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Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics 30
TheSpringer Series in AdvancedMicroelectronics provides systematic information on
all the topics relevant for the design, processing, andmanufacturing ofmicroelectronic
devices. The books, each prepared by leading researchers or engineers in their fields,
cover the basic and advanced aspects of topics such as wafer processing, materials,
device design, device technologies, circuit design, VLSI implementation, and subsys-
tem technology. The series forms a bridge between physics and engineering and the
volumes will appeal to practicing engineers as well as research scientists.
Series Editors:Dr. Kiyoo Itoh
Hitachi Ltd., Central Research Laboratory, 1-280 Higashi-Koigakubo
Kokubunji-shi, Tokyo 185-8601, Japan
Professor Thomas Lee
Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, 420 Via Palou Mall,
CIS-205 Stanford, CA 94305-4070, USA
Professor Takayasu Sakurai
Center for Collaborative Research, University of Tokyo, 7-22-1 Roppongi
Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-8558, Japan
Professor Willy M.C. Sansen
ESAT-MICAS, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10
3001 Leuven, Belgium
Professor Doris Schmitt-Landsiedel
Lehrstuhl fur Technische Elektronik, Technische Universitat Munchen
Theresienstrasse 90, Gebaude N3, 80290 Munchen, Germany
For other titles published in this series, go tohttp://www.springer.com/series/4076
Xingcun Colin Tong
Advanced Materials forThermal Managementof Electronic Packaging
Xingcun Colin TongLaird Technologies1751 Wilkening CourtSchaumburg, IL [email protected]
ISSN 1437-0387ISBN 978-1-4419-7758-8 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-7759-5DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7759-5Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writtenpermission of the publisher (Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use inconnection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they arenot identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subjectto proprietary rights.
Cover design: eStudio Calamar S.L.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
This book is dedicated to my wife Dali, our daughter Lingbo, and our sonsWilliam and Alan. Their love fully filled my heart during the long hours of workon this book
.
Preface
The need for advanced thermal management materials in electronic packaging has
been widely recognized as thermal challenges became barriers to the electronic
industry’s ability to provide continued improvements in device and system perfor-
mance. With increased performance requirements for smaller, more capable, and
more efficient electronic power devices, systems ranging from active electronically
scanned radar arrays to web servers all require components that can dissipate heat
efficiently. This requires that the materials have a high capability for dissipating
heat and maintaining compatibility with the die and electronic packaging. In
response to these critical needs, revolutionary advances in thermal management
materials and technologies for active and passive cooling now promise integrable
and cost-effective thermal management solutions. As a result, a large number of
papers, articles, and presentations have been published on the development of high-
performance materials to solve the vexing problem of device and package-level
cooling and thermal management. However, no comprehensive and accessible book
has been available on this topic for students, materials scientists, and electronics
engineers.
To meet this need, Advanced Materials for Thermal Management of ElectronicsPackaging takes a systems approach ranging from thermal management fundamentals
to a balance between cost and performance in materials selection and assessment.
Chapter 1 begins with an outline of heat transfer theory and discusses thermal
management solutions, materials selection, and component design guidelines.
Chapter 2 provides an extensive review of assessment techniques and characteriza-
tion methodologies for advanced thermal management materials and components.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of the state of the art of high-performance
advanced electronic packaging materials and their thermal management functions,
including properties of key materials, state of maturity, applications, processing,
and future directions. Chapters 4 through 8 provide an in-depth introduction to the
large and increasing number of advanced thermal management materials, including
carbonaceous materials and carbon matrix materials, thermally conductive polymer
matrix composites, high thermal conductivity metal matrix composites, ceramic
composites, and emerging thermal interface materials. Chapters 9 through 11 discuss
advanced materials and design for heat spreaders, air cooling heat sinks, liquid
vii
cooling, and thermoelectric cooling devices. Finally, Chapter 12 presents a devel-
opment roadmap with applications, trends, and perspectives on the future.
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the help and support I have received from
my colleagues who have provided me with various supports and contributed to my
understanding of thermal management materials and approaches in electronic
packaging. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my editors, Dr. David
Packer and all other editing staff who worked very hard to give the text its final
polish.
Schaumburg, IL Xingcun Colin Tong
viii Preface
Contents
1 Thermal Management Fundamentals and Design Guides
in Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rationale of Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Heat Sources and Thermal Effects on Integrated
Circuit Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thermal Failure Induced by Different Coefficient
of Thermal Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Thermal Failure Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Thermal Management Challenges
and Common Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Overall Picture of Thermal Management in Different
Packaging Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chip Level Packaging Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Board Level Packaging Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
System-Level Packaging Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Thermal Management Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Hardware Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Software Solutions and Software-Based Dynamic
Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Optimal Thermal Design of a Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fundamentals of Heat Transfer and Thermal Calculation
in Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Multimode Heat Transfer in Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Microscale Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Design for Advanced Thermal Management
of Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Thermal Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Thermal Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Experimental Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
ix
Materials Selection for Advanced Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Interface Joining Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Bulk Materials for Heat Spreading and Dissipating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Materials and Components Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Environmental Compliance of Thermal Management Materials . . . . . 52
RoHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
WEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2 Characterization Methodologies of Thermal
Management Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Thermal Properties and Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Specific Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Thermal Shock Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Thermal Characterization of Micro/Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Electrical Properties and Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Permittivity and Its Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Thermomechanical Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Characterization Techniques of Thermally Induced
Stress and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fundamental Equations of Deformable Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Constitutive Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Thermomechanical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Thermomechanical Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Analytical Techniques for Materials Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Optical Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
X-Ray Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Scanning Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Transmission Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Scanning Acoustic Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Atomic Force Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Surface Finish Requirement and Contact Interface
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Corrosion and Oxidation Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Solderability of Surface Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Effects of Mating Cycles and Operating Environments
on Contact Surface Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Galvanic Corrosion and Contact Interface
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
x Contents
Reliability Analysis and Environmental
Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Failure Modes and Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Reliability Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3 Electronic Packaging Materials and Their Functions
in Thermal Managements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Materials Selection for Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Monolithic Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Metallic Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Ceramics and Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Electronic Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Thermosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Elastomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Multimaterial Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Multilayer Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Metallic Laminate Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Printed Circuit Board Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Low Thermal Conductivity Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Advanced Thermally Conductive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4 Monolithic Carbonaceous Materials and Carbon
Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Natural and Industrial Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Pyrolytic Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Carbon–Graphite Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fabrication Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Thermal Conductivity and Heat Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Thermally Conductive Carbon Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Carbon–Carbon Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Contents xi
5 Thermally Conductive Polymer Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Polymer Matrix Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Reinforcements of Conductive Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Design and Modeling of Conductive Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . 209
Theoretical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Computational Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Percolation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
General Fabrication and Manufacturing Processes
of Polymer Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Typical Applications for Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Polymer–Carbon Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Polymer–Metal Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Polymer–Ceramic Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6 High Thermal Conductivity Metal Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Processing of Metal Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Solid State Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Liquid State Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
In Situ Fabrication Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Codeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Aluminum Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Aluminum–Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Aluminum–Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Aluminum–Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Aluminum–Silicon Carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Aluminum–Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Copper Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Copper–Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Copper–Carbon Nanofiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Copper–Silicon Carbide and Copper–Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Other Metal Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Beryllium Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Silver–Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Low-CTE Composite Solder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
xii Contents
7 Thermally Conductive Ceramic Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
State of the Art in Processing of SiC Matrix Ceramic
Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
SiC–Diamond Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
SiC–Carbon Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Reaction-Bonded SiC Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Aluminum-Toughened SiC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Ceramic Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Ceramic Matrix Composite Thermal Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8 Thermal Interface Materials in Electronic Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Thermal Joint Conductance and Selection of Thermal
Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Thermal Joint Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Criteria for Selection of Thermal Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . 309
Metallic Thermal Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Reflow Solders and Active Bond Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Nonreflow Solders and LMAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Composite Solders and Hybrid Metallic Thermal
Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Gold–Gold Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Organic Thermal Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Thermally Conductive Elastomer Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Thermal Grease and Compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Phase Change Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Polymer Solder Hybrid Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Graphite‐Based Thermal Interface Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Advanced Thermal Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Gelvet and Fiber-Reinforced Thermal Interface Materials . . . . 352
Nanotechnology Based Thermal Interface Materials . . . . . . . . . . 358
Thermal Interface Materials Selection and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Commercial TIMs Selection and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9 Materials and Design for Advanced Heat Spreader
and Air Cooling Heat Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Overview of Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Passive Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Active Air Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Contents xiii
Spreading and Constriction Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Type of Heat Spreaders and Their Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Dielectric Heat Spreader Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Metallic and Composite Heat Spreader Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Graphite Heat Spreader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Advanced Heat Spreaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Air Cooling Heat Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Type of Air Flow Heat Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Heat Sink Design Constraints and Design Parameters . . . . . . . . 396
Heat Sink Materials Selection and Fabrication Process . . . . . . . 404
Nanostructure Enhanced Heat Sink and Complex
Spreader Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
10 Liquid Cooling Devices and Their Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Direct Liquid Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Immersion Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Liquid Jet Impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Spray Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Indirect Liquid Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Heat Pipe Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fundamental Principles of Heat Pipe Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Heat Pipe Design and Type of Heat Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Limitations on Heat Transport Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Applications of Heat Pipe for Electronic Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Refrigeration Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
High-Flux Cooling with Phase-Change Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Enhancement of Pool Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Enhancement of Forced-Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Embedded Droplet Impingement for Integrated
Cooling of Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
11 Thermoelectric Cooling Through Thermoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . 477
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Thermoelectric Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Seebeck Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Peltier Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Thomson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Application of Thermoelectric Effects
to Thermoelectric Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
xiv Contents
Design and Architecture of Thermoelectric
Cooling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Multistage Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Thermoelectric Materials and Future Development Trends . . . . . . . 495
Fermi Energy in Thermoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Optimization Criteria of the Thermoelectric
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Bulk Thermoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Low-Dimensional Thermoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Thermoelectric Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
12 Development and Application of Advanced Thermal
Management Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Materials Development Routine and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Establishing Application Target and
Materials Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Materials Selection with Optimal Balance
of Cost and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Thermal Modeling and Design-In Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Prototype Fabrication and Experimental Validation . . . . . . . . . 538
Production Layout and Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Smart Composites and Multifunctional Materials
for Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Thermal Management Materials with Enhanced
Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Absorbing
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Minimizing EMI from Heat Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Combination of Board Level Shielding
and Heat Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Thermally Conductive EMI Absorbing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Thermally Conductive Metalized Plastic Housing
for EMI Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Thermal Management Application in Computer Design . . . . . . . . . . 552
Design Baseline for Power Management
and Performance Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Packaging-Level Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
System-Level Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Thermal Management Application in Photonic
LED Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Thermal Characterization of LED Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Design Guideline for LEDs with Efficient
Thermal Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Contents xv
Thermal Management Solutions and Challenges
of LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Thermal Management Application in Sustainable Energy
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Thermal Management of Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Thermal Management of Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Thermal Management of Solar Cell Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Perspective and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Electrothermal and Multiphysics Codesign
and Software Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Progress and Future Trends of High Heat Flux
Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
Thermal Challenges for Next-Generation Military,
Automotive, and Harsh-Environment
Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Appendix: Standards and Specifications for Evaluation of Thermal
Management in Electronic Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
A. Standards for Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
B. Standards for Life and Reliability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
C. Standards for Flammability and Toxicity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
xvi Contents
Abbreviations
ABGA Advanced ball grid array
ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
ACPI Advanced configuration and power interface
AES Auger electron spectroscope
AFM Atomic force microscopy
AMC Aluminum matrix composite, or airborne molecular contamination
APG Annealed pyrolytic graphite
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BGA Ball grid array
BIOS Basic input/output system
BIST Built-in self-test
BLT Bond line thickness
BSE Back scattered electrons
BTE Boltzmann particle transport equation
CAD Computer aided design
CBGA Ceramic ball grid array
CCC Carbon/carbon composite
CCD Charge coupled device
CCFL Cold cathode fluorescent lamp
CFCC Continuous fiber ceramic composite
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
CHF Critical heat flux
CMC Ceramic matrix composite
CMOS Complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CNF Carbon nanofiber
CNT Carbon nanotube
COB Chip on board
COP Coefficient of performance
CPU Central processing unit
C-SAM C-mode scanning acoustic microscope
CSF Combination of solar and fuel cells
CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion
CTI Computer telephony integration
xvii
CVD Chemical vapor deposition
CVI Chemical vapor infiltration
CW Continuous wave
dB Decibel
DCB/DAB Direct copper/aluminum bonded ceramic substrate
DF Density factor
DFT Density functional theory, or discrete Fourier transform
DIP Dual-in-line package
DLC Diamond like carbon
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DS Decision support
DSP Digital signal processing
DTM Dynamic thermal management
ECU Electronics cooling unit
EDA Electronic design automation, or electronic document access
EDIFICE Embedded droplet impingement for integrated cooling of electronics
EDM Electrodischarge machining
EDS Energy dispersive spectroscopy of X-rays
EELS Electron energy loss spectrum
EG Electron gas
EIA Environmental impact assessment
EMA Effective medium approximation
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
EMI Electromagnetic interference
EMS Electronic music studios
EPDM Ethylenepropylene diene monomer
ESD Electromagnetic discharge
ESPI Electronic speckle pattern interferometry
EV Electric vehicle
FCBGA Flip chip ball grid array
FEA Finite element analysis
FET Field effect transistors
FIT Failure in time
FLG Few layer graphene
FMEA Failure mode and effect analysis
FPBGA Flip chip plastic ball grid array
GAEC Gas-assisted evaporative cooling
GGI Gold–gold interconnection
GLP Graphite loaded polymer
HAST Highly accelerated stress test
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
HFE Hydroflouroether
HIP Hot isostatic press
HOPG Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite
xviii Abbreviations
HPHT High pressure and high temperature
HRTEM High resolution transmission electron microscopy
HVAC Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
HVOS High-velocity oxyfuel spraying
Hz Hertz
IACS International annealed copper standard
IC Integrated circuit
ICA Isotropic conductive adhesive
ID Inside diameter
IGBT Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
IMS Insulated metal substrate, metal core board
IPEM Integrated power electronics module
IR Infrared
JCPDS Joint committee on powder diffraction standards
JTRS Joint tactical system
LCD Liquid crystal display
LCP Liquid crystal polymer
LD Laser diode
LDA Laser diode array
LED Light-emitting diode
LEM Lunar excursion module
LMA Low melting alloy
LRU Line replaceable unit
MBLT Minimum bond line thickness
MCAD Mechanical computer-aided design
MEMS microelectromechanical system
MH Metal hydride
MIL Military
MLC Multilayer ceramic
MMC Metal matrix composite
MPU Memory protection unit
MRU Modular refrigeration unit
MSRS Miniature scale refrigeration system
MTBF Mean time between failure
MTTF Mean time to failure
MWNT Multi-walled carbon nanotube
NEMS Nanoelectromechanical systems
NMP Net material product, or N-methylpyrrolidone
OD Outside diameter
OEE Overall equipment effectiveness
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
OPC Object linking and embedding for process control
OTD On time delivery
PAA Polyacrylic acid
PAI Polyamideimide
Abbreviations xix
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PBGA Plastic ball grid array
PC Polycarbonate, or personal computer
PCB Printed-circuit board
PCD Polycrystalline diamond
PCF Phase change film
PCM Phase change material
PCMA Phase change metal alloy
PDE Partial differential equation
PDP Program data processor
PE Polyethylene, or postal explorer
PEDOT:PSS Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate)
PEEK Polyaryletherketones
PEI Polyetherimides
PEK Polyaryletherketones
PEM Proton exchange membrane
PES Polyethersulfone
PET Polyethylene terephthalate, or positron emission tomography
PFC Perfluorinated chemicals or perfluorochemicals, or power factor
correction
PG Pyrolytic graphite
PGA Pin grid array
PI Polyimides
PIP Polymer infiltration and pyrolysis
PLD Pulsed laser deposition
PM Preventive maintenance
PMC Polymer matrix composite
PMMA Poly(methyl methacrylate)
POM Polyoxymethylene
PPO Polyphenylene
PPS Polyphenylene sulfide
PSA Pressure sensitive adhesive
PSH Polymer solder hybrid
PSS Plasma sound source or polystyrene sulfonic acid
PSul Polysulfone
PTC Positive temperature coefficient
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
PV Photovoltaic
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
PWB Printed-wire board
PyC Pyrocarbon
QDSL Quantum dot superlattice
QFP Quad flat package
RIM Reaction injection molding
xx Abbreviations
RMI Reactive melt infiltration
RoHS Restriction of hazardous substances
RTM Resin transfer molding
SAM Scanning acoustic microscopy
SEM Scanning electron microscope
SFF Small form factor
SiC Silicon carbide
SiP System in package
SIP Slurry infiltration process
SLS Reaction-bonded SiC with laser sintered process
SMA Shape memory alloy
SMT Surface mount technology
SOC System on a chip
SOI Silicon on insulator
SPM Scanning probe microscopy
STD Standard
SUB Single vacuum bag
SWNT Single walled carbon nanotube
TAB Tape-automated bonding
TBGA Tape ball grid array
TE Thermoelectric
TEC Thermoelectric cooler
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
TGF Thermal gap filler
TIM Thermal interface material
TML Total mass loss
TPE Thermoplastic elastomer
TPS Thermal protection system
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethane
TQFP Tape-bonded quad flat package
TTR Transient thermal reflectance
ULSI Ultra large scale integration
UV Ultraviolet light
VCC Vapor compression cooling
VCM Volatile condensable material
VGCF Vapor grown carbon fiber
VGCNF Vapor grown carbon nanofiber
VPE Vapor phase epitaxy
VR Virtual reality
VRLA Valve regulated lead acid
WBG Wide band gap
WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment
WIP Work in progress
ZT Dimensionless thermoelectric figure of merit
Abbreviations xxi