A

Springerof Nanotechnology

Bharat Bhushan (Ed.)

2nd revised and extended editionWith CD-ROM, 1593 Figures and 109 Tables

<£J Springer

Contents

XXVII

List of Abbreviations. XLI

Introduction

1 Introduction to NanotechnologyBharat Bhushan 11.1 Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples 11.2 Background and Research Expenditures h1.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) 6l.k Applications in Different Fields 71.5 Various Issues 81.6 Research Training 81.7 Organization of Handbook 9References 9

Part A Nanostructures, Micro/Nanofabrication and Materials

2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications:Molecule-Based DevicesFrangisco M. Raymo 132.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials 132.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates 182.3 Solid State Devices 262.k Conclusions and Outlook 38References 39

Introduction to Carbon NanotubesMarc Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut,Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain Peigney,Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto k33.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes kk3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes k93.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes 653.k Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 693.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects 7k3.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 803.7 Concluding Remarks 95References 95

XXVIII Contents

NanowiresMildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie R. Black,Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus 1134.1 Synthesis 1154.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires 1244.3 Applications 1454.4 Concluding Remarks 152References 153

Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire ArraysHuamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao 1615.1 Template-Based Approach 1625.2 Electrochemical Deposition 1635.3 Electrophoretic Deposition 1675.4 Template Filling 1725.5 Converting from Reactive Templates 1745.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks 174References 175

Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabricationby Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor DepositionShlnji Matsui 1796.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication 1806.2 Nanoelectromechanics 1836.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue from a Morpho Butterfly Scale

Quasi-Structure 1906.4 Nanobiology 1916.5 Summary 194References 195

Introduction to Micro/NanofabricationBabak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood Z. Atashbar 1977.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques 1977.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques 2107.3 Nanofabrication Techniques 2227.4 Summary and Conclusions 233References 233

Nanoimprint LithographyHelmut Schift, Anders Kristensen 2398.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods 2418.2 Nanoimprint Process 2448.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprint 2558.4 Applications 2628.5 Conclusion and Outlook 268References 270

Contents XXIX

9 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and NanofabricationEtienne Menard, John A. Rogers 2799.1 High-Resolution Stamps 2809.2 Microcontact Printing 2829.3 Nanotransfer Printing 2849.4 Applications 2889.5 Conclusions 295References 295

10 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical SystemsChristian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 29910.1 Silicon 29910.2 Germanium-Based Materials 30610.3 Metals 30710.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors 30910.5 GaAs, InP, and Related III—V Materials 31410.6 Ferroelectric Materials 31610.7 Polymer Materials 31710.8 Future Trends 318References 319

11 Complexity and Emergence as Design Principles for EngineeringDecentralized Nanoscale SystemsDavid Wendell, Dean Ho, Carlo D. Montemagno 32311.1 Definitions 32411.2 Examples and Experimental Analysis

of Decentralized Systems in Nature 33111.3 Engineering Emergent Behavior into Nanoscale Systems:

Thematic Examples of Synthetic Decentralized Nanostructures 33411.4 Conclusion 343References 343

12 Nanometer-Scale Thermoelectric MaterialsJoseph P. Heremans 34512.1 The Promise of Thermoelectricity 34712.2 Theory of Thermoelectric Transport in Low-Dimensional Solids 34912.3 Two-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wells 35912.4 One-Dimensional Thermoelectric Transport in Quantum Wires 36012.5 Quasi-Zero-Dimensional Systems, Solids Containing Quantum Dots. 36612.6 Conclusions 370References 370

13 Nano- and Microstructured Semiconductor Materials forMacroelectronicsYugang Sun, Seung-Hyun Hur, John A. Rogers 37513.1 Classes of Semiconductor Nanomaterials and their Preparation 377

XXX Contents

13.2 Generation of Thin Films of Ordered Nanostructures on PlasticSubstrates 384

13.3 Applications for Macroelectronics 38913.4 Outlook 395References 395

Part B MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS

14 Next-Generation DNA Hybridization and Self-AssemblyNanofabrication DevicesMichael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger, Paul Swanson,Dalibor Hodko 40114.1 Electronic Microarray Technology 40314.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes 40914.3 Conclusions 411References 411

15 MEMS/NEMS Devices and ApplicationsDarrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 41515.1 MEMS Devices and Applications 41715.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) 43615.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends 439References 440

16 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array SensorsHans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber 44316.1 Technique 44316.2 Cantilever Array Sensors 44516.3 Modes of Operation 44616.4 Microfabrication 45016.5 Measurement Set-Up 45016.6 Functionalization Techniques 45316.7 Applications 45516.8 Conclusions and Outlook 455References 456

17 Therapeutic NanodevicesStephen C. Lee, Mark Ruegsegger, Philip D. Barnes, Bryan R. Smith,Mauro Ferrari 46117.1 Definitions and Scope of Discussion 46217.2 Synthetic Approaches: "Top-Down" Versus "Bottom-Up"

Approaches for Nanotherapeutic Device Components 46717.3 Technological and Biological Opportunities 47017.4 Applications of Nanotherapeutic Devices 48817.5 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice and Prospects 496References 499

Contents XXXI

18 G-Protein Coupled Receptors:Surface Display and Biosensor TechnologyEdward J. McMurchie, Wayne R. Leifert 50518.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle 50718.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-proteins 50918.3 Measurement of GPCR Signaling 50918.4 GPCR Biosensing 51118.5 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling 51718.6 The Future of GPCRs in Nanobiotechnologies 520References 520

19 Microfluidics and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-ChipChong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi 52319.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices

and Micro/Nanofabrication Techniques 52419.2 Active Microfluidic Devices 52719.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices 53219.^ Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis 540References 545

20 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic PlatformsJim Zoval, Guangyao Jia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim, Nahui Kim,MarcJ. Madou 54920.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? 55020.2 Compact Disc or Micro-Centrifuge Fluidics 55220.3 CD Applications 55620.4 Conclusion 567References 568

21 Micro/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic Devices"Mike" Yung-Chieh Tan, Abraham "Abe" Lee 57121.1 Active or Programmable Droplet System 57221.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques 57521.3 Applications 58221.4 Conclusion 584References 584

Part C Scanning Probe Microscopy

22 Scanning Probe Microscopy -Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and ProbesBharat Bhushan, Othmar Marti 59122.1 ScanningTunneling Microscope 59322.2 Atomic Force Microscope 59722.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses 613References 630

XXXII Contents

23 Probes in Scanning MicroscopiesJason H. Hafner 63723.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 63823.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 648References 649

24 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related TopicsFranz J. Giessibl, Yasuhim Sugawara, Seizo Morita, Hirotaka Hosoi,Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi 65124.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 65224.2 Applications to Semiconductors 65724.3 Applications to Insulators 66324.4 Applications to Molecules 670References 673

25 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe MicroscopyMarkus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz 67925.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures 68025.2 Instrumentation 68125.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy 68525.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy 698References 710

26 Higher-Harmonic Force Detection in Dynamic Force MicroscopyOzgur Sahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J. Giessibl 71726.1 Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces

in Tapping-Mode AFM 71826.2 Enhancing a Specific Harmonic of the Interaction Force

Using a Flexural Resonance 72126.3 Recovering the Time-Resolved Tip-Sample Forces

with Torsional Vibrations 72426.4 Application Examples 72726.5 Higher Harmonic/Atomic Force Microscopy

with Small Amplitudes 731References 735

27 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force MicroscopyA. Schirmeisen, B. Anczykowski, Harald Fuchs 73727.1 Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond 73727.2 Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM 74127.3 Dynamic AFM Operational Modes 74327.4 g-Control 75427.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM 75827.6 Conclusion 762References 762

Contents XXXIII

28 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy:From Simple Bonds to Complex Energy LandscapesPeter Hinterdorfer, Ziv Reich 76728.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry 76828.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces 77028.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection 77128.^ Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy 77328.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy:

From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes 77528.6 Recognition Imaging 78228.7 Concluding Remarks 784References 784

Part D Nanotribology and Nanomechanics

29 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics and Materials CharacterizationBharatBhushan 79129.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 79329.2 Surface Imaging, Friction and Adhesion 80429.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining.... 82929.4 Indentation 83729.5 Boundary Lubrication 84129.6 Closure 852References 853

30 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin FilmsMarina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili 85930.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces 86030.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces 86230.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces 86630.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids 87030.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces 88030.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits

of Continuum Models ,, 88630.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry

(Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces 88730.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces 89830.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction 909References 913

31 Interfacial Forces and Spectroscopic Study of Confined FluidsY. Elaine Zhu, Ashis Mukhopadhyay, Steve Granick 92531.1 Hydrodynamic Force of Fluids Flowing in Micro- to Nanofluidics:

A Question About No-Slip Boundary Condition 92631.2 Hydrophobic Interaction and Water at a Hydrophobicity Interface ... 93231.3 Ultrafast Spectroscopic Study of Confined Fluids:

Combining Ultra-Fast Spectroscopy with Force Apparatus 938

•XXXIV Contents

31.4 Contrasting Friction with Diffusion in Molecularly Thin Films 94131.5 Diffusion of Confined Molecules During Shear 94531.6 Summary 946References 946

32 Scanning Probe Studies of Nanoscale Adhesion Between Solids inthe Presence of Liquids and Monolayer FilmsRobert W. Carpick, James Batteas, Maarten P. de Boer 95132.1 The Importance of Adhesion at the Nanoscale 95132.2 Techniques for Measuring Adhesion 95232.3 Calibration of Forces, Displacements, and Tips 95732.4 The Effect of Liquid Capillaries on Adhesion 95932.5 Self-Assembled Monolayers 96832.6 Concluding Remarks 973References 974

33 Friction and Wear on the Atomic ScaleEnrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer, Anisoara Socoliuc,Ernst Meyer. 98133.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum 98233.2 TheTomlinson Model 98633.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale 98833.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction 99233.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts 99633.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale 99933.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations

of Atomic Friction and Wear 100133.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy 100433.9 Conclusion 1006References 1007

34 Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction, Adhesion and WearNikhil S. Tambe, Bharat Bhushan 101134.1 Bridging Science and Engineering for Nanotribological

Investigations 101234.2 Instrumentation 101434.3 Velocity Dependence of Nanoscale Friction and Adhesion 101734.4 Dominant Friction Regimes and Mechanisms 102034.5 Nanoscale Friction Mapping 103534.6 Wear Studies at High Sliding Velocities 103734.7 Identifying Materials with Low Friction and Adhesion

for Nanotechnological Applications 104334.8 Closure 1045References 1046

35

Contents XXXV

35 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentationand FrictionSusan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald 1/1/. Brenner, Judith A. Harrison .. 105135.1 Computational Details 105235.2 Indentation 105735.3 Friction and Lubrication 107235.4 Conclusions 1096References 1097

36 Nanoscale Mechanical Properties -Measuring Techniques and ApplicationsAndrzej J. Kulik, Andras Ids, Gerard Gremaud, Stefan Hengsberger,Gustavo S. Luengo, Philippe K. Zysset, Laszlo Form 110736.1 Local Mechanical Spectroscopy via Dynamic Contact AFM 110836.2 Static Methods - Mesoscopic Samples, Shear and Young's Modulus. 111336.3 Scanning Nanoindentation as a Tool to Determine Nanomechanical

Properties of Biological Tissue Under Dry and Wet Conditions 112136.it General Summary and Perspectives 1132References 1133

37 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin FilmsAdrian B. Mann 113737.1 Instrumentation 113837.2 Data Analysis 114437.3 Modes of Deformation 115237.4 Thin Films and Multilayers 115637.5 Developing Areas 1161References 1161

38 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and TribologyBharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky 116738.1 Nomenclature 116738.2 Introduction 116938.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties 117138.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters 117538.5 Scale Effect in Friction 117838.6 Scale Effect in Wear 119038.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature 119038.8 Closure 119138.A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution 1192References 1196

39 Mechanics of Biological NanotechnologyRob Phillips, Prashant K. Purohit, Jane Kondev 119939.1 Science at the Biology-Nanotechnology Interface 120039.2 Scales at the Bio-Nano Interface 120639.3 Modeling at the Nano-Bio Interface 1212

XXXVI Contents

39.it Nature's Nanotechnology Revealed: Viruses as a Case Study 121539.5 Concluding Remarks 1220References 1220

40 Structural, Nanomechanical and NanotribologicalCharacterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopyand NanoindentationBharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre, Guohua Wei 122340.1 Human Hair, Skin and Hair Care Products 122640.2 Experimental Techniques 123540.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM 124640.4 Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation and

Nanoscratch 125240.5 Macroscale Tribological Characterization 126640.6 Nanotribological Characterization Using an AFM 126940.7 Closure 130040.A Conditioner Thickness Approximation 1302References 1302

41 Mechanical Properties of NanostructuresBharat Bhushan 130541.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of Mechanical

Properties of Nanostructures 130741.2 Experimental Results and Discussion 131241.3 Finite Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and

Scratches 132641.4 Closure 1332References 1333

Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication

42 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon FilmsBharat Bhushan 133942.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques 134342.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization 134742.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization 135342.4 Closure 1374References 1375

43 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) for Controlling Adhesion,Friction, and WearBharat Bhushan 137943.1 A Brief Organic Chemistry Primer 138243.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains; and End

Groups in the Molecular Chains 138643.3 Tribological Properties of SAMs 1389

Contents XXXVII

43.4 ClosureReferences

44 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication StudiesBharat Bhushan, Huiwen Liu 141744.1 Lubricants Details 141844.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation,

and Lubricant Spreading 142044.3 Boundary Lubrication Studies 142244.4 Closure 1436References 1436

45 Kinetics and Energetics in NanolubricationRene M. Overney, George 1/1/. Tyndall, Jane Frommer 143945.1 Background: From Bulk to Molecular Lubrication 144145.2 Thermal Activation Model of Lubricated Friction 144345.3 Functional Behavior of Lubricated Friction 144445.4 Thermodynamical Models Based on Small

and Nonconforming Contacts 144645.5 Limitation of the Gaussian Statistics - The Fractal Space 144745.6 Fractal Mobility in Reactive Lubrication 144845.7 Metastable Lubricant Systems in Large Conforming Contacts 145045.8 Conclusion 1451References 1451

Part F Industrial Applications

46 The "Millipede" -A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage SystemGerd K. Binnig, G. Cherubini, M. Despont, Urs T. Dung,Evangelos Eleftheriou, H. Pozidis, Peter Vettiger 145746.1 The Millipede Concept 145946.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage 146046.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication 146246.4 Array Characterization 146346.5 x/y/z Medium Microscanner 146546.6 First Write/Read Results with the 32><32 Array Chip 146746.7 Polymer Medium 146946.8 Read Channel Model 147546.9 System Aspects 147946.10 Conclusions 1484References 1484

47 Nanotechnology for Data Storage ApplicationsDrorSarid, Brendan McCarthy, Ghassan E. Jabbour 148747.1 Current Status of Commercial Data Storage Devices 1489

XXXVIII Contents

47.2 Opportunities Offered by Nanotechnology for Data Storage 149547.3 Conclusion 1506References 1507

48 Microactuators for Dual-Stage Servo Systemsin Magnetic Disk FilesRoberto Horowitz, Tsung-Lin (Tony) Chen, Kenn Oldham, Yunfeng Li,Xinghui Huang, Shih-Chung Kon, Ryozo Nagamune 150948.1 Design of the Electrostatic Microactuator 151148.2 Fabrication 152048.3 Servo Control Design

of MEMS Microactuator Dual-Stage Servo Systems 152848.4 Conclusions and Outlook 1541References 1542

49 NanoroboticsBradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong 154549.1 Overview of Nanorobotics 154649.2 Actuation at Nanoscales 154749.3 Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems 154949.4 Nanorobotic Assembly 155549.5 Applications 1563References 1566

Part G Micro/Nanodevice Rel iabi l i ty

50 Nanotribology and Materials Characterization of MEMS/NEMS andBioMEMS/BioNEMS Materials and DevicesBharat Bhushan 157550.1 Introduction 157650.2 Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials 159350.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS 160050.4 Tribological Studies of Biological Molecules on Silicon-Based

Surfaces and of Coated Polymer Surfaces 160650.5 Nanopatterned Surfaces 161150.6 Component-Level Studies 161650.7 Conclusion 162750.A Appendix Micro/Nanofabrication Methods 1628References 1631

51 Experimental Characterization Techniques for Micro/NanoscaleDevicesKimberly L. Turner, Peter G. Hartwell 163951.1 Motivation 163951.2 Applications Utilizing Dynamic MEMS/NEMS 164051.3 Test/Characterization Techniques 1640

Contents XXXIX

51.4 Example: Characterizing an In-Plane MEMS Actuator 165451.5 Design for Test 1659References 1659

52 Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS Devices1/1/. Merlijn van Spengen, Robert Modlinski, Robert Puers, Anne Jourdain.... 166352.1 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms 166352.2 Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms 166552.3 Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related Failures 167152. 4 Conclusions 1681References 1681

53 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined StructuresHarold Kahn 168553.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates 168553.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties 168653.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties 1696References 1699

54 Thermo- and Electromechanical Behavior of Thin-Film Micro andNanostructuresMartin L. Dunn, Shawn J. Cunningham 170354.1 Thermomechanics of Multilayer Thin-Film Structures 170554.2 Electromechanics of Thin-Film Structures 172654.3 Summary and Topics not Covered 1744References 1745

55 High Volume Manufacturing and Field Stabilityof MEMS ProductsJack Martin 174955.1 Manufacturing Strategy 175255.2 Robust Manufacturing 175455.3 Stable Field Performance 1769References 1772

56 Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro/Nano SystemsJongbaeg Kim, Yu-Ting Cheng, Mu Chiao, Liwei Lin 177756.1 Introduction to Micro-/Nano-Electromechanical (MEMS)/

(NEMS) Packaging 177756.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications 178356.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability 179156.4 Future Trends and Summary 1798References 1799

XL Contents

Part H Technological Convergence and GoverningNanotechnology

57 Technological Convergence from the NanoscaleWilliam Sims Bainbridge 180757.1 Nanoscience Synergy 180757.2 Dynamics of Convergence from the Nanoscale 181057.3 Ethical, Legal and Social Implications 181157.4 Transformative Synthesis 181457.5 Cultural Implications of Convergence 181657.6 Conclusion 1819References 1819

58 Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human IssuesWilliam Sims Bainbridge 182358.1 Social Science Background 182358.2 Human Impacts of Nanotechnology 182758.3 Regulating Nanotechnology 183058.4 The Cultural Context for Nanotechnology 183258.5 Conclusions 1835References 1835

Acknowledgements 1841About the Authors 1845Subject Index 1877

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