Spring 2012 Research

7/29/2019 Spring 2012 Research

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Effects of corporal punishment on children 1

Running head: EFFECTS OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT ON CHILDREN

Corporal punishment in the family: The effects of corporal punishment on cognitive, behavioral,

and social development in children ages 2-14

Miranda Fillips

Tarleton State University


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Introduction

According to Ember & Ember (2005), Even though corporal punishment is now generally

condemned by psychologists and educators, and many U.S. states prohibit it by law in schools,

corporal punishment is still practiced often in the United States. (Ember & Ember, 2005)

Many people in the United States and elsewhere believe that corporal punishment of children is

appropriate and even necessary. (Ember & Ember, 2005)

Parents have been using corporal punishment for years, whether they use their hands or

an object to spank, it has been used to attempt to keep children on their best behavior throughout

the history of the United States. According to Gershoff (2002), 94% of American parents spank

their children by the time they are 3 or 4 years old. This number is so high because most parents

believe that corporal punishment teaches the child that the behavior they are committing is

wrong and that it stops the child from behaving in that matter again. There is no evidence that

directly proves that spanking a child teaches them that the behavior is bad. Other than immediate

compliance, there are no other proven positive outcomes from spanking children. If this is the

case, why do so many parents continue to use this form of punishment while several countries

around the world have banned it from parental use completely? There are no proven positive

outcomes of corporal punishment, therefore, how does it affect children who receive it? Multiple

research studies have found that corporal punishment affects the childs academic, behavioral

and social development aspects of life in a negative way.

Statement of Problem

There is an enormous amount of research that has been conducted over the years concerning

corporal punishment and its effects on children. Although there is research available, researchers


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should continue investigating why parents use this form of punishment and whether or not it is

effective in different scenarios. It is also important to determine whether or not teachers and

parents feel this is a useful method and if they see good or bad changes in certain behavioral

areas in which are trying to be improved. Corporal punishment can affect children in many

different ways depending on age, parents work schedule, parents income, parents marital status,

etc. Therefore, it is important for research to be conducted on many different aspects of the

childs life to see where corporal punishment is effective, if at all. Gershoffs (2002) study found

the following: Psychologists and other professionals are divided on the question of whether the

benefits of corporal punishment might outweigh any potential hazards; some have concluded that

corporal punishment is both effective and desirable, whereas others have concluded that corporal

punishment is ineffective at best and harmful at worst (Gershoff, 2002). Afifi, Brownridge, Cox,

& Sareen (2006) found that physical punishment was associated with increased odds of major

depression (Afifi, Brownridge, Cox, & Sareen, 2006). The topic of corporal punishment brings

about conflict because it is hard for researchers to prove right or wrong since there are multiple

factors belonging to it. In order to understand if and when corporal punishment works as a form

of punishment, we must understand the particular child whom is receiving this punishment and

the previous behaviors and experiences. Also, different parenting styles should be investigated.

According to Rodriguez (2010), Parent-child aggression was also related to dysfunctional

parenting styles, particularly an overactive, authoritarian parenting style. (Rodriguez, 2010)

Several studied have revealed associations between corporal punishment and poor mother child

relationships as well (Mulvaney & Mebert, 2010). Different situations mean different outcomes

for each individual child who receives corporal punishment.


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Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this study is to understand how corporal punishment affects children s academic,

behavioral, and social development between the ages of 2-14. This information will be helpful

for parents, caregivers, counselors and all others who work with children in that it will allow

them to see how and why children who are corporally punished behave the way they do. It is

important for those who work with children to understand the implications that corporal

punishment can have on a child. By understanding the information presented, children can be

saved from feeling and being physically abused, gain more understanding by being explained

their wrong behavior, taught not to hit others, as well as many other positive outcomes. By using

the Parenting Relationship Questionnaire (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2006) and interviewing

parents and teachers, the information will be analyzed and presented for future practices by

caregivers and research by others interested in this topic of study.

Research Questions

Quantitative

The following research questions are the guiding thoughts behind the study:

1. Does corporal punishment affect a childs cognitive development?2. Does corporal punishment affect a childs behavior?3. Does corporal punishment affect a childs social development?4. Do parents believe corporal punishment affects a childs cognitive development, behavior

and social development?


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5. Do teachers believe corporal punishment affects a childs cognitive development,behavior and social development?

Definitions

The following definitions were used to inform the study:

Corporal punishment: The use of physical force with the intention of causing a child pain,

but not injury, for the purposes of correction or control of the childs behavior(Straus, 2001)

Barrier Enforcement Method: This technique was used in Gershoffs study in which he

studied different methods to keep children from getting out of the time out chair. The barrier

enforcement technique consisted of typically putting the child in a small time-out room with a

barrier to prevent the child from getting out. (Gershoff, 2010)

Delimitations

The children of the parents were not interviewed or asked how they felt about being or

not being corporally punished. This study focuses more on how the parents and teachers view

corporal punishment and whether or not they feel it does more harm than good or no harm at all.

Summary

Understanding of child behaviors as a result of corporal punishment in the early years of

life is crucial for research because it leads to learning what caregivers can do to prevent low self-

esteem, unintended physical abuse, criminal behavior, aggression, and many other negative

factors in children. By studying how children react to their peers in the classroom, their siblings


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and parents at home, what their attachment to their parents is like, and how they are developing

cognitively, the researcher can see more clearly how this type of punishment affects or doesnt

affect certain children. Ecological perspective will be used to analyze the data and provide

insight into the lives of children who are corporally punished.

Literature Review

The primary goal of parents who spank to punish their children is immediate compliance,

as well as moral internalization which involve shaping the child to behave as society expects

them to. (Gershoff, 2002). Although most parents have good intentions and would never want to

seriously hurt their children, many unintended negative effects stem from corporal punishment

such as criminal/delinquent/antisocial behavior, aggression, mental health issues, adult abuse of

own child or spouse, negative relationship with parent(s), and many other factors (Gershoff,

2002).

Effects on Cognitive Development

This year a study was done analyzing neurological development in children based on

maternal support in early childhood. Luby et al. (2012) found that early maternal support exerts a

positive influence on hippocampal development which means that mothers who are more

nurturing and supportive of their children help their children become smarter and think more

cognitively. If mothers use corporal punishment as the primary discipline method for their

children and do not explain to the child what they did wrong or explain why certain actions are

unacceptable, the area of the brain that promotes cognitive thinking will not function as well as

in children whose parents are more nurturing and use a method other than corporal punishment,

such as reasoning and time out. The study by Luby et al. (2012) also states that the experience of


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a nurturing caregiver early in life has proven to be one of the most essential prerequisites for

healthy development and adaptive functioning in mammals.

Straus also did a cognitive development study in which he tested children of mothers who

used corporal punishment compared to those children whose mothers did not use this kind of

punishment. Straus & Paschalls (2008) study found the following: The study tested the

hypothesis that the use of corporal punishment (CP), such as slapp ing a childs hand or

spanking, is associated with restricted development of cognitive ability. Cognitive ability was

measured at the start of the study and 4 years later for 806 children ages 2-4 and 704 children

ages 5-9 in the National Longitudinal Study of Youth. The analysis controlled for 10 parenting

and demographic variables. Children of mothers in both cohorts who used little or no CP at Time

1 gained cognitive ability faster than children who were not spanked. The more CP experienced,

the more they fell behind children who were not spanked. (Straus & Paschall, 2008)

Effects on behavior

Similar to Luby et al. (2012) in that the research studied parental discipline behavior,

Grogan-Kaylor (2005) analyzed results from a long period of time over the longitudinal nature of

the relationship between parental use of corporal punishment and childrens behavior problems.

Data was derived from the NLSY from the study which had begun in 1979. The NLSY followed

a cohort of young men and woman over time and data from six waves were employed, including

1988, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996, and 1998. The sample size was 6, 912 children. The study

reviewed by Grogan-Kaylor (2005) found that children who experienced higher levels of

corporal punishment manifested more antisocial behavior than children who did not receive


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corporal punishment. There was also an effect of the interaction of corporal punishment and

childrens age on antisocial behavior. Other research suggests that corporal punishment is less

likely to be used with older children, which means that parents may be recognizing the effects of

corporal punishment on antisocial behavior. It was found that boys tended to exhibit slightly

higher levels of antisocial behavior than girls. Poverty was also associated with increases in

antisocial behavior. (Grogan-Kaylor, 2005

A study by Slade and Winslow (2004) much like the study by Grogan-Kaylor also

researched behavior problems in spanked children but alternatively studied those that were aged

0 to 23 months. They found that white, non-Hispanic children who were spanked more

frequently before age 2 were substantially more likely to have behavior problems after entry into

school, controlling other factors. (Slade & Winslow, 2004) Associations between spanking

frequency and behavior problems were not statistically substantial for Hispanic and black

children. The research by Slade and Winslow (2004) although completed over a different age

group, is important in the fact that it signifies how common corporal punishment is in young

children and the effects it can take at such a young age. The tremendous effects that occur at

such a young age can affect a childs behavior for a long period of time later in life.

Rather than doing research on later behavioral effects on children, Gershoff (2010)

conducted a study about how to recognize which behavioral punishment works the best and

which works least. Gershoff found that compared to spanking, barrier enforcement worked

equally well when punishing a child for leaving the time out chair. Findings also showed that

some major unintended effects of corporal punishment were physical injury and abuse, mental


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health problems, eroded quality of childrens relationships with their parents, reduced cognitive

ability, and increased adult aggression and antisocial behavior. Gershoff (2010) states,

Unfortunately, physical punishment, which is often used to enforce chair time outs, models

aggression, may provoke aggressive child reactions, and can distress the child by disrupting the

timeout. She also states that across the studies, although corporal punishment was effective at

getting children to comply in the laboratory situation, it was not significantly better at doing so

than the barrier enforcement time-out strategy.

Effects on social development

Boutwell et al. (2011) studied how gender and environment makes an impact on

antisocial behavior when a child is corporally punished. The study consisted of around 250

children who were observed for the first 4 years of life. The study found that children who scored

higher on the measure of genetic risk and were spanked more often also scored higher on the

measure of childhood antisocial behavior. The researchers concluded that not all children who

are corporally punished develop antisocial behavior problems, but that children who are in bad

environments and have genetic or gender risk factors combined with corporal punishment did

indeed demonstrate antisocial behavior in childhood.

Deficiencies

In the past, research has been conducted over how parents view corporal punishment and

whether or not it is effective. However, there has been little if any research conducted over how

the teachers of children who are spanked at home view this punishment and whether or not it

affects the children in the classroom setting. Teachers are with children most of the day and can


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see if the child is interacting with other children normally, if the child is afraid of adults, if the

child responds to the teacher, etc. By seeing these small, but very important details, a teacher will

know if the child is being maltreated and whether or not she needs to call Child Protective

Services, at which he or she is responsible if child maltreatment is suspected.

Summary

By the time American children reach middle and high school, eighty-five percent have been

physically punished by their parents (Gershoff, 2010). These high prevalence rates are in stark

contrast to the growing consensus within the social and medical sciences that the risks for

substantial harm from corporal punishment outweigh any benefit of immediate child compliance

(Gershoff, 2010). The research that has been conducted over many years has proven that corporal

punishment has negative outcomes on children of all ages on behavior and social development

which leads to negative academic success in the classroom as well. The abundance of research

needs to be more publicized for caregivers and child care workers who need this kind of

information to identify why children may have certain problems that arent obvious elsewhere.

Methodology

The purpose of this quantitative study is to understand how corporal punishment affects children

ages 2-14 and whether or not corporal punishment is an effective way to discipline children. As a

result of the high amount of parents who rely on spanking as the main means of discipline as

well as the high rate of criminal activity around the globe, it is crucial for caregivers and child

advocates to learn as much as possible on the topic of the effects that corporal punishment may

have on children. Information, including parent and teacher completion of the questionnaires via


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PsychData and interviews of the parents and teachers will be collected quantitatively and

analyzed using an ecological perspective

Research Questions

The study will explore corporal punishment and its effects on children ages 2-14 on

behavior, academics, and social development. The following research questions are the guiding

thoughts behind the study:

Quantitative

The following research questions are the guiding thoughts behind the study:

1. Does corporal punishment affect a childs academics?2. Does corporal punishment affect a childs behavior?3. Does corporal punishment affect a childs social development?4. Do parents believe corporal punishment affects a childs academics, behavior and social

development?

5. Do teachers believe corporal punishment affects a childs academics, behavior and socialdevelopment?

Sample

The participants in this study will include one parent and teacher of 100 children. These

participants will be selected based on recruitment and voluntary action. The children whose

parents and teachers will be interviewed will be between the ages of 2 and 14. Phase one of this


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study will consist of parent completion of the Parenting Relationship Questionnaire and

demographic questions online as well as interview questions in person. The teachers of the

children will do the same during this time as well.

Protection of Human Subjects

All human subjects will be protected by voluntarily participating in the study,

participants option to decline to continue in the study at any time, protection of confidentiality,

and protection of physical and emotional security. All parent participants will sign a consent

form prior to the commencement of the child interviews. This consent form will detail all

potential risks and benefits to participants, the purpose of the study, and the methods to be used.

Procedure

This is a quantitative study using quantitative measures in which parents of children ages 2-14

will complete the Parenting Relationship Questionnaire and a demographic questionnaire online

via PsychData. Adults will also answer a few interview questions. Also, the teacher of the

student who is involved in this study will also answer a set of interview questions as well as a

demographic questionnaire via PsychData.

According to PsychCorp (2009) the publisher of the Parenting Relationship

Questionnaire:

The Parenting Relationship Questionnaire (PRQ) is designed to capture a parent's

perspective on the parent-child relationship and can be completed in 10-15 minutes by

the mother, father or other primary caregiver.


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The PRQ has multiple dimensions that are relevant to the development of strong and

healthy parent-child relationships, normative samples, for both female and male raters,

that are closely matched to U.S. Census population estimates, items written at a third

grade reading level, and validity indexes that can be used to detect careless or

exaggerated responding.


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Appendix A

Effects of corporal punishment on children ages 2-14Miranda N. Fillips


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Circle one answer that best reflects your background and who you are.

PARENT SECTION

Demographics:

1. What is your childs age?a. 2-4b. 5-7c. 8-11d. 12-14

2. What is your current marital status?a. Singleb. Marriedc. Separatedd. Divorcede. Living with anotherf. Widowed

3. What is the highest level of education you have completed?a. Grammar schoolb. High school or equivalentc. Vocational/technical school (2 year)d. Some collegee. Bachelors degreef. Masters degreeg. Doctoral degreeh. Professional degree (MD, JD, etc.)i. Other

4. What is your household income?a. Under $10,000b. $10,000 - $19,999c. $20,000 - $29,000d. $30,000 - $39,999e. $40,000 - $49,999


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f. $50,000 - $74,999g. $75,000 - $99,999h. $100,000 - $150,000i. Over $150,000

5. What is the childs gender?a. Maleb. Female

6. How many children do you have?a. 1 childb. 2 childrenc. 3 childrend. 4 or more children

7. What is your ethnicity?a. Caucasian/Whiteb. Hispanicc. Blackd. Arabe. Asianf. Indigenousg. Latinoh. Multiracial

8. What is the primary language spoken in your home?a. Englishb. Spanishc. Arabicd. Other

9. What is your religious affiliation?a. Protestant Christianb. Roman Catholicc. Evangelical Christiand. Jewishe. Muslimf. Hindug. Buddhist


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Interview Questions:

1. How often do you spank your child?a. Once per dayb. Once per weekc. Once per monthd.

Once per every 6 monthse. I never spank my child

2. How often do you and your child play together?a. Once per dayb. Several times per dayc. Few times per weekd. Not often

3. Do you feel you have a secure relationship with your child?a. Yesb.

Noc. Somewhat

4. Does your child come to you with his/her fears/problems/accomplishments/etc?a. Yesb. Noc. Occasionally

5. Do you feel comfortable comforting your child in times of need such as sickness or whenhe/she is fearful?

a. Yesb. Noc. Somewhat

6. Do you and your child eat dinner together?a. Yesb. Noc. Sometimes


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Appendix B

CHILD-PARENT RELATIONSHIP SCALE

Robert C. Pianta

Child:____________________________________ Age:__________Parent:_____________________________________

Please reflect on the degree to which each of the following statements currently applies to yourrelationship with your child. Using the scale below, circle the appropriate number for each item.

Definitely doesnot apply

1

Notreally

2

Neutral,not sure

3

Appliessomewhat

4

Definitelyapplies

5

1. I share an affectionate, warm relationship with my child. 1 2 3 4 5

2. My child and I always seem to be struggling with each other. 1 2 3 4 5

3. If upset, my child will seek comfort from me. 1 2 3 4 5

4. My child is uncomfortable with physical affection or touch from me. 1 2 3 4 5

5. My child values his/her relationship with me. 1 2 3 4 5

6. When I praise my child, he/she beams with pride. 1 2 3 4 5

7. My child spontaneously shares information about himself/herself. 1 2 3 4 58. My child easily becomes angry at me. 1 2 3 4 5

9. It is easy to be in tune with what my child is feeling. 1 2 3 4 5

10. My child remains angry or is resistant after being disciplined. 1 2 3 4 5

11. Dealing with my child drains my energy. 1 2 3 4 5

12. When my child is in a bad mood, I know we're in for a long and difficultday. 1 2 3 4 5

13. My child's feelings toward me can be unpredictable or can changesuddenly. 1 2 3 4 5

14. My child is sneaky or manipulative with me. 1 2 3 4 515. My child openly shares his/her feelings and experiences with me. 1 2 3 4 5

1992 Pianta, University of Virginia.


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Appendix C

Effects of corporal punishment on children ages 2-14Miranda N. Fillips


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Circle one answer that best reflects your background and who you are.

TEACHER SECTION

Demographics:

1. What is your age?a. 25 or underb. 26-40c. 41-55d. 56 and older

2. What is your current marital status?a. Singleb. Marriedc. Separatedd. Divorcede. Living with anotherf. Widowed

3. What is the highest level of education you have completed?a.

Bachelors degree

b. Masters degreec. Doctoral degreed. Professional degree (MD, JD, etc.)

4. What is your household income?a. Under $10,000b. $10,000 - $19,999c. $20,000 - $29,000d. $30,000 - $39,999e. $40,000 - $49,999f. $50,000 - $74,999g. $75,000 - $99,999h. $100,000 - $150,000i. Over $150,000


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5. How much teaching experience have you had?a. 1-2 yearsb. 3-5 yearsc. 6-10 yearsd. 11-20 yearse. More than 20 years

6. How many children are in your classroom?a. Under 10b. 10-25c. 26-30d. Over 30

7. What is your ethnicity?a. Caucasian/Whiteb. Hispanicc. Blackd. Arabe. Asianf. Indigenousg. Latinoh. Multiracial

8. What is your primary language?a.

English

b. Spanishc. Arabicd. Other

9. How many teaching seminars have you attended in the past 5 years?a. 1-3b. 4-5c. 6-7d. 8 or more

10.How long have you worked at this school?a. 1-2 yearsb. 3-5 yearsc. 6-10 yearsd. 11-20 yearse. More than 20 years


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Interview Questions:

1. Have you been to any seminars over child development recently?a. Yes, within the past 6 monthsb. Yes, within the past yearc. Yes, within the past two yearsd.

No, not recentlye. Not at all

2. Does the child behave out of anger with you or other children in the classroom?a. Yes, occasionallyb. Yes, oftenc. Rarelyd. Not at all

3. Does the child act scared, shy or unwilling to answer questions in the classroom?a. Yes, occasionallyb.

Yes, oftenc. Rarely

d. Not at all4. Is the childs parent involved, such as returning papers, phone calls, emails, seem

concerned, etc?

a. Yesb. Noc. Somewhat


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References

Afifi, T. O., Brownridge, D. A., Cox, B. J., & Sareen, J. (2006). Physical punishment, childhood

abuse and psychiatric disorders. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal,

30(10), 1093-1103.

Arif, M., & Rafi, M. (2007). Effects of corporal punishment and psychological treatment on

students' learning and behavior.Journal Of Theory and Practice In Education, 3(2),

171-180.

Boutwell, B. B., Franklin, C. A., Barnes, J. C., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Physical punishment and

childhood aggression: the role of gender and gene-environment interplay.Aggressive

Behavior, 37(6), 559-568.

Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (2005). Explaining corporal punishment of children: a cross-cultural

study. American Anthropologist, 107(4), 609-619.

Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of scientific research on the intended

and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children.Law & Contemporary

Problems, 73(2), 31-56.

Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2005). Corporal punishment and the growth trajectory of children's

antisocial behavior. Child Maltreatment, 10(3), 283-292.


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Harper, F. K., Brown, A. M., Arias, I., & Brody, G. (2006). Corporal punishment and kids: How

do parent support and gender influence child adjustment?.Journal Of Family Violence,

21(3), 197-207

Luby, J. L., Barch, D. M., Belden, A., Gaffrey, M. S., Tiliman, R., Babb, C., & ... Botteron, K.

N. (2012). Maternal support in early childhood predicts larger hippocampal volumes at

school age. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of

America, 109(8), 2854-2859.

Mulvaney, M. K., & Mebert, C. J. (2007). Parental corporal punishment predicts behavior

problems in early childhood.Journal Of Family Psychology, 21(3), 389-397.

Mulvaney, M., & Mebert, C. (2010). Stress appraisal and attitudes towards corporal punishment

as intervening processes between corporal punishment and subsequent mental health.

Journal Of Family Violence, 25(4), 401-412.

Rodriguez, C.M. (2010). Parent-child aggression: association with child abuse potential and

parenting styles. Violence and Victims, 25, 728-741.

Slade, E. P., & Wissow, L. S. (2004). Spanking in early childhood and later behavior

problems: a prospective study of infants and young toddlers. Pediatrics, 113(5),

1321-1330.

Straus, M. A., & Paschall, M. J. (2009). Corporal punishment by mothers and development of

children's cognitive ability: a longitudinal study of two nationally representative age

cohorts.Journal Of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18(5), 459-483.


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Thompson Gershoff, E. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors

and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin,

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Documents

Spring 2012 Research