conserve the wetlands at any costs in future.

4. Mangroves - Mangrove plants are those that survive high salinity, tidal extremes, strong winds, high temperature and muddy anaerobic soil. These protect coastal communities from cyclones and coastal storms. So far 38 mangrove areas for conservation and management have been identified.a) Ministry of Environment & Forestry has established a National Mangrove

Genetic Resources Centre in Orissa.

b) National Environmental Policy – 2006 recognizes the mangroves and coral reefs as important coastal environmental resources.

5. Coral reefs- Are shallow-water tropical marine ecosystems, characterized by high biomass production and rich floral and faunal diversity.

a) Four coral reefs namely, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands and Gulf of Kutch have been identified for conservation and management by the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs.

6. Biodiversity- Is the variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes of which they are part, including diversity within and between species and ecosystems.

a) India is one of the 17 mega diverse countries which together possess 60 to 70 per cent of the world’s biodiversities.

b) India ratified the International convention on Biodiversity (CBD)I in 1994 and became a part of it.

7. Ozone layer

-Ozone layer is depleted by the halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, CFC and methyl bromide. Use of Halons from 1 Jan. 2001 substances (ODS) such as carbon tetra chloride, methyl chloroform and CFC for



metered dose inhalers can be used up to 1 Jan. 2010. Further the use of methyl bromide has been allowed only up to 1 Jan. 2015.

a) The Ozone Cell of the Ministry and UNEP jointly launched a new global initiative to raise awareness on the Ozone Layer Protection and “Remembering Our Future: Commemorating closure of ODS Production Sites, under the Montreal Protocol on 8 March 2005”.

b) The Kyoto protocol commits the developed countries, including economies in transition to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels during 2008-12.

c) India acceded to the Kyoto protocol in August 2002 and one of the objectives of acceding to the Kyoto Protocol was to fulfill prerequisites for implementation of Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) in accordance with the National sustainable priorities.

8. Ministry of Environment and Forests- is the nodal point for various environmental related multi-lateral conventions namely.

a) Basel Convention: On control of Trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal. b) Rotterdam Convention: On the Prior Information Consent (PIC) procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade. c) Stockholm Convention: On persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

d) Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl habitat,

e) Vienna Convention : for the protection of the Ozone Layer f) Montréal Protocol on Substances: that depletes the Ozone Layer

g) Conventions on Biological Diversities,h) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. i) Kyoto Protocol and Convention to Combat Desertification j) UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was held at Bangkok

during August, 2006. The world Day to Combat Desertification and Drought is celebrated on 17 June.

Major Events in the field of Environment

1. Botanical Survey of India – 18902. First Forest Policy – 18943. Zoological Survey of India – 19194. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act – 19605. Wild Life (Protection) Act – 19726. Forest (Conservation) Act – 19807. Forest Survey of India – 19818. Wet land Conservation Programme – 19879. Mangrove Conservation Programme – 198710. National River Policy – 198811. Bio Diversity Act – 200212. Wet Land and Mangrove Conservation Programme – X Plan 13. Central Pollution Control Board – 197414. National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board - 199215. Vienna Convention for protection of Ozone layer – 198516. Montreal Protocol on substances deplete the ozone layer – 198717. National Environment Policy – 200618. Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act – 197419. Air(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – 198120. National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board - 1992



2.RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA

SOLAR ENERGY

Sun is the earliest source of energy known to the mankind, and is also the origin of other forms of energy used by man. Different renewable sources of energy, such as, wind, hydropower biomass and ocean energy are the indirect forms of solar energy. Solar energy has many salient features, which make it an attractive proposition like its wide-spread distribution, environment friendly, and virtually, environment friendly and virtually inexhaustible supply.Potential in India: India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5000 trillion Kwh/year, which is far more than the total energy consumption of the country. The daily average of incident solar energy in India ranges 4 – 7 kwh/m2, depending upon the location.India has one of the world’s largest programmes in Solar Energy. The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources is implementing countrywide different programmes.

Solar Thermal Energy Prog:Solar thermal energy refers to the utilization of solar energy by capturing the available solar radiation various useful activities like heating, cooling, drying, water purification, industrial process heat and power generation. India has led to significant achievements in the improvement and commercialization of solar water heating systems and solar cookers.The focus during 11th Plan period is to be on developing suitable advanced solar collectors to provide industrial process heat and developing technologies for solar thermal power generation.

Solar Photovoltaic ProgrammeIn India there are about 300 clear sunny days in a year and solar energy is widely available in most parts of the country. Solar photovoltaic technologies offer a unique decentralized option for providing electricity locally at the point of use.The PV systems covered under the programmes are Solar Street Lighting Systems, Solar Lanterns; Stand-alone PV Power Plants; Solar PV Water Pumping systems and other applications of PV Technology including new applications.

Energy from Urban WastesThe increasing industrialization, urbanization and changes in the pattern of life give rise to generation of increasing quantities of wastes leading to increased threats to the environment. In recent years, technologies have been developed that not only help in generating substantial quantity of decentralized energy but also in reducing the quantity of waste for its safe disposal. Energy in the form of biogas, heat or power is seen as a bonus. While incineration and biomethanation are the most common technologies, pyrolysis and gasification are also emerging as preferred options.

Energy from Industrial & Commercial WastesIndia is a fast growing developing economy with a GDP growth rate of 6-7%. Rapid industrialization has resulted in the generation of huge quantity of wastes, both solid and liquid, in industrial sectors such as sugar, pulp and paper, fruit and food processing, starch, distilleries, dairies, tanneries, slaughterhouses, poultries, etc. It has been estimated that there will be a potential for recovery of about 2000 MW of energy from industrial wastes by the year 2017. Several initiatives have been taken on with an aggregate capacity of about 27 Mweq Have been installed up to August



2005 in the country. One project for generation of 2.5 MW power from poultry droppings is under installation at Namakkal, Tamil Nadu.

WIND ENERGYIndia’s wind power potential has been assessed for sites having wind power density (wpd) greater than 200 W/m2 at 50 m hub-height, assuming land availability in potential area @ 1 percent and requirement of wind farms @ 12 ha/ MW. Centre for Wind Energy Technology has been established for reassessment and expansion of the wind resource base.Potential & Capacity Installed: In India there is an estimated Gross Potential of 45,000 MW & Technical Potential of 13,000 MW. India now has the 5th largest wind power installed capacity in the world. The cumulative installed capacity of wind power projects at present is above 5415 MW. Large private sector corporations, public sector units and power utilities are being motivated to set up wind power projects

BIO-MASS ENERGYThe current potential of surplus agro and forestry residues to energy is estimated at 16,000 Mwe. In practice biomass power generation units prefer to use fuel-wood for techno-economic reasons. A Biomass Atlas covering only surplus agro residues is under preparation, which is expected to more accurately assess state-wise surplus agro-residue to energy potential.Capacity Installed: The cumulative installed capacity of biomass and biogas co-generation power projects up to 31.3.2006 was 912 MW.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGYGeothermal resources, wherever existing, can be utilized for power generation and as a source of heat for space heating, green-house cultivation, cooking, etc. Preliminary data on resource assessment has been generated for 340 hot springs in the country by the Geological Survey of India. Magneto-telluric (MT) investigations have already been carried out at Puga Valley, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir and Tatta Pani, Sarguja district, Chhattisgarh. Investigations were continued in Satluj-Spiti, Beas and Pārbati Valleys in Himachal Pradesh, Badrinath-Tapovan in Uttarakhand and Surajkund in Jharkhand for assessing the geothermal potential of these areas.Data have been collected and analyzed through computer modeling and quantitative interpretation at 27 stations in Kulu Manali groups of hot springs (Parbati valley) and 19 stations in the Satluj-Spiti Valley region. In the Surajkund region, Jharkhand MT studies and analysis have been carried out. The project is likely to be completed during 2007-08.Geothermal Atlas of India, prepared by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) gives information/ data for more than 300 geothermal potential sites. This Atlas is being updated by GSI with MNRE support.

TIDAL ENERGYThe ocean contains renewable energy in the form of temperature gradients, waves, tides, and ocean currents. The realization of ocean thermal energy conversion is at present limited due to large technological gaps and absence of infrastructure needed.Some potential sites can be developed further for utilization of tidal energy in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat and the Delta of the Ganga in Sunderbans area in West Bengal. The Ministry has supported preparation of a detailed project report and environmental impact assessment study for a 3.65 MW capacity tidal power plant at Durgaduani Creek in Sunderbans. The revised project cost has been estimated at Rs.40.15 crore. The project is being appraised for technical feasibility and economic viability.



HYDROGEN ENERGYHydrogen is a clean and efficient energy carrier with the potential to substitute liquid and gaseous fossil fuels. In recent years, significant progress has been reported by several countries, including India, in the development and demonstration of hydrogen energy applications, especially automobiles.At present, hydrogen is produced mainly through the hydrocarbon route in refineries and fertilizer plants, and also as a by-product of some chemical industries. The current focus of research on hydrogen production is to cover other routes as well as those that either do not produce CO2 or are CO2 neutral. In this context, research on electrolysis, water decomposition through thermo-chemical, photo-electrochemical, photo-catalytic processes and microbial methods and from other renewable sources like biomass, wind and solar energy are being pursued and is under different stages of development.

BIO-FUELSBiofuel can be defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal and nuclear fuels. Agricultural products specifically grown for biofuel production include corn, soybeans, rapeseed, wheat, sugar beet, sugar cane, palm oil and jatropha.Considering the need for use of bio-fuels for transportation, portable and stationary applications, specific responsibilities have been assigned to the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA

General1986 –The Environment (Protection) Act authorizes the central government to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.1989 – The Objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules is to control the generation, collection, treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.1991 – The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment, 1992 was drawn up to provide for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous substance.1995 – The National Environmental Tribunal Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons, property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.1997 - The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.2000 – The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules have been laid down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.2002 – The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules lay down such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers or public address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion2002 - The Biological Diversity Act is an act to provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge associated with it.



Forest and wildlife1972 – The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment 1991 provides for the protection of birds and animals and for all matters that are connected to it whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forests that sustain them.1980 – The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981 provides for the protection of and the conservation of the forests.

Water1897 – The Indian Fisheries Act establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue any person who uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy any fish or poison fish in order to kill.1974 – The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act establishes an institutional structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies. The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) was constituted under this act.

Air1948 – The Factories Act and Amendment in 1987 as the first to express concern for the working environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and expanded its application to hazardous processes.1981 – The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act provides for the control and abatement of air pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB

N – DISARMAMENT TREATIESGeneva Protocol –1925The protocol for the prohibition of the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of bacteriological methods of warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol, is a treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons. It was signed at Geneva on June, 17, 1925 and was entered into force on February 8, 1928.Biological Weapons Convention –1972The convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological and toxin weapons and on their destruction, usually referred to as the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), was the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning the production of an entire category of weapons, with exceptions for medical and defensive purposes in small quantities.The BWC was opened for signature on April 10, 1972 and entered into force March 26, 1975 when twenty-two governments had deposited their instruments of ratification. The Biological Weapons Convention has 171 signatories and has been ratified by 155 signatories. India is also the party of the convention. However, the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance has limited the effectiveness of the ConventionEach state party to this convention undertakes never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain: (1) Microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their origin or method of production, of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes; (2) Weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict.

Chemical Weapons Convention –1993The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is an arms control agreement, which outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction. Signed in 1993 and entered into force on April 29, 1997 the convention



augments the Geneva Protocol of 1925 for chemical weapons and included extensive verification measures such as on-site inspections. The conventions is administered by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which conducts inspection of military and industrial plants in all of the member nations as well as working with stockpile countries.

Outer Space Treaty –1967The Outer Space Treaty, the treaty on principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, forms the basis of international space law. The treaty was opened for signature on January 27, 1967, and entered into force on October 10, 1967. As of 2006, 98 countries are states-parties to the treaty, while another 27 have signed the treaty but have not yet completed ratification.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty –1968The treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, also called Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), is an international treaty, opened for signature on July 1, 1968 to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. There are 189 states party to the treaty. Only four states are not. Two countries- India and Pakistan- out of eight confirmed nuclear powers (those who have openly tested nuclear weapons), and none presumed nuclear power - Israel neither signed nor ratified the treaty. North Korea ratified the treaty, violated it and later withdrew.The treaty was proposed by Ireland, and opened for signature in 1968, Finland was the first to sign. By 1992 all five then-declared nuclear powers had signed the treaty, and the treaty was renewed in 1995 (and followed by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996). In New York City, on May 11, 1995, the parties to the treaty decided by consensus to extend the treaty indefinitely and without conditions.Three states-India, Pakistan and Israel-have declined to sign the treaty. India and Pakistan are confirmed nuclear powers, and Israel made a statement that it possesses nuclear weapons. These countries argue that the NPT creates a club of “nuclear haves” and a larger group of “nuclear have-nots” by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid.North Korea: North Korea endorsed the treaty on December 12, 1985, but gave notice of withdrawal from the treaty on January 10, 2003 following U.S. allegations that it had started an illegal enriched uranium weapons program, and the U.S. subsequently stopping fuel oil shipments under the Agreed Framework which had resolved plutonium weapons issues in 1994. The withdrawal became effective April 10, 2003. North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on March 12, 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into effect.On February 10, 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks hosted by China to find a diplomatic solution to the issue.

Iran: Iran is signatory state of the NPT and has recently resumed development of a uranium enrichment program. While the Iranian government claims that this enrichment program is a step towards a civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under the terms of the NPT, a United Nations Security Council resolution orders Iran to halt its activity. The United States and several members of the European Union have accused Iran of using this program to help covertly develop nuclear weapons, which would be in violation of the NPT. Iran remains under investigation by the International Atomic Energy Agency.

South Africa: During the days of apartheid, the white South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country’s gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria



where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the nuclear power plant at Koeberg as well as weapon grade for bomb production.In 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled prior to accession to the NPT. South Africa then opened itself up to IAEA for inspection. In 1994 the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program.

Libya: Libya signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and in October of 2003 was caught in violation of it when the United States intercepted the illegal transport of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia. Libya then admitted to possessing an illegal nuclear weapons program in violation of the treaty and simultaneously announced its intention to end it and dismantle all existing weapons of mass destruction to be verified by unconditional inspections.

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty- 1972The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABMT) was a treaty between USA and USSR on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile systems used in defending areas against missile delivered nuclear weapons. On May 26, 1972, the US President Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. The treaty was in force for thirty years, from 1972 until 2002. On June 13, 2002, six months after giving the required notice of intent, the US withdrew from the treaty.

4. DISASTER MANAGEMENTDisaster Management is an effort to inquire into the process of a hazard turning to disaster, to identify its causes and rectify the same through public policy. Therefore disaster management is a policy issue concerned with minimizing and preventing the damaging impact of a natural or man made hazard. Some of the policy and administrative factors relevant to disaster management are such as poor and weak or overcrowded buildings in earthquake prone zone, poor land use, inadequate and faulty laws regulating various processes and facilities, general low risk perception towards hazards among people etc.

The new approach to disaster management evolved gradually in 1990s beginning with the declaration of 1990-2000 by UN General Assembly as the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction. The major disaster such as Tsunami in Asia in 2004, Hurricane Katrina in U.S. in 2005 and Muzaffarabad Earthquake in 2005 underlined the importance of the new approach across the world. The United Nations Report titled “Living with risk” claims that though there has been decline in the number of losses to human lives from disasters, the occurrence of disasters is rising.

The major step to give concrete shape to new strategy of disaster management was taken in the Yokohoma Conference on disaster management held in May 1994 in Japan and organized by the UNO. The new approach called Yakohama Strategy for Disaster Reduction adopted in the conference aimed at minimizing the losses to human lives and property due to disasters.

The main points of yakohama strategy are—1. Cultivation of global culture of prevention of disasters.2. Framing and implementing policy of self-reliance in vulnerable communities/

countries.3. Strengthening education and training mechanisms in the prevention,

preparedness and mitigation with respect to disaster.4. Involvement of private sector and people in mitigation efforts.5. Adopting community based approaches to vulnerability reduction.



6. Strengthening human resources and material capabilities of research and development institution

7. Supporting and strengthening UN capacity in disaster mitigation efforts.8. Supporting and strengthening UN capacity in disaster mitigation efforts.

Further, as a follow-up to International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (UN)—1990-2000, the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) was announced in 2001 by the UN, this aimed to enable all societies/ nations to become resilient to the effects of natural and man made hazards and to minimize human, social and economic losses.

The Yakohama Strategy for disaster management was renewed at the world conference on Disaster Reduction held at Hyogo (Japan) in Jan. 2005. The conference laid emphasis on some crucial but neglected aspects of disaster management such as governance and policy framework, risk identification and early warning, knowledge management, reducing risk factors and preparedness for effective response and recovery. The Hyogo Conference adopted the framework of Action, 2005-2015 called “Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters”

5. IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS

Montreal Protocol (1987): CFC production and consumption to be frozen at 1986 levels

by 1990; that of Halons from 1994; developing countries with consumption of CFCs less than 3 kg. to delay compliance by 10 years: protocol effective from January 1989.

Helsinki Declaration (1989): On protection of ozone layer, phase out CFC production

and consumption by 2000.

London Conference (1990): CFC production and consumption to be phased out by 2000

(developed countries) and by 2010 (developing countries)

Copenhagen Conference (1992): Phase out CFCs by 1996, Halons by 2000, Carbon tetrachloride by 1996, HCFCs by 2030.

Rio-Earth Summit (1992): Agenda 21 to prevent environmental degradation.

Kyoto Conference (1997): To cut GHG by 5.2 percent to 1990 levels by 2008-12; Japan

(6% cut), US (7% cut), EU (8.1 cut) India and China face no binding.

Stockholm Conference (1972): It was the international conference on Human Environment which was organized in 1972, 114 countries participated in it. The conference declared June 5 as the World Environment Day.

Nairobi Conference (1982): It was a UN Conference held at Nairobi, which adopted a

report titled “The World Environment 1972-82”.

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002): It was held in Johannesburg. Over 4, 0000 delegates from about 100 countries participated in it.

Stockholm Convention (2004): It was held on May 17 aimed at phasing out 12 dangerous pesticides and industrial pollutants (PoPs). More than 150 countries have signed it and about 60 have ratified it.



6. Environment Movements in India Chipko Movement: It was stared in 1973 in the Chamoli district of

Uttranchal. Chipko (to embrace) movement was against deforestation. Sunderlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi and Chandi Prasad Bhatt were prominent leaders of this movement.

Bishnoi Movement: It was started in 400 years ago by a sage known as Sombaji in Rajasthan, where a large number of trees are still worshiped by devotees. People resisted the cutting of such trees and advocated movement against deforestation.

Narmada Bachao Andolan: It is a movement against building multi-purpose dam over Narmada river which will ultimately result in flood and water logging in a large area covered by about 1,00,000 people. The movement is led by Medha Patkar, Baba Amte and Arundhati Roy.

Silent Valley Movement: It was a movement against a hydroelectric project on the river Kuthipuzha, a tributary at Periyar river. Infact, the project site is covered by evergreen forest, which is a home to many rare species of plants, and fauna, which may be destroyed by submergence.

Baliyapal Movement: It is a movement against testing of missiles on the land of Baliyal Villagers, which may lead to infertility of soil.

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON MATHSThe word Trigonometry comes from the greek words:Treis=three , gonia=angle and Metron=measurement.

What comes to our mind when we think “Trigonometry” is a bunch of confusing formulae with the symbol “θ” written everywhere. But when we analyze it deeply we are left with nothing but few simple rules that can make our life easy.

The starting point of any course on trigonometry has to be Pythagoras theorem.

Pythagoras Theorem : In a right angled triangle , the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

c2 = a2 + b2

Illustration Problems



1.A ladder AB is resting on a wall as shown in the figure 1.1.

a)Calculate the length of the ladder.

Ans : The question can’t get more simple than this.

By Pythagoras theorem AB2=AO2+OB2

AB2 =52+122 =169 AB = 13b)Now the ladder slips and comes to rest in its new position A’B’ such that AA’=2. Calculate BB’.(Refer fig1.2)

Ans : The length of the ladder is going to be a constant and hence AB=A’B’=13

Also , (A’ B’)2 =(A’O)2+(OB’)2

A’O=AO+AA’=5+2=7 132=72+(OB’)2 OB’=√120; BB’=OB-OB’=12-√120

Angles:



In any right angled triangle, for any angle:

The sine of the angle = the length of the opposite side the length of the hypotenuse

The cosine of the angle = the length of the adjacent side the length of the hypotenuse

The tangent of the angle = the length of the opposite side the length of the adjacent side

-The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is the longest side, which is the one opposite the right angle. -The adjacent side is the side which is between the angle in question and the right angle.- The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle in question.

Trigonometric formulae:

Sinθ=b/c ; cosθ=a/c; tanθ=b/aBy Pythagoras theorem a2+b2=c2

Dividing both sides by c2

( a2 / c2)+ (b2 / c2)=1 Cos2θ+Sin2θ=1

Example1: Prove that 1+tan2θ=sec2θ Ans : 1+tan2θ =1+(b2/a2 )=(a2+b2)/a2=c2/a2=1/cos2θ=sec2θ

Do remember the following rules and values 1.secθ=1/cosθ 2.cosecθ=1/sinθ 3.tanθ=sinθ/cosθ 4.cotθ=1/tanθ



Frequently used valuesθ Sinθ Cosθ tanθ0 0 1 0

30 1/2 √3/2 1/√345 1/√2 1/√2 160 √3/2 1/2 √390 1 0 ∞

Important identities

1f. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B2f. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B

These 3 formulae can be used to derive a variety of other identities commonly asked in competitive exams.

Derive the following set of identities1. sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B

Ans:Remember that sinθ and tanθ are odd functions and cosθ is an even function. sin(-θ)=-sinθ and cos(-θ)=cosθ, tan(-θ)=-tanθ

We know that , sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

replace ‘B’ by ‘-B’

sin(A-B)=sinAcos(-B)+cosAsin(-B)=sinAcosB-cosAsinB

2.Prove that sin2θ=2sinθcosθ

Ans: replace A=B=θ in 1f

Sin2θ=Sin(θ+θ)=sinθcosθ+cosθsinθ=2sinθcosθ

Do it by yourself and prove the follwing:

1.Sin3θ=3sinθ-4sin3θ 2.cos2θ=2cos2θ-1=1-2sin2θ

3.tan2θ=2tanθ/1-tan2θ

Examples:

1.Find the value of tan75



Ans:By 3f.

Now ,75=45+30

tan(45+30) = tan45+tan30 1-tan45tan30 = 1+1/√3 1-1/√3 = 2+√3 (how ???)

2. Find the value of 1-tan15 1+tan15

Ans: tan(A-B)= tanA-tanB 1+tanAtanB

Now tanA=1 if A=45 tan(45-B)= 1-tanB 1+tanB

We find that B=15;

Therefore

1-tan15 = tan(45-15)=tan30=1/√3 1+tan15

3.cotθ-tanθ simplifies to

a)cot2θ b)tan2θ c)2cot2θ d)2tan2θ

Ans : cotθ = cosθ , tanθ = sinθ Sinθ cosθ

cotθ-tanθ= cosθ - sinθ = cos2θ-sin2θ sinθ cosθ sinθcosθ

= cos2θ-(1- cos2θ) = 2cos2θ-1 (refer q) Sinθcosθ sin2θ/2

=2cos2θ =2cot2θ Sin2θ

Angles greater than 90:



I Quadrant :

In the first quadrant when 0<θ<90 , sinθ,cosθ and tanθ are all positive in value. Sin(90-θ)=cosθ Cos(90-θ)=sinθ tan(90-θ)=cotθex: sin30=cos60=0.5

II Quadrant :

In the II quadrant when 90<θ<180,only sinθ and cosecθ are positive.Remaining trigonometric quantities are negative in value.

Sin(180-θ)=sinθ Cos(180-θ)=-cosθ tan(180-θ)=-tanθ ex:sin30=sin150

III quadrant :

When 180<θ<270 ,only tanθ and cotθ are positive.

Sin(270-θ)=-cosθCos(270-θ)=-sinθTan(270-θ)=cotθ

IV quadrant

When 270<θ<360 , only cosθ and secθ are positive.

Sin(360-θ)=-sinθ

© SRIRAM ACADEMY. www.iithsee.com

I quadrant 0<θ<90

II quadrant 90<θ<180

III quadrant 180<θ<270

IV quadrant 270<θ<360

23


Cos(360-θ)=cosθTan(360-θ)=tanθ

Remember the rule : All Silver Tea Cups

A-All the values are positive in I quadrantS- sinθ is positive in II quadrantT- tanθ is positive in III quadrantC-cosθ is positive in IV quadrant

Examples:Find the values of the following

1.tan150 2.cos 180 3.sin 225 4.cos(-120)

Ans:1.tan150

Here 150 is in II quadrant , so tanθ is negative here tan(180-30)=-tan30=-1/√3

2. cos180 Cos(180-θ)=-cosθ Cos(180-0)=-cos0=-1

3. sin225Here 225 is in III quadrant, so sinθ is negative here

Sin225=sin(270-45)=-cos45=-1/√2

4. cos(-120)

Cos(-120)=cos(120) [cosθ is an even function]

120 is in II quadrant and hence cosθ is negative here

Cos(180-θ)=-cosθ

Cos(180-60)=-cos60=-1/2

Exercise Problems

1. The sides of a rectangle are 8 and 6 units respectively. The length of the diagonal is a) 12 b) 13 c) 9 d) 10

2. How far up a wall will an 11m ladder reach, if the foot of the ladder must be 4m from the base of the wall?

a) 10m b) 10.2m c) 9 d) 123. Find the exact value of cos 75° a)√3-1 b) √3+1 c) 2√2 d) None of these 2√2 2√2 √34. sin150*cos120 equals



a) -0.25 b) -√3/4 c) √3/4 d) 0.255. sin135 + 4sin345 a) 3/√2 b) √2 c) √2/3 d) 1/2 6. tan x + cot x simplifies to

a) sec2x b) 2secxcosecx c) secxcosecx d) cosec2x7. If sinθ=3/5 and θ is in I quadrant, find the value of sin2θ

a) 3/25 b) 24/25 c) 24/125 d) 12/258. sinx=3/5 and siny=5/13 ; find cos(x+y) [both x and y are in I quadrant]

a) 32/65 b) 33/65 c) 12/65 d) 10/699. cos3θ-4cos3θ simplifies to

a) 3cosθ b) -3cosθ c) 3sinθ d) -3sinθ10. sinθ=4/5 and θ is in I quadrant,tan2θ equals

a) 12/25 b) -12/25 c) -7/24 d) -24/711. The minimum and maximum values of sinx+siny is

a) 0 , 2 b) -2 , 3√3 c) -2 , 2 b) -2 , 2√312. sinθ + cosθ can be never be equal to

a) -1 b) 1 c) 2 d) None of these13. cos2 (22.5)

a) (1+√2)/2√2 b) (√2-1)/√2 c) (1+√3)/2√2 d) (√2-1)2√314. Sin330×Tan240 equals

a) √3 b) -√3/2 c) √3/2 d) √3/415. The value of tan15 is

a) 2+√3 b) -2-√3 c) 2-√3 d) √3-√216. If sin2θ=2cos2θ , then θ equals

a) 90 b) 45 c) both a & b d) 6017. If sinθ=3/5 then sin2θcotθ equals

a) 18/40 b) 18/22 c) 18/25 d) -4/25 18. sin2θ+cos2(180-θ) equals

a) 1 b) 2sin2θ c) 2cos2θ d) cos2θ19. 1+tan2(180-θ)=4/3;then θ equals

a) 30 b) 60 c) 45 d) 1520. 2/1+tan2θ is always less than or equal to

a) 2 b) 3 c) 1 d) 421. If sinθ=3/5, sin4θ equals

a) 168/15625 b) 128/625 c) 112/625 d) 168/625

1. d 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. b 9. b 10. d11. c 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. c 16. c 17. c 18. a 19. a 20. a21. d

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON ECONOMICS



NATIONAL INCOME CONCEPTS

1 National income is a flow not a stock.2 In India, national income estimates are related with the financial year (1st

April to 31st March).3 Gross National Product @ market prices (GNP @ mp) in the market value of

final good and services produced in an economy during an accounting year including net factor income from abroad.

GNPmp = GDPmp + NFIA (Net Factor Income from Abroad)4 Gross Domestic Product at market prices (GDP @ map) is the sum total

money value of all final goods and services produced in the domestic territory of a country during a given year.

5 NNP – (Net National Product): NNP is obtained by subtracting depreciation value from GNP.

NNP = GNP – depreciationWhen NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known as national income (NI).6 National Income (NI): National Income is calculated by subtracting the net

indirect taxes from NNP at market prices.7 NNP at Factor Cost or NI: NNP at market prices – indirect taxes +

subsidies.8 NNP at Market Prices: NNP at factor cost + indirect taxes – subsidies.9 GNP at Market price: GDP at market prices + Net factor income

earned from abroad.10 NNP at Market Prices: GNP at market prices – consumption of fixed

capital11 Per capita income.

N.I. at constant prices= _________________

PopulationNote:

1. Difference between gross value and net value is depreciation.2. Difference between domestic product and National product is NFIA.3. Difference between market price and factor cost is net indirect tax.4. Domestic territory is a wider term than political or geographical

boundary of a country. It includes Embassies located in other countries, ships and aircraft operated between countries, defence establishments, research stations functioning abroad.

5. Normal resident refers to individuals and institutions in a country where their economic interest lie.

Methods of Calculating National IncomeThere are three ways to calculate the national income

1. Product method or Net value added method: Value added is the difference between value of output of a firmed the value of inputs used by that firm. Sum total of net value added at factor-cost by all producing enterprises in the three sectors (Primary, secondary and tertiary) is Net Domestic Product at factor cost or domestic income. To



NDPfc, NFYA should he added to get NNP @ factor cost or National income.

Precautions: 1) value of intermediate goods named not be included. (2) value of production for self consumption and own account production of fixed assets should be included.

2. Income method: By this method domestic income is the sum total of factor income generated by every production unit in the three sectors. Factor income includes Rent, Compensation of employees, profit and interest income earned by the self employed is ‘included under the heading, “Mixed income self employed.”

Note: a. Rent includes Royalty. b. Compensation of employees includes wages and salaries in cash, compensation in kind, and employer’s contribution to social security schemes. c. Profit includes Divided, Corporate profit tax and retained earning or undistributed profits.Precautions: a. income from sale of second hand goods, income from sale of financial assets, illegal income and transfer income should be excluded. b. Imputed rent of owner occupied houses to be included while estimating national income.

3. Expenditure method: This refers to expenditure on GDP. This includes Private final consumption expenditure, Government final consumption expenditure, investment expenditure and net exports.

Precautions: a. Government’s expenditure on transfer payments, Expenditure on intermediate consumption, expenditure on purchase of second hand goods, financial assets should be excluded.In India a combination of product and income method is used for estimating the National Income. Due to difficulty in obtaining relevant data on consumption expenditure, expenditure method has limited use only.

II. NATIONAL INCOME STATISTICS 1 CSO has changed the base year for estimating National Income aggregates

from 1993-94 to 1999-2000. 2 CSO released advanced estimates for 2005-06 on February 7, 2006. GDP

growth rate for 2005-06 has been estimated at 8.1% at constant 1999-2000 prices, while it remained at 12.5% on current prices.

3 Indian economy after growing at 8.5% and 7.5% in the two previous years is projected to grow at 8.1% in 2005-06. Growth of GDP at constant prices in excess of 8.0% has been achieved by the economy in only five years.

NATIONAL INCOME ESTIMATES

GDP at Factor Cost (at 1999-2000 prices) for 2004-05 Rs. 2393671 croreFor 2005-06 (Revised Estimates) Rs. 2595939 croreNNP at Factor Cost (at 1999-2000 Prices) for 2004-05 Rs. 2141776 croreFor 2005-06 (revised estimates) Rs. 2325282 crore Per capita income (at 1999-2000 prices) For 2004-05 Rs. 19649For 2005-06 (Revised Estimates) Rs. 21005



GDP per capita at current prices for2007-08 Rs. 4713148 crore

India’s Position in the world economyIndian Economy continues to be fourth largest economy of the world on PPP

BasisAccording to World Bank Report titled World Economic Indicator,

India maintains its fourth place in world’s largest economies on the basis of PPP (i.e. Purchasing Power Parity). Five largest economies of the world are:

Rank Nations1.2.3.4.5.

U.S.AChinaJapanIndia

Germany

Indian Economy became 10th largest economy of the world on the basis of GDP in absolute terms with 735.6 billion dollar GDP in 2008, India achieved the 10th rank in the world, as per the latest report of World Bank, USA, Japan, Germany, UK, France, China, Italy, Spain, Canada and India are top 10 largest economies of the World on GDP basis in absolute terms.

India joins the trillion dollar club. India’s GDP has crossed the trillion dollar mark for the first time in history 25 April 2007.

III. CENTRAL STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION (CSO)

The Central Statistical Organization was set up in the year 1954. It is responsible for coordination of statistical activities in the country, evolving and maintaining statistical standards. Its activities include National Income Accounting, conduct of Annual Survey of Industries, Economic Censuses and its follow up surveys, compilation of Index of Industrial Production, as well as Consumer Price Indices, imparting training in Official Statistics, Five Year Plan work relating to Development Statistics, Gender Statistics, in the States and Union Territories; dissemination of statistical information, work relating to trade, energy, construction and environment statistics, revision of National Industrial Classification etc.

IV. NATIONAL SAMPLE SURVEY ORGANIZATION (NSSO)

The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) was set up in 1950. It carries out socio economic surveys, undertakes field work for the Annual Survey of Industries and follow-up surveys of Economic Census, sample checks on area enumeration and crop estimation surveys and prepares the urban frames useful in drawing of urban samples, besides collection of price data from rural and urban sectors. This organization functions under the overall direction of a Governing Council with requisite independence and autonomy in the matter of collection, processing and publication of NSS data. The base year 1999-2000 coincides



with the year of the 55th round of the quinquennial survey on employment and unemployment by NSSO.

IMPORTANT INFORMATIONCSSO & NSSO to be merged

The government is planning to merge Central Statistical Organization (CSO) and National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) for promoting statistical network in the country. The newly merged unit will be named as National Statistical Organization (NSO). The head of the organization will be designated as Chief Statistician of India.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is a better measurement of Economic Development?a. GDP b. Disposable Income c. NNP d. Per Capita Income

2. CSO has changed the base year for national income estimates. The new base year is—

a. 1990-91 b. 1993-94 c. 1999-2000 d. 2000-013. The largest source of National Income in India is—

a. Service Sector b. Agriculturec. Industrial Sector d. Trade Sector

4. ‘Closed Economy’ is that economy in which—a. Only export takes place b. Money supply is fully controlledc. Deficit financing takes place d. Neither export nor import takes place

5. The proportion of labour in GNP becomes low, due to the following reason—a. Wages lag behind prices b. Prices lag behind wagesc. Profit lags behind prices d. Prices lag behind profit

6. National Income in India is estimated by—a. Planning Commission b. Finance Commissionc. Indian Statistical Institute d. Central Statistical Organization

7. Economic growth in an economy is measured by the increase in—a. GDP b. GNP c. NNP d. Per Capita Income

8. National income on current prices are higher to that of constant prices because—

a. Price increase is equal to increase in productionb. Price increase is higher to increase in productionc. Price increase is lower to increase in productiond. Only decrease in production

9. Which sector constitutes the maximum share in National Income of India?a. Primary b. Secondary c. Tertiaryd. All the above have equal share

10. Which reason among the following explains the low growth rate of real national income as compared to monetary national income?

a. Population is increasing b. Inequalities are growingc. Price level is increasing d. Exports are lesser than imports

11. The Chairman of ‘National Income Committee’ (1949) was—a. D.R. Gadgil b. P.C. Mahalanobis c. V.K.R.V. Rao d. B. Natrajan

12. Which factor among the following creates obstacle in measuring correct estimate of national income?



a. Existence of non-monetised Sector b. Low rate of savingsc. Under employment d. Inflation

13. What is true for 8th plan?(I) Growth rate target was 5.6% p.a(II) Actual growth rate was 6.8% p.a. a. Only (I) is correct b. Both (I) and (II) are correct c. Only (II) is correct d. Both (I) and (II) are false

14. The difference between GDP and NDP is—a. Government revenue b. Net Indirect Tax (Indirect Tax Subsidy)c. Consumption of fixed capital d. Net Capital formation

15. On the basis of GDP, which economy is the largest economy in the world?a. USA b. Britain c. Japan d. China

16. National Sample Survey (NSS) was established in—a. 1950 b. 1951 c. 1952 d. 1947

17. At which rank in the world, Indian Economy in placed on the basis of GDP?a. Fourth b. Sixth c. Eight d. Tenth

18. What average annual rate of growth of GDP has been proposed in the approach paper for the 11th plan period?

a. 9% b. 8% c. 7.5% d. 7%19. Recently CSO has changed the base year for National Accounting from 1993-

1994 to 1999-2000. How many times the base year has been changed so far since independence?

a. Four times b. Five times c. Six times d. Seven times20. Mid-term Economic Survey was presented in the Parliament for the first time

in the year—a. 2000-01 b. 2001-02 c. 2002-03 d. 2003-04

Answer:1. d 2. c 3. a 4. d 5. a 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. c 10. c11. b 12. a 13. b 14. c 15. a 16. a 17. d 18. a 19. b 20. c

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON HISTORY

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS Buddhism

It was founded by Gautama Buddha (563-483 B.C.) His original name was Sidhartha. He belonged to the Sakya clan of Kshatriyas. His father was Suddhodana, the ruler of Kapilvastu. He was born in Lumbini in Kapilvastu. His mother was Mahamaya of the Kosalan dynasty Maya died in child birth and little Siddhartha was brought up by his step mother

Gautami. Sidhartha married his cousin Yashodhara and begot a son Rahul.



After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

One night accompanying channa (charioteer) and his favourite horse Kanthaka, he left home at the age of 29. Thus he performed his great going or Mahabhinishkramana and became a wandering ascetic.

He got Nirvana (at 35 years of age) at Uruvela, on the bank of river Niranjana, under a pipal tree. Now he was fully enlightened – a Buddha.

He gave his first sermon at Sarnath where his five former disciples had settled. To these five ascetics he preached his first sermon calling it Dharma Chakraparivartana.

He died at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at Kushinagara identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of U.P. in the Malla republic. This was his final bowing out or Parinirvana.

His last words were `All composite things decay, strive diligently’. His four noble truths were the world is full of suffering, suffering is caused by

human desires the renunciation of desire is the path to salvation and this salvation is possible through eight fold path which consisted of right views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, recollection and meditation.

Salvation lay in achieving nirvana or freedom from the wheel of rebirth. He believed in the theory of Karma. Nirvana can be achieved by an individual during his lifetime.

The four Buddhist Councils

No. Date and Place Ruler President Achievement1. 483 B.C. Rajgriha Ajatasatru Mahakashyap Compilation of Vinay Pitak &

Sutta Pitak2. 383 B.C. Vaishali Kalashok Sarvakamini Division between theraved

and Maha Sanghik took place

3. 250 B.C. Patiliputra Ashoka Tissa Moggaliputtra

Abhidhamma Pitak compiled

4. 1st/2nd century A.D. Kundalavana

Kanishka Vasumitra & Asvaghosha

Sharp division between Hinayana and Mahayana

Jainism It came into prominence under the 24th Tirthankar Vardhamana Mahavira (540

B.C. to 468 B.C) He belonged to the Jantrika Kshatriya clan His birth place was Kundagram in Vaishali His father’s name was Siddhartha and mother’s name was Trishala, who was a

sister of the Lichchavi prince Chetak of Vaishali. He got ‘Kaivalya’ at the age of 42 under a Sal tree on the bank of river Rejupalika

near village Jimbhikagrama. For preaching he visited Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.



He died at Pavapuri At first Mahavira followed the practices of an ascetic group called the Nirgranthas

(free from wants), which had been founded some 200 years earlier by Parsavanath.

Parsavanath was remembered as the 23rd Tirthankara. Rishabhdeva was the first Tirthankara. For some 6 years Mahavira’s hardship was shared by Gosala Maskriputra but

ultimately the two quarrelled and Gosala left Mahavira to found the sect of Ajivikas.

Mahavira’s first disciple was Jameli. Mahavira believed in the dualistic philosophy and held that matter and soul are the

only two ever existing elements. Jainism taught five doctrines (i) Satya or do not speak lies (ii) Ahimsa or do not

commit violence (iii) Aparigraha or do not own property (iv) Asteya or do not steal and (v) Brahmacharya or celibacy. Mahavira had added the last one, the earlier four were already in existence.

The “Triratnas” of Jainism are right knowledge, right faith and right action.

Jainism like Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic, though not denying the existence of gods, it refuses to give them any importance in the universal scheme of things and places them lower than Jina (the conqueror).

The world of the Jainas is not created, maintained or destroyed by any deity but functions only according to universal scheme of law and it is eternal.

Salvation could be achieved by the purification of soul through severe penance and practicing Triratnas. However full salvation is possible only for ascetics and not to a laity.

Nayavada of Jainism states that reality can be approached from different view points which are therefore relative and knowledge cannot be absolute. Truth can therefore be affirmed only with a degree of probability, which is called Syadavada in Jainism.

During Magadha famine in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya some Jain Monks under Bhadrabahu migrated to Karnataka where they lived in old traditional way strictly observing the religious rules. They alleged that the ascetics living in Magadha had violated those rules and taken white dress besides editing religious texts in their absence. Then on the southerners came to be called Digamber (the Sky clad) and the Magadhans Swetamber (the white clad).

According to Swetambars the original doctrine taught by Mahavir was contained in 14 old texts called purvas which was passed orally for 200 years.

After the first Jaina council held at Patliputra (310 B.C) these were finally compiled into 12 Angas by the Swetambars but were not accepted by the digambars.

The second council held at Vallabhi in Gujarat (453 A.D) finally codified these scriptures and reduced them to writing.

Monastic establishment of the Jains was called Basadis.

BHAKTHI MOVEMENT



Though Bhakti is traced back to the Upanishad, the Bhagawat Gita and the puranas, it began in South India.

The Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Nayanmars (Shaivites) popularized the bhakti cult in southern India.

Sankaracharya was born in Kaladi (Kerala) in 788 A.D. He propounded the advaita philosophy. He also wrote commentaries on the Brahmasutra and Upanishads. His famous quote is Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya, jivo Brahmaiva Naparaha or the absolute spirit is the reality, the world of appearance is illusory (Maya), the so called individual soul is absolute in itself. According to him, gyan alone can lead to salvation. He also wrote commentary on Bhagwat Gita and wrote books like Upadesh Shastri, Viveka Chudamani, Bhaja Govindam Stotra etc.

He established maths at Shringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Badrinath. The claim that he founded the Kanchi math is disputed.

Ramanujar was born in Sriperambadur. He opposed the mayavada of Shankara and advocated the philosophy of vishitadvaita. He founded the shrivaishnava sect. He wrote Sribhashya, vederashtha sengraph, Vedantasara, Vedanta dipa and Gita Bhashya. He advocated salvation by Bhakti. His teacher was Yadav Prakash. He advocated prapathimarga (path of self surrender to God.)

Srikanthacharya founded the shivadvaita Madhavacharya founded the dvaita philosophy. He was born in Kalyanpura in

south Kanera district. According to him world is not an illusion but a reality, full of real distinction. God,

soul and matter are all unique in nature and hence they are irreducible to each other. He founded the Brahma sampradya.

Haridas founded the Purandardasa movement. The Lingayat set was founded by Basava. The sect is also known as virasaiva sect. Eknath was a family man and said that staying in an institution or monastery or

resignation from the world are not necessary to lead a religious life. Tukaram was a sudra by birth. He earned the gratitude of Shivaji. He founded the

varkari sect. He worked for Hindu Muslim unity. Ramdasa wrote the Dababodha. He was the guru of Shivaji. He started the cult of

parmartha. According to Chandidas, the only way to salvation is love to God and this love must

be passed to an earthly person. Vidyapati wrote in Maithili. Shankaradeva spread Bhakti in Assam Ramananda was born in Allahabad but settled in Varanasi. He founded the

Ramanand sect. His twelve followers were Anantananda, Kabir, Pipa, Bhavanada, Sukha, Sursura, Padmavatsa, Narhari, Raids, Dhanna, Sena and wife of Sursura.

Kabir was brought up in varanasi. According to him Ram, Rahim, Allah etc., where all the same. His disciples formed the Kabirpanthi sect. His songs are found in Adi grantha.

Gurunanak founded the sikh sect and he started free community Kitchans called Guru ka langar.

He was a mystic of Nirguna School and reflected the ideas of Kabir.



Sankaracharya The leader of Hindu revivalist movement was Sankaracharya, He was a great thinker and a distinguished philosopher. But his preaching of the doctrine of pure monoism (Advaitam) being beyond

the intelligence of the common people, it was left to Ramanuja to revive Hinduism (Vaishnavism) by preaching ‘Bhakti’ as a means to salvation.

Ramanuja(1017 – 1137) He built up the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (qualified monoism) and preached

the doctrine of personal devotion to God.(prapathi) He traveled extensively throughout India to preach his ideals and his

teachings and won a large number of adherents. His followers are called Vaishnavas.

Ramananda Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India. He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult He founded a new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel of love and

devotion. His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste

among his followers.Kabir

He was the greatest among various disciples of Ramanand. He was the first religious teacher of prominence to foster a spirit of unity

among the Hindus and Muslims. He fought against superstitions, ritualism, idol worship and caste system. According to him, there was one God who could be described by various

names. “Call him Ram, Rahim, Allah, Khuda, Hari, Govind, but He is one.”

Nanak, the founder of Sikh religion, was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals. He declared, “There is no Hindu, there is no Musalman.” His gospel was that of universal toleration based on all that was good in Islam or Hinduism. He preached the Unity of God and condemned formalism and ritualism of both Islam and Hinduism.

The Bhakti movement helped a great deal in creating harmony between the Hindus and Muslims. The movement reduced the bitterness between the two religions and developed understanding and respect for each other.

SUFI MOVEMENT



Sufism

Sufism developed after the establishment of Turkish rulers in India. The basic thought of these Sufi Saints were borrowed from Quran and Hadis. These Saints transformed these thoughts into mysticism. The origin of the word Sufi, has been explained in a number of ways. Abu Nusrat Siraj says that the word Sufi came from ‘Soof’ or wool. The Sufi Saints resided in their Khanqahs and taught their disciples. They observed certain practices. Tauba was repentance over bad deeds Vara was non-acceptance of what was not given freely Julud symbolized kindness Fakr was poverty Suhr helped them to observes tolerance Sukar was the acceptance of obligation Khauf symbolized fear Ray was hope Tawakkhul helped them to observe contentment Riza was surrender to God to achieve vasl or salvation

The Islamic mysticism has been designated as Sufism. It is not one religion or one principle. They had their own school of Thoughts. They accepted Mohammad Saheb and ideas of Quaran. Later, their thoughts were influenced by Christian, Zoroastrian, Buddhist and Hindu philosophy. Their central thought was that the relationship between the soul and God was one of the lower and the beloved. They obtained the thought of tolerance and non-violence from Hinduism and mainly from Buddhism. They also believed in starving the body and giving pain to the physique in order to meet God.

The Sufi saints believed that to meet God they had to undergo their journey through ten stages. These stages are Tauba (Repentence). Wara (abstinence), Zuhd (Piety), Faqr (poverty), Sabr (Patience), Shukra (Gratitude), Khauf (fear), Raja (Hope), Tawakkul (Contentment) and Riza (submission to the divine will). The two aims of the Sufi Saints were- 1. Self development, 2. Service to Humanity. The main teaching of Sufism is through submission to the will of God, the spirit realizes the Supreme Being.

Sufism laid down the tradition of Pir-Muridi. Murid was the follower of the Sufi Saints who behaved with other followers as brothers. The teacher of the Murids was known as Pir to whom the Murid was totally dedicated.

Among all the Sufi Saints, the name of Sheikh Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti is remarkable. He came to Lahore from Ghazni in 1161. He laid the foundation of the Chishti Silsila in India. After him the next important Chishti Saint was Sheikh Fariduddin-Ganj-e-Shakar who lived in India from 1175 to 1265. He was also known as Baba Farid. After him the prominent Sufi Saint was Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) Amir Khusrau was his chief disciple. In the 13 th century, Wahauddin Zakharia laid the foundation of Suhrawardi Silsila in India. The Chishti Saints believed in a life of poverty. The Suhrawardi is believed that an affluent and pleasurable life and



interest in politics would not lead to spiritualism. In 15 century, Sheikh Abdullah Sattari and Saiyyad Goh Wala Pir laid the foundation of the Qadri Silsila in India. Thus, in India, Sufism was divided into different sects. Abdul Fazl lists fourteen Silsilahs of the Sufis which apparently found their way to India.

Up to 15th Century, there were four Sufi Silsilas founded in India. In 16 th century their number grew to 14. Abul Fazl mentions these 14 Silsilas. Among these the Chishtis and Suhrawardis took deep roots in Indian soil. Firdausi and Sattari Silsilas were active in Bengal and Bihar.

The Chishtis were most popular among all the Sufi sects. The Chishti customs were similar to Hindu customs. The prominent Chishti Saints were Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Kwaja Fariduddin Masud Ganj-e-Shakar, Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya, Sheikh Nasiruddin, Chirag-I-Dehalvi, Sheikh Ala-ul-Haq, Sheikh Hamiduddin Manikpuri, Burhanuddin Gharib, Noor Qutub Alam, Hazarat Sheikhu Daraz etc.

SAMPLE MATERIAL ON ENGLISH

Prepositions – Be prepared!

A preposition serves to connect its object with the rest of a sentence. The use of prepositions is complex, as most of them have more than one meaning, can also be used as adverbs, and in idioms and phrasal verbs. Also, many adjectives, nouns and verbs must usually be followed by certain prepositions.Given below, are some common prepositions which have many meanings.

After 1. Later in time: after six o’clock; after play 2. Later in a series: 9 comes after 8 . 3. In pursuit of: The policeman ran after the thief

Among 1. Within a group: The money was shared among the four investors.

Note. ‘Among’ is used for more than two people, and ‘between’ is used for two people.

Around 1. Circling something: We walked around the building. 2. Surrounding: There is a fence around the garden. 3. In different parts of: I looked around the building for a place to park my car. 4. In the other direction: He turned around and looked at me. 5. Approximately: She must be around five feet in height.

At 1. A specific location: at 14, M.G.Street; at the circus. 2. A point in time: at 5 o'clock; at Diwali. 3. A condition: at war; at rest 4. An activity: at work; at play. 5. Towards: Look at someone; wave at someone

Behind



1. At the back of: The shy little boy hid behind his mother. 2. Late: She is always behind in her studies. 3. Cause; origin: He was behind that sinister plan.

Beside 1. Next to; at the side of: I like to sit beside the flowing river.

Besides 1. Also; as well as: It is good to know other languages besides your mother tongue.

Note the different meanings of beside and besides. Beside is usually used with reference to a physical location.

Between 1. An intermediate location: She sits between Sita and me in the class. 2. An intermediate time: between Christmas and New Year. 3. Intermediate in a series: 7 comes between 6 and 8. 4. An intermediate amount: between four and eight people 5. Within a group of two: The money was shared between two people.By 1. Near: a house by the sea 2. Past: He waved as he drove by the house. 3. Not later than: Try to finish the work by tomorrow. 4. In units of: cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight 5. Through the means of: travel by plane; written by him

For 1. Duration of time: We walked for two hours. 2. Distance: I walked for five kilometers. 3. Purpose: I bought this dress for you. 4. In the direction of: She left for Bombay. 5. In favor of: We are for the vote. 6. Considering: She is clever for her age.

In 1. Place thought of as an area: in London; in China 2. Within a location: in the hall. 3. Large units of time: That happened in May, in 2007. 4. Within a certain time: I will leave in an hour. 5. By means of: write in pen; speak in English 6. Condition: in doubt; in a hurry; in secret 7. A member of: He is in the army; in the navy 8. Wearing: the boy in the blue shirt 9. With reference to: lacking in good manners; rich in alluvial soil.

Of 1. Location: east of this house; the middle of the road 2. Possession: a friend of hers; the house of her brother 3. Part of a group: one of us; a member of the group. 4. Measurement: a cup of milk; two inches of rain.

Off 1. Not on; away from: Please keep off the grass. 2. At some distance from: There are islands off the coast.



On 1. Touching the surface of: on the table; on the wall 2. A certain day: She came here on Friday, on the 3rd of April. 3. A certain street: on Madison road. 4. About: a book on science 5. A state or condition: on strike; on vacation. 6. By means of : he lives on his father’s wealth ; shown on television

Over 1. Above; higher than: There is a picture over the shelf.. 2. Covering: We spread a new sheet over the bed. 3. Across: She jumped over the big stone. . 4. More than: It cost over eighty rupees; it took over an hour 5. During: He came to my house several times over the past week. 6. By means of: We took the decision over the telephone.

Since 1. From a specific time in the past: I have been studying since four o'clock. 2. From a past time until now: I have been staying here since yesterday.Note: Because of its meaning, the preposition since is usually used in combination with a perfect tense. It should be noted that the preposition for can also be used with a perfect tense. However, when used with reference to time, for is usually followed by a phrase referring to a period of time; whereas since is usually followed by a phrase referring to a specific time.e.g. I have known him for six months. I have known him since January.

With 1. Accompanying: He came with her; I have my books with me. 2. Having; containing: Here is a bag with a packet of sweets.. 3. By means of; using: I repaired the shoes with glue. 4. Manner: with pleasure; with ease; with difficulty 5. Because of: We were paralyzed with fear.

Tips especially for you

For months, years, length of time………….use ‘in’ (I will come there in January.)For days of the week, weekend, a certain day…….use ‘on’( I will come there on Monday.) For a specific point in time………………….use ‘at’ ( I will meet you at 6 o’clock.)For medium of communication( radio, T.V etc) …..use ‘on’.( I heard it on the radio)For a period of time……………….use ‘for’(I have lived here for five years.)For a specific time ……………….use ‘since’ ( I have lived here since 2003.)For a specific location………………………..use ‘at’( I live at 24, M.G. Road.)For an area location……………..use ‘in’ ( I live in India.)For a certain street………….use ‘on’ ( I have parked my car on M.G.Road.)For things at rest, ……….use ‘on. ( The book is on the table.)For things in motion………use ‘upon’ ( The cat sprang upon the table.)For reference to two people…….use ‘between’…(The money was shared between the two brothers.)For reference to more than two……..use ‘among’ ( The money was shared among the three of them.)


Documents

Sriram Sample Material