SPRINGER SERIES ON

E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT

DAVID E. ALEXANDER Series Editor

Springer-Science+Business Media, LLC

Springer Series on Environmental Management David E. Alexander, Series Editor

Gradient Modeling: Resources and Fire Management (1979) S.R. Kessell

Disaster Planning: The Preservation of Life and Property (1980) H.D. Foster

Air Pollution and Forests: Interactions between Air Contaminants and Forest Ecosystems (1981) W.H. Smith

Natural Hazard Risk Assessment and Public Policy: Anticipating the Unexpected (1982) W.J. Petak: and A.A. Atkisson

Environmental Effects of OffRoad Vehicles: Impacts and Management in Arid Regions (1983) R.H. Webb and H.G. Wilshire (eds.)

Global Fisheries: Perspectives for the '80s (1983) BJ. Rosthschild (ed.)

Heavy Metals in Natural Waters: Applied Monitoring and Impact Assessment (1984) J.W. Moore and S. Ramamoorthy

Landscape Ecology: Theory and Applications (1984) Z. Naveh and A.S. Lieberman

Organic Chemicals in Natural Waters: Applied Monitoring and Impact Assessment (1984) J.W. Moore and S. Ramamoorthy

The Hudson River Ecosystem (1986) K.E. Limburg, M.A. Moran, and W.H. McDowell

Human System Responses to Disaster: An Inventory of Sociological Findings (1986) T.E. Drabek

The Changing Environment (1986) J.W. Moore

Balancing the Needs of Water Use (1988) J.W. Moore

The Professional Practice of Environmental Management (1989) R.S. Dorney and L. Dorney (eds.)

Chemicals in the Aquatic Environment: Advanced Hazard Assessment (1989) L. Landner (ed.)

Inorganic Contaminants of Surface Water: Research and Monitoring Priorities (1991) J.W. Moore

Chernobyl: A Policy Response Study (1991) B. Segerstahl (ed.)

Long Term Consequences of Disasters: The Reconstruction of Friuli, Italy, in its International Context, 19761988 (1991) R. Geipel

Food Web Management: A Case Study of Lake Mendota (1992) J.F. Kitchell (ed.)

Restoration and Recovery of an Industrial Region: Progress in Restoring the Smelter Damaged Landscape near Sudbury, Canada (1995) J.M. Gunn (ed.)

Limnological and Engineering Analysis of a Polluted Urban Lake: Prelude to Environmental Management of Onondaga Lake, New York (1996) S.W. Effler (ed.)

Assessment and Management of Plant Invasions (1997) J.O. Luken and J.W. Thieret (eds.)

James O. Luken, Editor Department of Biological Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

Northern Kentucky University

Highland Heights, Kentucky

John W. Thieret, Editor Department of Biological Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences

Northern Kentucky University

Highland Heights, Kentucky

Assessment and Management of Plant Invasions

With 60 Illustrations

Springer

James O. Luken John W. Thieret Department of Biological Sdences Northern Kentucky Univer~ity Highland Heights, KY 41009 USA

Series Editor: David E. Alexander Department of Geology and Geography University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA 01003 USA

Cover photo: Kudzo. Photo courtesy of James o. Luken.

Sources of line drawings used on chapter opening pages: Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 13 from Selected Weeds of the United States, United States Department of Agriculture, 1970. Chapter 6 from Parker KF, An Illustrated Guide to Arizona Weeds, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, 1972. Illustration by Lucretial B. Hamilton. Used by permission of University of Arizona Press. Chapter 10 from Mohlenbrock RH, The Illustrated Flora of Illinois, Flowering Plants, Wi/lows to Mustards, Southem Illinois University Press, CarbondaIe, IL, 1980. Used by permission of the author. Chapter 11 from Hao K-s, Caprifoliaceae. In Liou T-n, Flore Illustree du nord de la Chine 3:1-94, 1934. Chapter 14 from United States Department of Agriculture herbarium sheet. Chapter 15 from Cooperrider TS, The Dicotyledoneae of Ohio, Ohio State University Press, Columbus, OH. Used by permission of Ohio State University Press. Chapter 16 from Cronk QCB and Fuller JL, Plant Invaders, Chapman and Hall, London, 1995. Used by permission of International Thomson Publish-ing Services. Chapter 17 from Cope TA, Flora of Pakistan No. 143, 1982. Chapter 18 from Chittenden FJ (ed.), The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary ofGardening, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1956. Appendix 1 from Thieret JW, personal drawing.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Assessment and management of plant invasions/[edited by] James o.

Luken, John W. Thieret. p. cm. - (Springer series in environmental management)

Includes bibliographical re!erences (pp. 268-316) and index. ISBN 978-1-4612-7342-4 ISBN 978-1-4612-1926-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-1926-2 1. Invasive plants-Control. 2. Invasive pIants-Ecology.

3. Plant invasions. 4. Plant introduction. 1. Luken, James O., 1955-. II. Thieret, John W. III. Series. SB613.5.A77 1996 639.9'9-dc20 96-19131

Printed on acid-free paper.

1997 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally publi5hed by Springer-Veriag New York in 1997 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 15t edition 1997 AII rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission ofthe publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Ine., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brie! excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, ete., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

Acquiring Editor: Robert C. Garber. Production coordinated by Chernow Editorial Services, Inc., and managed by Francine McNeill; manufacturing supervised by Jeffrey Taub. Typeset by Best-set Typesetter Ud., Hong Kong.

987654321

ISBN 978-1-4612-7342-4 SPIN 10540418

Series Preface

This series is concerned with humanity's stewardship of the environment, our use of natural resources, and the ways in which we can mitigate environmental hazards and reduce risks. Thus it is concerned with applied ecology in the widest sense of the term, in theory and in practice, and above all in the marriage of sound principles with pragmatic innovation. It focuses on the definition and monitoring of environmental problems and the search for solu-tions to them at scales that vary from the global to the local according to the scope of analysis. No particular academic discipline dominates the series, for environmental problems are interdisciplinary almost by definition. Hence a wide variety of specialties are represented, from oceanography to economics, sociology to silviculture, toxicology to policy studies.

In the modern world, increasing rates of resource use, population growth, and armed conflict have tended to magnify and complicate environmental problems that were already difficult to solve a century ago. Moreover, attempts to modify nature for the benefit of humankind have often had unintended consequences, especially in the disruption of natural equilibria. Yet, at the same time, human ingenuity has been brought to bear in developing a new range of sophisticated and powerful techniques for solving environmental problems, for example, pollution monitoring, restoration ecology, landscape planning, risk management, and impact assessment. Books in this series will shed light on the problems of the modern environment and contribute to the further development of the solutions. They will contribute to the immense effort by ecologists of all persuasions to nurture an environment that is both stable and productive.

David E. Alexander Amherst, Massachusetts

v

Preface

The impetus for this book was provided when one of us (JOL) attended an annual meeting of the Natural Areas Association held in southern Florida. Not surprisingly, the subject of many presentations was the problem of nonindigenous plants in national forests, parks, and nature reserves. Clearly, a majority of resource managers attending this meeting perceived plant invasion as a direct threat to the integrity of preserved nature. Furthermore, the threat was severe enough to warrant direct management (Le., biological, chemical, or physical methods) in numerous situations. Management of plant communities in an effort to eradicate or control nonindigenous plants appears on the surface as a relatively simple process of matching method and target: apply the proper control method at a point in time or space when the target plant is most vulnerable. However, this approach, firmly rooted in classic weed science, ignores many important interactions that emerge prior to plant invasion as well as interactions that emerge after management occurs.

This book attempts to cast the issue of nonindigenous plant invasion in a broader ecological context that includes humans acting as managers of natural resources, designers of regulations, and dispersers of organisms. We have chosen authors in an attempt to address the following questions: When is a plant invasion formally and scientifically deemed an ecological problem? What methods are available to prioritize the myriad problems that may exist due to plant invasion? What ecological interactions must be considered when assess-ing effects of plant invasion or the long-term effects of management? What types of research are required to assess ecological effects of invasion and management? And last, what regulations and human activities are critical to the modification of plant invasions?

We hope that the information and questions posed here will inspire greater interaction among horticulturists in the plant industry (who may introduce new invaders), ecologists (who may elucidate the ecological effects of plant invasion), and resource managers (who may use designed disturbances to achieve goals for natural resources).

As we were developing the Appendix and checking various sources of information, several individuals provided us with important data: Barbara

vii

viii

Ertter, Barney L. Lipscomb, Jerry Lorenz, Julia F. Morton, and Richard P. Wunderlin. The extensive reference list includes citations as we received them from the authors except for correction of obvious errors and adjustments to achieve uniform format. We owe much to the staff and collections of the Lloyd Library, Cincinnati. Our work with plant invasions and thus the production of this book has been supported in part by Northern Kentucky University and the National Science Foundation. Finally, we thank our wives for enduring the somewhat difficult times that were associated with editing this book.

James o. Luken John W. Thieret

Highland Heights, Kentucky

Preface

Contents

Series Preface ........................................................ v Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Contributors ......................................................... xiii

Introduction ........................................................ . Carla M. D'Antonio

SECTION I. Human Perceptions

1. Defining Indigenous Species: An Introduction 7 Mark W. Schwartz

Defining Native Species ......................................... . 8 Mechanisms for Change in Species Distributions .................... . 12 Humans as a Component of the Natural ........................... . 13 Consequences of Choosing a Definition ............................ . 14 Conclusions ................................................... . 16

2. Defining Weeds of Natural Areas ................................... . 18 John M. Randall

Definitions of Weed ............................................ . 18 Definition and Examples of Natural-Area Weeds .................... . 21 Adaptive Management of Natural-Area Weeds ...................... . 24 Conclusions ................................................... . 25

3. Potential Valuable Ecological Functions of Nonindigenous Plants ........................................... . 26

Charles E. Williams Assessing Potential Ecological Values of Nonindigenous Plants ......... . 28 Case Histories and Examples: Anecdotal, Hypotheti(al,

and Otherwise ............................................... . 31 Future Ecological Values of Nonindigenous Plants in a Changing

Global Environment .......................................... . 33 Conclusions ................................................... . 34

ix

x Contents

SECTION II. Assessment of Ecological Interactions

4. Documenting Natural and Human-Caused Plant Invasions Using Paleoecological Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Stephen T. Jackson Nature of the Paleoecological Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Paleoecological Assessments of Human-Related Plant Invasions. . . . . . . . . 42 Long-Term Records of Plant Invasions and Environmental Change. . . . . . 46 Interactions Between Environmental Change and Human Disturbance. . . 48 Conclusions .................................................... 54

5. Community Response to Plant Invasion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Kerry D. Woods

Potential Mechanisms of Community Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Possible Instances of Effects on Community Composition and Structure. . 58 Invasion by Indigenous Species and the Paleoecological Record. . . . . . . . . 64 Generalizations ................................................. 65 Conclusions .................................................... 67

6. Impacts of Invasive Plants on Community and Ecosystem Properties ...... 69 Lawrence R. Walker and Stanley D. Smith

Primary Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Soil Nutrients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Soil Water and Salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Disturbance Regimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Community Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Conclusions .................................................... 85

7. Animal-Mediated Dispersal and Disturbance: Driving Forces Behind Alien Plant Naturalization ........................................ 87

Paula M. Schiffman Naturalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Conclusions .................................................... 93

8. Outlook for Plant Invasions: Interactions with Other Agents of Global Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Laura Foster Huenneke Primary Agents of Global Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Interactions Among Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102

9. Experimental Design for Plant Removal and Restoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104 Michael L. Morrison

Scientific Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105 Principles of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106 Experimental Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 Applications: Managing Study Plots and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115 Conclusions .................................................... 116

10. Response of a Forest Understory Community to Experimental Removal of an Invasive Nonindigenous Plant (Alliaria petiolata, Brassicaceae). . . . .. 117

Brian C. McCarthy Biology of the Study Species ...................................... 1 18

Contents

Methods 118 Results ........................................................ 121 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126 Conclusions .................................................... 127 Appendix 10.1. Species list. . .. .. . .. ... .. . ... .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. ...... 128

SECTION ID. Direct Management

11. Management of Plant Invasions: Implicating Ecological Succession . . . . . . .. 133 James o. Luken

Succession: The Rise and Fall of Populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134 Plant Invasion: A Successional Interpretation ........................ 136 The Decision to Manage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139 The Response to Management.. .. .. . .. .. . .. .... .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. ... 141 A Paradigm for Management.. . . .. . .. . .. ... . . . .. . . . .. . . ... .. .. .. .. 143 Conclusions .................................................... 144

12. Methods for Management of Nonindigenous Aquatic Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 145 John D. Madsen

Why Manage Nonindigenous Aquatic Plants? .. .. .. . ....... ... .. .. . .. 146 Management Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151 Developing an Integrated Management Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164 Conclusions .................................................... 170

13. Biological Control of Weeds in the United States and Canada ............ 172 C. Jack DeLoach

Comparison of Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175 Community-Level Effects of Invasion and Response to

Biological Control ............................................. 177 Research Protocol ............................................... 179 Regulations and Safeguards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Control of Major Weeds in the United States and Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Future Directions of Biological Control ............................. 190 Conclusions .................................................... 193

14. Prioritizing Invasive Plants and Planning for Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195 Ronald D. Hiebert

Why Prioritize Invasive Plants? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196 How to Prioritize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197 Steps in the Decision-Making Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197 Decision-Making Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 A Generalized Nonindigenous Plant Ranking System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 203 Conclusions .................................................... 208 Appendix 14.1. A system for ranking nonindigenous plants. . . . . . . . . . .. 210

SECTION IV. Regulation and Advocacy

15. Prevention of Invasive Plant Introductions on National and Local Levels. .. 215 Sarah E. Reichard

Modes of Species Entry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216 Current Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 Developing Predictive Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 218

xi

xii Contents

Monitoring for New Invasions .................................... . 225 Preventing Invasions on the Local Scale ............................ . 226 Conclusions ................................................... . 227

16. Exotic Pest Plant Councils: Cooperating to Assess and Control Invasive Nonindigenous Plant Species ..................................... . 228

Faith Thompson Campbell Measuring the Impact of Invasions ................................ . 229 Overall Significance of Invasions .................................. . 237 The Need for Coordination ....................................... . 238 Role of Exotic Pest Plant Councils ................................. . 239 Conclusions ...... , ............................................. . 242

17. Team Arundo: Interagency Cooperation to Control Giant Cane (Arundo donax) ................................................. . 244

Paul R. Frandsen Historical Setting ............................................... . 244 Plant Biology .................................................. . 245 The Problem ................................................... . 245 The Solution? Team Arundo ..................................... . 246 The Future .................................................... . 247 Conclusions ................................................... . 247

18. A Multiagency Containment Program for Miconia (Miconia ca[vescens), an Invasive Tree in Hawaiian Rain Forests .......................... . 249

Patrick Conant, Arthur C. Medeiros, and Lloyd L. Loope Distribution and Ecology of Miconia ............................... . 249 Agencies and Citizen Groups Involved in Miconia Control in Hawaii ... . 250 Strategies and Tactics ........................................... . 252 Prospects for Success ............................................ . 254

Appendix: Selected Plant Species Interfering with Resource Management Goals in North American Natural Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 268

Index............................................................... 317

Contributors

Faith Thompson Campbell, National Coalition of Exotic Pest Plant Councils, Springfield, VA 22152, USA

Patrick Conant, Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Honolulu, HI 96814, USA

Carla M. D'Antonio, Department of Integrative Biology, University of California at Berke-ley, Berkeley, CA, 94720-3140, USA

C. Jack DeLoach, United States Department of Agriculture, Agri.cultural Research Service, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Temple, TX 76502-9601, USA

Paul R. Frandsen, Riverside County Regional Park and Open-Space District, Riverside, CA 92519, USA

Ronald D. Hiebert, National Park Service, Omaha, NE 68102, USA

Laura Foster Huenneke, Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88002, USA

Stephen T. Jackson, Department of Botany, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071-3265, USA

Lloyd L. Loope, National Biological Service, Haleakala Na1ional Park Field Station, Makawao, HI 96768, USA

James o. Luken, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, USA

John D. Madsen, United States Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199, USA

Brian C. McCarthy, Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701-2979, USA

Arthur C. Medeiros, National Biological Service, Haleakala National Park Field Station, Makawao, HI 96768, USA

xiii

xiv

Michael L. Morrison, Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA

John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy, Wildland Weeds Management and Research, Section of Plant Biology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA

Sarah E. Reichard, Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

Paula M. Schiffman, Department of Biology, California State University at Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330-8303, USA

Mark W. Schwartz, Center for Population Biology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA

Stanley D. Smith, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004, USA

John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, USA

Lawrence R. Walker, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004, USA

Charles E. Williams, Department of Biology, Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, PA 16214-1232, USA

Kerry D. Woods, Division of Natural Sciences, Bennington College, Bennington, VT 05201. USA

Contributors