SponsMechanical andElectrical ServicesPrice Book2011 SponsMechanical andElectrical ServicesPrice BookEdited byDAVIS LANGDON LLPEngineering Services2011Forty-second edition First edition 1968Forty-second edition published 2011by Spon Press2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RNSimultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Spon Press270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 2011 Spon PressThe right of Davis Langdon LLP to be identied as the Author of this Work has been asserted bythem in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988Typeset in Arial by Spon PressPrinted and bound in Great Britain byTJ International Ltd, Padstow, CornwallAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or byany electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, includingphotocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permissionin writing from the publishers.The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of theinformation contained in this book and cannot accept legal responsibility or liability for any errors oromissions that may be made.British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 13: 978-0-415-58851-5 (hardback)ISBN 13: 978-0-203-84609-4 (ebook)ISSN: 0305-4543 ContentspagePreface viiSpecial Acknowledgements ixAcknowledgements xiPART 1: ENGINEERING FEATURESRenewable Energy Options 3Grey Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting 7Ground Water Cooling 11Fuel Cells 17Biomass Energy 23ECAs and the Technology List 29LED Lighting 33Getting the Connection 37Facade Systems 41Typical Engineering Details 47Feed-In Tariffs (FITs) 71PART 2: APPROXIMATE ESTIMATINGDirections 76Cost Indices 77RIBA Stage A Feasibility Costs 80RIBA Stage C Elemental Rates 84All-in-Rates 90Elemental Costs 107PART 3: MATERIAL COSTS/MEASURED WORK PRICESMechanical Installations 135Directions 135R : Disposal Systems 141R10 : Rainwater Pipework/Gutters 141R11 : Above Ground Drainage 166S : Piped Supply Systems 196S10 : Cold Water 196S11 : Hot Water 259S32 : Natural Gas 264S41 : Fuel Oil Storage/Distribution 269S60 : Fire Hose Reels 271S61 : Dry Risers 272S63 : Sprinklers 273S65 : Fire Hydrants 280T : Mechanical/Cooling/Heating Systems 282T10 : Gas/Oil Fired Boilers 282T13 : Packaged Steam Generators 299T31 : Low Temperature Hot Water Heating 300T33 : Steam Heating 393T42 : Local Heating Units 397T60 : Central Refrigeration Plant 398 T61 : Chilled Water 407T70 : Local Cooling Units 415U : Ventilation/Air Conditioning Systems 417U10 : General Ventilation 417U14 : Ductwork: Fire Rated 514U30 : Low Velocity Air Conditioning 536U31 : VAV Air Conditioning 539U41 : Fan Coil Air Conditioning 540U70 : Air Curtains 545Electrical Installations 549Directions 549V : Electrical Supply/Power/Lighting Systems 552V10 : Electrical Generation Plant 552V11 : HV Supply 555V20 : LV Distribution 560V21 : General Lighting 637V22 : General LV Power 646V32 : Uninterruptible Power Supply 655V40 : Emergency Lighting 657W : Communications/Security/Control 662W10 : Telecommunications 662W20 : Radio/Television 665W23 : Clocks 667W30 : Data Transmission 669W40 : Access Control 676W41 : Security Detection and Alarm 677W50 : Fire Detection and Alarm 678W51 : Earthing and Bonding 681W52 : Lightning Protection 682W60 : Central Control/Building Management 687PART 4: RATES OF WAGESMechanical Installations 692Rates of Wages 692Electrical Installations 701Rates of Wages 701PART 5: DAYWORKHeating and Ventilating Industry 708Electrical Industry 712Building Industry Plant Hire Costs 716Tables and Memoranda 729Index 752vi Contents PrefaceThe Forty Second Edition of SPON'S Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book continues to cover the widestrange and depth of services, reecting the many alternative systems and products that are commonly used in theindustry as well as current industry trends.Following six consecutive quarters of falling prices in which the cost of construction dropped 17% from the pricepeak in the second quarter of 2008, the trend came to a halt in the rst quarter of 2010 when average prices edgedup a little. Analysis of tenders received by Davis Langdon in the rst three months of 2010 has shown that priceswere 0.5% higher than in the last quarter of 2009.Key changes Building, mechanical and electrical cost indices saw substantial increases over the last year (though tenderprices have fallen) Most ination measures peaked around July last year Falling fuel prices should ease industrys input costs Very different ination trends between mechanical and electrical services materialsConstruction prices edged up in the rst quarter of 2010 as some materials prices reinforcement, timber andaggregates in particularly rose, and some contractors found it impossible not to pass on some of those increases,having trimmed their labour costs, their preliminaries and their overheads and prot so drastically over the past 18months.Construction prices over the year ahead could be volatile, with prices on some schemes hardening while otherscontinue to fall. There may be a battle between estimators having to reect higher materials prices and directorstrimming tenders to secure workload. Our forecast for the year ahead is that prices will move in the range of 3% to+2%, a wide range but indicative of the project specics that may dictate how things changeHowever, if new construction orders do not increase, then the tendering environment will become ever more com-petitive and 2010 will be a year when rising materials prices particularly steel and copper will vie with the needto secure work to survive.The Mechanical and Electrical Services markets are set to harden even further than expected this year. As legacyprojects are being completed, many contractors are likely to have project teams becoming available in a shrinkingconstruction market. This situation will translate into aggressive commercial adjustments being made in order thatmarket share and position are maintained. The Analysis of M&E tenders still show that whilst the cost of someitems have increased, prots and overheads has fallen and could be expected to fall further in the coming months.Before referring to prices or other information in the book, readers are advised to study the `Directions' which pre-cede each section of the Materials Costs/Measured Work Prices. As before, no allowance has been made in any ofthe sections for Value Added Tax.The order of the book reects the order of the estimating process, from broad outline costs through to detailed unitrate items.The approximate estimating section has been thoroughly reviewed to provide up to date key data in terms ofsquare metre rates, all-in-rates for key elements and selected specialist activities and elemental analyses on acomprehensive range of building types. The prime purpose of the Materials Costs/Measured Work Prices part is to provide industry average prices formechanical and electrical services, giving a reasonably accurate indication of their likely cost. Supplementaryinformation is included which will enable readers to make adjustments to suit their own requirements. It cannot beemphasized too strongly that it is not intended that these prices should be used in the preparation of an actualtender without adjustment for the circumstances of the particular project in terms of productivity, locality, project sizeand current market conditions. Adjustments should be made to standard rates for time, location, local conditions,site constraints and any other factor likely to affect the costs of a specic scheme. Readers are referred to the buildup of the gang rates, where allowances are included for supervision, labour related insurances, and where thepercentage allowances for overhead, prot and preliminaries are dened.Readers are reminded of the service available on the Spons website detailing signicant changes to the publishedinformation: www.pricebooks.co.uk/updatesAs with previous editions the Editors invite the views of readers, critical or otherwise, which might usefully beconsidered when preparing future editions of this work.Whilst every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the information given in this publication, neither the Editorsnor Publishers in any way accept liability for loss of any kind resulting from the use made by any person of suchinformation.In conclusion, the Editors record their appreciation of the indispensable assistance received from the many indivi-duals and organizations in compiling this book.DAVIS LANGDON LLPEngineering ServicesMidCity Place71 High HolbornLondon WC1V 6QTelephone: 0207 061 7000Facsimile: 0207 061 7009viii Preface SpecialAcknowledgementsThe Editors wish to record their appreciation of the special assistance given by the following organizations in thecompilation of this edition.Comunica plcThe Hallmarks146 Field End RoadEastcotePinnerMiddlesexHA5 1RJTel: 020 8429 9696Fax: 020 8429 4982Email: enquiries@comunicaplc.co.ukwww.comunicaplc.co.ukHampden Park Industrial EstateEastbourneEast SussexBN22 9AXTel: 01323 501234Fax: 01323 508752E-Mail: info@Hotchkiss.co.ukwww.Hotchkiss.co.ukABBEY THERMAL INSULATION LTD.23-24, Riverside House,Lower Southend Road, Wickford, Essex SS11 8BBTelephone: 01268 572116- Facsimile: 01268 572117E-mail: general@abbeythermal.comThe Counting House1st Floor53 Tooley StreetLondonSE1 2QNTelephone: 020 7022 8400Fax: 020 7022 8401E-mail: info@mitie.co.ukStanhope House116-118 Walworth RoadLondonSE17 1JYTelephone:e-mail: info@tclarke.co.ukwww.tclarke.co.ukTROX UK LTDCaxton WayThetfordNorfolkIP24 3SQGrilles, Air Filters, FCU's, VAV'sTel: 01842 754545Fax: 01842 763051www.troxuk.co.uk To Order: Tel: +44 (0) 1235 400524 Fax: +44 (0) 1235 400525 or Post: Taylor and Francis Customer Services, Bookpoint Ltd, Unit T1, 200 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4SB Email: book.orders@tandf.co.ukA complete listing of all our books is on: www.sponpress.comSpons Architects and Builders Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONThe most detailed, professionally relevant source of UK construction price information currently available anywhere.New Measured Works items include bio diverse roofs; Clayboard void formers; re resisting glass blocks; more UPVC window options; glazing; insulating panels; more internal door options; blister tactile paving; Metsec SFS framing; Ecosil paint. Approximate Estimating items include lift pits; Corium brick tiles; solar hot water; photovoltaic cells; and polished plaster. New elemental building cost models are added on land remediation; school refurbishment; and ofce refurbishment.Hbk & electronic package*: 1000pp approx.: 978-0-415-58845-4 electronic package only: 978-0-203-84612-4 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDON ENGINEERING SERVICESStill the only comprehensive and up to date annual services engineering price book available for the UK. This year the information on energy has been reworked, along with additional engineering design details and more design schematics.Hbk & electronic package*:640pp approx.: 978-0-415-58851-5 electronic package only:978-0-203-84609-4 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons External Works and Landscape Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONThe only comprehensive source of information for detailed external works and landscape costs.This year provides a number of new Major Works items: a priced preliminary section A, as NBC layout, Klargester petrol interceptors, Terravent soil decompaction, bespoke steel edging and green walls. And Minor Works items: garden lighting infrastructure and low voltage lighting, as well as green walls and Terravent soil decompaction ...and lots of new approximate estimate items.Hbk & electronic package*:424pp approx.: 978-0-415-58849-2 electronic package only:978-0-203-84610-0 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons Civil Engineering and Highway Works Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONMaterials prices are still rising quickly, and tender prices are falling Assumptions on overheads and prots and preliminaries have been kept low. Several items, for example bridge bearing prices, have been signicantly revised.Hbk & electronic package*:800pp approx.: 978-0-415-58847-8 electronic package only:978-0-203-84611-7 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)SPONS PRICE BOOKS 2011*Receive our eBook free when you order any hard copy Spon 2011 Price Book, with free estimating software to help you produce tender documents, customise data, perform word searches and simple calculations. Or buy just the ebook, with free estimating software. Visit www.pricebooks.co.uk AcknowledgementsThe editors wish to record their appreciation of the assistance given by many individuals and organizations in thecompilation of this edition.Manufacturers, Distributors and Sub-Contractors who have contributed this year include: -A C Plastics Industries LtdArmstrong RoadDaneshill EastBasingstoke RG24 8NUGRP Water Storage TanksTel: 01256 329334Fax: 01256 817862www.acplastiques.comActionairJoseph Wilson Ind. EstateSouth StreetWhitstableKent CT5 3DUDampersTel: (01227) 276100Fax: (01227) 264262Email: sales@actionair.co.ukwww.actionair.co.ukAlfa Laval LimitedUnit 1, 6 Wellheads RoadFarburn Industrial EstateDyceAberdeen AB21 7HGHeat ExchangersTel: 01224 424300Fax: 01224 725213www.alfalaval.comAquilar LimitedDial Post CourtHorsham RoadRusperWest Sussex RH12 4QXLeak DetectionTel: 08707 940310Fax: 08707 940320www.aquilar.co.ukAxima Building Services80 Paul StreetLondon EC2A 4UDAbove Ground DrainageTel: (020) 7729 7634Fax: (020) 7729 9756www.axima-uk.comBalmoral TanksBalmoral ParkLoirstonAberdeen AB12 3GYGRP Water Storage TanksTel: 01224 859000Fax: 01224 859123www.balmoral-group.comBiddle Air Systems LtdSt. Mary's Road, NuneatonWarwickshire CV11 5AUAir CurtainsTel: +44 (0) 24 7638 4233Fax: +44 (0) 24 7637 3621Email: info@biddle-air.co.ukBraithwaite Engineers LtdNeptune WorksUskwayNewportSouth Wales NP9 2UYSectional Steel Water Storage TanksTel: 01633 262141Fax: 01633 250631www.braithwaite.co.uk Broadcrown LimitedAlliance WorksAireld Industrial EstateHixonStaffs ST18 0PFGeneratorsTel: 01889 272200Fax: 01889 272220www.broadcrown.co.ukCaradon Stelrad Ideal BoilersPO Box 103National AvenueKingston-upon-HallNorth Humberside HU5 4JNBoilers/Heating ProductsTel: 08708 400030Fax: 08708 400059www.rycroft.comCarrier Air ConditioningUnited Technologies HouseGuildford RoadLeatherheadSurrey KT22 9UTChilled Water PlantTel: 0870 6001100Fax: 01372 220221www.carrier.uk.comChloride Power ProtectionUnit C, George Curl WaySouthampton SO18 2RYStatic UPS SystemsTel: 023 8061 0311Fax: 023 8061 0852www.chloridepower.comCommunicaChatteris AireldNear MarchCambridgeshire PE15 0EATelephone CablesTel: 01354 742340www.communicaplc.co.ukCooper Lighting and SecurityLondon Project OfceSuite 8, King Harold CourtSun StreetWaltham AbbeyEssex EN9 1EREmergency Lighting and LuminairesTel: 01302 303303Fax: 01392 367155www.cooper-ls.comDanfoss Flowmetering LtdMago HouseEbley RoadStonehouseGlos GL10 2LUEnergy MetersTel: 01453 828891Fax: 01453 853860www.danfoss-randall.co.ukDewey Waters LimitedCoxs GreenWringtonBristol BS40 5QSTanksTel: 01934 862601Fax: 01934 862604www.deweywaters.co.ukDunham-Bush Limited8 Downley RoadHavantHampshire PO9 2JDConvectors and HeatersTel: 02392 477700Fax: 02392 450396www.dunham-bush.comEMS Radio Fire & Security Systems LimitedTechnology HouseSea StreetHerne BayKent CT6 8JZSecurityTel: 01227 369570Fax: 01227 369679www.emsgroup.co.ukxii Acknowledgements Engineering Appliances LtdUnit 11Sunbury Cross Ind EstBrooklands CloseSunbury On Thames TW16 7DXExpansion Joints, Air and Dirt SeparatorsTel: 01932 788888Fax: 01932 761263Email: info@engineering-appliances.co.ukwww.engineeringappliances.comEnviroplas LimitedUnit 2Shepard Cross StreetLancashireBoltonBL1 3DEPlastic DuctworkTel: 01204 844744Fax: 01204 841500Email: sales@enviroplas.co.ukFCS Ductwork Limited3rdFloorThomas Telford House1 Heron QuayCanary WharfLondon E14 5JDFire-Rated DuctworkTel: (020) 7987 7692Fax: (020) 7537 5627www.fcsgroup.co.ukFKI Hawker SiddeleyFalcon WorksP O Box 7713Meadow LaneLoughboroughLeicestershire LE11 1ZFHV Supply, Cables and HV Switchgear andTransformersTel: 01495 331024Fax: 01495 331019www.fkiswitchgear.comFlakt Woods LimitedAxial WayColchester CO4 5ZDFansTel: 01206 222555Fax: 01206 222777Hall Fire Protection Limited186 Moorside RoadSwintonManchester M27 9HAFire Protection EquipmentTel: 0161 793 4822Fax: 0161 794 4950www.hallre.co.ukHalton5 Waterside Business ParkWithamEssex CM8 3YQChilled BeamsTel: 01376 503040Fax: 01376 503060www.haltongroup.comHattersley, Newman, Hender LtdBurscough RoadOrmskirkLancashire L39 2XGValvesTel: 01695 577199Fax: 01695 578775Email: uksales@hattersley-valves.co.ukwww.hattersley.comHitec Power Protection LimitedUnit B21aHolly Farm Business ParkHonileyKenilworthWarwickshire CV8 1NPUninterruptible Power Supply (Rotary/Diesel)Tel: 01926 484535Fax: 01926 484336www.hitecups.co.ukAcknowledgements xiii Honeywell CS LimitedHoneywell HouseAnchor BoulevardCrossways Business ParkDartfordKent DA2 6QHControl ComponentsTel: 01322 484800Fax: 01322 484898www.honeywell.comHoval LimitedNorthgateNewarkNotts NG24 1JNBoilersTel: 01636 672711Fax: 01636 673532www.hoval.co.ukHRS Hevac Ltd10-12 Caxton WayWatford Business ParkWatfordHerts WD18 8JYHeat ExchangersTel: 01923 232335Fax: 01923 230266www.hrshevac.co.ukHudevadBridge HouseBridge StreetWalton on ThamesRadiatorsTel: 01932 247835Fax: 01932 247694www.hudevad.co.ukHydrotec (UK) LimitedHydrotec House5 Mannor CourtyardHughenden AvenueHigh Wycombe HP13 5REChemical TreatmentTel: 01494 796040Fax: 01494 796049www.hydrotec.comIACIEC HouseMoorside RoadWinchesterHampshire SO23 7USAttenuatorsTel: 01962 873000Fax: 01962 873102www.industrialacoustics.comIC Service & Maintenance LtdUnit K3 Temple CourtKnights PlaceKnight RoadStroodKent ME2 2LTFire Detection & AlarmTel: 01634 290300Fax: 01634 290700www.icservice.bizIdeal BoilersP O Box 103National AvenueKingston Upon HullEast Yorkshire HU5 4JNBoilersTel: 01482 492251Fax: 01482 448858www.idealboilers.comKampmannBenson Environmental Limited47 Central AvenueWest MoleseySurrey KT8 2QZTrench HeatingTel: (020) 8783 0033Fax: (020) 8783 0140www.diffusionenv.comKiddie Fire Protection ServicesEnterprise HouseJasmine GroveLondon SE20 8JWFire Protection EquipmentTel: (020) 8659 7235Fax: (020) 8659 7237www.kfp.co.ukxiv Acknowledgements Metcraft LtdHarwood Industrial EstateLittlehamptonWest Sussex BN17 7BBOil Storage TanksTel: 01903 714226Fax: 01903 723206www.metcraft.co.ukMitsubishi Electric Europe B.V.Unit 8, Electra ParkBidder StreetCanning TownLondon E16 4ESLifts and EscalatorsTel (switchboard): 0207 511 5664www.mitsubishi-lifts.co.ukOsma Underoor Heating18 Apple LaneSowton Trade CityExeterDevon EX2 5GLUnderoor HeatingTel: 01392 444122Fax: 01392 444135www.osmaufh.co.ukPullen Pumps Limited158 Beddington LaneCroydon CR9 4PTPumps, Booster SetsTel: (020) 8684 9521Fax: (020) 8689 8892www.pullenpumps.co.ukReliance Hi-techBoundary HouseCricketeld RoadUxbridgeMiddlesex UB8 1QGAccess Control and Security Detection and AlarmTel: 01895 205000Fax: 01895 205100www.reliancesecurity.co.ukRycroftDuncombe RoadBradford BD8 9TBStorage CylindersTel: 01274 490911Fax: 01274 498580www.rycroft.comSanber Ltd3 Newnham StreetAstley BridgeBoltonBL1 8QAPlastic DuctworkTel: 01204 596 015Fax: 01204 598 751Email: jane.holland@sanberlabservices.co.ukwww.sanberlabservices.co.ukSchneider Electric Limited120 New Cavendish StreetLondon W1W 6XXTel: 0870 608 8608www.schneider-electric.comSF LimitedPottington Business ParkBarnstapleDevon EX31 1LZFluesTel: 01271 326633Fax: 01271 334303Simmtronic LimitedWatersideCharlton Mead LaneHoddesdonHertfordshire EN11 0QRLighting ControlsTel: 01992 456869Fax: 01992 445132www.simmtronic.comAcknowledgements xv Socomec LimitedKnowl PieceWilbury WayHitchinHertfordshire SG4 0TYAutomatic Transfer SwitchesTel: 01462 440033Fax: 01462 431143www.socomec.comSpirax-Sarco LtdCharlton HouseCheltenhamGloucestershire GL53 8ERTraps and ValvesTel: 01242 521361Fax: 01242 573342www.spiraxsarco.comTyco LimitedUnit 6 West Point Enterprize ParkClarence AvenueTrafford ParkManchester M17 1QSFire ProtectionTel: 0161 875 0400Fax: 0161 875 0491www.tyco.comUtile Engineering Company LtdIrthlingboroughNorthants NN9 5UGGas BoostersTel: 01933 650216Fax: 01933 652738www.utileengineering.comWoods of ColchesterTufnell WayColchesterEssex CO4 5ARAir Distribution, Fans, Anti-vibration mountingsTel: 01206 544122Fax: 01206 574434xvi Acknowledgements thinkingwww.davislangdon.com Get more from your Spon Price Libraries Everything you need to price work quickly and accurately using your own rates together with your Spon Price libraries. 9 Resource Library - Keep all your costs up-to-date and in one place 9 Organiser To Do Lists. Link Contacts to jobs and resources 9 Price Lists - Access to the latest product prices from your key suppliers 9 Integrated Spon Price Libraries Access to a range of industry standard Price libraries 9 Custom Rate Library - Maintain your own item library (with full build ups) 9 Composite Items - Save time by selecting a single item covering multiple tasks 9 BoQ Preparation - Deliver professional documents to clients and colleagues 9 Project Comparison Compare similar jobs by cost; profit; type. Area rate comparisons 9 Live Data views Watch the effect of your changes in tables or easy to view charts 9 Import From MS Excel Fast, accurate data import from an industry standard format 9 Output to Microsoft Applications - Excel, Project 9 Fully Customisable Each user can have their own screen layouts (saved) Fast Estimate shares the same clear pricing processes as Spon Estimating, but with more pricing tools to give you outstanding control over your tender documents. Download your FREE trial copy: www.estek.co.uk Or call 01764 655331 bigGlobal construction consultantsCost Management | Project Management | Program Management | Banking Tax & Finance | Building Surveying | Design Project Management | Engineering Services | Health & Safety Services | Legal Support | Management Consulting | Mixed-use Masterplanning | Specication Consulting | Value Planning & Riskwww.davislangdon.comThinking Big To Order: Tel: +44 (0) 1235 400524 Fax: +44 (0) 1235 400525 or Post: Taylor and Francis Customer Services, Bookpoint Ltd, Unit T1, 200 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4SB Email: book.orders@tandf.co.ukA complete listing of all our books is on: www.sponpress.comSpons Architects and Builders Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONThe most detailed, professionally relevant source of UK construction price information currently available anywhere.New Measured Works items include bio diverse roofs; Clayboard void formers; re resisting glass blocks; more UPVC window options; glazing; insulating panels; more internal door options; blister tactile paving; Metsec SFS framing; Ecosil paint. Approximate Estimating items include lift pits; Corium brick tiles; solar hot water; photovoltaic cells; and polished plaster. New elemental building cost models are added on land remediation; school refurbishment; and ofce refurbishment.Hbk & electronic package*: 1000pp approx.: 978-0-415-58845-4 electronic package only: 978-0-203-84612-4 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDON ENGINEERING SERVICESStill the only comprehensive and up to date annual services engineering price book available for the UK. This year the information on energy has been reworked, along with additional engineering design details and more design schematics.Hbk & electronic package*:640pp approx.: 978-0-415-58851-5 electronic package only:978-0-203-84609-4 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons External Works and Landscape Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONThe only comprehensive source of information for detailed external works and landscape costs.This year provides a number of new Major Works items: a priced preliminary section A, as NBC layout, Klargester petrol interceptors, Terravent soil decompaction, bespoke steel edging and green walls. And Minor Works items: garden lighting infrastructure and low voltage lighting, as well as green walls and Terravent soil decompaction ...and lots of new approximate estimate items.Hbk & electronic package*:424pp approx.: 978-0-415-58849-2 electronic package only:978-0-203-84610-0 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)Spons Civil Engineering and Highway Works Price Book 2011DAVIS LANGDONMaterials prices are still rising quickly, and tender prices are falling Assumptions on overheads and prots and preliminaries have been kept low. Several items, for example bridge bearing prices, have been signicantly revised.Hbk & electronic package*:800pp approx.: 978-0-415-58847-8 electronic package only:978-0-203-84611-7 (inc. sales tax where appropriate)SPONS PRICE BOOKS 2011*Receive our eBook free when you order any hard copy Spon 2011 Price Book, with free estimating software to help you produce tender documents, customise data, perform word searches and simple calculations. Or buy just the ebook, with free estimating software. Visit www.pricebooks.co.uk PART 1Engineering FeaturesThis section on Engineering Features, deals with current issues and/or technical advancements within the industry.These shall be complimented by cost models and/or itemized prices for items that form part of such.The intention is that the book shall develop to provide more than just a schedule of prices to assist the user in thepreparation and evaluation of costs. Renewable Energy Options Grey Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting Ground Water Cooling Fuel Cells Biomass Energy ECAs and the Technology List LED Lighting Getting the Connection Facade Systems Typical Engineering Details Feed-In Tariffs (FITs) ESSENTIAL READING FROM TAYLOR AND FRANCISTo Order: Tel: +44 (0) 1235 400524 Fax: +44 (0) 1235 400525 or Post: Taylor and Francis Customer Services, Bookpoint Ltd, Unit T1, 200 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4TA UK Email: book.orders@tandf.co.ukFor a complete listing of all our titles visit:www.tandf.co.ukApril 2010: 234x156: 480ppHb: 978-0-415-46565-6: 120.00Spons Asia-Pacic Construction Costs Handbook4th EditionEdited by Davis Langdon & SeahSpons Asia Pacic Construction Costs Handbook includes construction cost data for 20 countries. This new edition has been extended to include Pakistan and Cambodia. Australia, UK and America are also included, to facilitate comparison with construction costs elsewhere. Information is presented for each country in the same way, as follows: key dala on lhe main economic and conslruclion indicalors. an oulline ol lhe nalional conslruclion induslry, covering slruclure, lendering and conlracl procedures, materials cost data, regulations and standards labour and malerials cosl dala Measured rales lor a range ol slandard conslruclion work ilems Approximale eslimaling cosls per unil area lor a range ol building lypes price index dala and exchange rale movemenls againsl slerling, $US and Japanese Yen The book also includes a Comparative Data section to facilitate country-to-country comparisons. Figures from the national sections are grouped in tables according to national indicators, construction output, input costs and costs per square metre for factories, ofces, warehouses, hospitals, schools, theatres, sports halls, hotels and housing.This unique handbook will be an essential reference for all construction professionals involved in work outside their own country and for all developers or multinational companies assessing comparative development costs. Renewable Energy OptionsThis article focuses on building-integrated options rather than large-scale utility solutions such as wind farms, whichare addressed separately, and provides an analysis of where they may be best installed.The Legislative Background, Imperatives and IncentivesIn recognition of likely causes and effects of global climate change, the Kyoto protocol was signed by the UK andother nations in 1992, with a commitment to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases relative to 1990 as the baseyear.The rst phase of European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) covers the power sector and high-energyusers such as oil reneries, metal processing, mineral and paper pulp industries. From 1 January 2005, all suchcompanies in all 25 EU member states must limit their CO2 emissions to allocated levels in line with Kyoto. The EUETS principle is that participating organizations can: Meet the targets by reducing their own emissions, or Exceed the targets and sell or bank their excess emission allowances, or Fail to meet the targets and buy emission allowances from other participants.These targets can only be met by either energy efciency measures or making using more renewable energyinstead of that derived from fossil fuels.In the UK, the Utilities Act (2000) requires power suppliers to provide some electricity from renewables, starting at3% in 2003 and rising to15% by 2015. In a similar way to EU ETS, generating companies receive and can tradeRenewables Obligation Certicates (ROCs) for the qualifying electricity that they generate. For small renewablegenerators, Renewable Energy Guarantee of Origin Certicates (REGOs) has been introduced, in units of 1 kWh.The initial focus is on Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and the goals set by the UK government are: 20% emission reduction by 2010 (and 10% of UK electricity from renewable sources) 60% emission reduction by 2050 Real progress towards the 60% by 2020 (and 20% of UK electricity from renewable sources)Four years after the introduction of ROCS, it was estimated that less than 3% of UK electricity was being generatedfrom renewable sources. A step change in policy was required, and the Ofce of the Deputy Prime Minister(ODPM) published Planning Policy Statement 22 (PPS 22): Renewable Energy in order to promote renewableenergy through the UKs regional and local planning authorities.Local Planning & Building RegulationsMore than 100 local authorities have already embraced PPS 22 and its Companion Guide published in December2004, by adopting pro-renewables planning policies. Others are expected to follow; the typical requirement is for10% of a sites electricity or heat to be derived from renewable sources, but at least one authority has alreadyraised the bar to 15%. The London Plan states that The Mayor will and boroughs should require major develop-ments to show how the development would generate a proportion of the sites electricity or heat from renewables. Energy Performance Certicates (EPC)The EUDirective on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) requires that Energy Performance Certicates mustbe prominently placed on all buildings open to the public and commercial buildings built, sold or let from January2006, thus enabling prospective purchasers and tenants to be more aware of a buildings energy performance.Assessing the carbon emissions associated with the operation of buildings is now an important part of the overallearly design process for planning approval. Methods are set out in: Part L of the UK Building Regulations: (Conservation of fuel & power) BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for Energy RatingOn-site renewable energy sources are taken into account, but developers are not allowed to rely on any greentariff as part of an assessment.Technology Options and Applications Wind Generators In a suitable location, wind energy can be an effective source of renewable powergeneration. Even without grant aid, an installed cost range of 2500 to 5000 per kW of generator capacityhas been established over the past few years. The most common arrangement is a machine with threeblades on a horizontal axis; all mounted on a tower or, increasingly for small generators in inner city areas,on top of a building. Average site wind speeds of 4 m/s can produce useful amounts of energy from a smallgenerator up to say 3 kW, but larger generators require at least 7 m/s. A small increase in average site windspeed will produce a large increase in the output power. There is a need for inverters, synchronizingequipment and metering for a grid connection.Third party provision through an Energy Service Company (ESCo) can be successful for larger installationsco-located with or close to the host building, especially in industrial settings where there may be less aes-thetic or noise issues than inner city ofce or residential. The ESCo provides funding, installs and operatesthe plant and the client signs up for the renewable electrical energy at a xed price for a period of time. Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) Photovoltaic materials, commonly known as solar cells, gen-erate direct current electrical power when exposed to light. Solar cells are constructed from semi-conductingmaterials that absorb solar radiation; electrons are displaced within the material, thus starting a ow of currentthrough an external connected circuit. Conversion efciency of solar energy to electrical power is improvingwith advances in technology and ranges from 7% to 18% under laboratory conditions. In practice, however,allowing for typical UK weather conditions, an installation of at least 7 m2of the latest high-efciency hybridmodules is needed to produce 1000 watts peak (1kWp), yielding perhaps 800kWh in a year. Installed costsrange from 300 to 450/m2for roof covering, and from 850 to 1300/m2for laminated glass. Ground Source Heat Pumps The ground temperature remains substantially constant throughout the yearand heat can be extracted by circulating a uid (normally water) through a system of pipes and into a heatexchanger. An electrically driven heat pump is then used to raise the uid temperature via the compressioncycle, and hot water is delivered to the building load as if from a normal boiler (albeit at a somewhat lowertemperature than a normal boiler).Most ground heat systems consist of a cluster of pipes inserted into vertical holes typically 50 to 100 metresdeep depending on space and ground type. Costs for the drilling operation vary according to location, siteaccess and ground conditions. A geological investigation may be needed minimize the risk of failure and toimprove cost certainty.Such systems can achieve a Coefcient of Performance (COP = heat output /electrical energy input) ofbetween 3 and 4, achieving good savings of energy compared with conventional fossil fuels. Installed costsare in the range 800 to 1200/kW depending on system size and complexity.4 Renewable Energy Options Borehole Cooling The constant ground temperature is well below ambient air temperature during thesummer, so coolth can be extracted and used to replace or, more likely commercially, to supplement con-ventional building cooling systems. Such borehole systems may be either open discharging ground waterto river or sewer after passing it through a heat exchanger, or closed circulating a uid (often water)through a heat exchanger and vertical pipes extending below the water table.Ground source heating and cooling systems are only partial renewable energy because they rely on elec-trical power, mainly for pumping. Considerable carbon savings can be justiably claimed, however, byavoiding the use of fossil fuel for heating and electrical power to drive conventional chillers. Indicativesystem costs are from 200 to 250/kW. Solar Water Heating Simple at-plate water-based collector panels have been used successfully onSouth-facing roofs over many years in the UK especially by DIY enthusiasts prepared to devise their ownsimple control systems. The basic principle is to collect heat from the sun and circulate it to pre-heat spaceheating or domestic hot water, in either a separate tank or a twin coil hot water cylinder. Purpose-designed,evacuated tube collectors have been developed to increase performance and a typical 4m2installed resi-dential system has a cost range from 2500 to 4000 depending on pipe runs and complexity. Such asystem could produce approximately 2000kWh saving in energy use per year. Commercial systems aresimply larger and slightly more complex but should achieve similar performance; low-density residential,retail and leisure developments with washrooms and showers may be suitable applications having adequatedemand for hot water. Biomass Boilers Wood chips or pellets derived from waste or farmed coppices or forests are availablecommercially and are considered carbon neutral, having absorbed carbon dioxide during growth. With asuitable fuel storage hopper and automatic screw drive and controls, biomass boilers can replace conven-tional boilers with little technical or aesthetic impact. They do, however, depend on a viable source of fuel,and there is a requirement for ash removal/disposal as well as periodic de-coking. In individual dwellings,space may be a problem because a biomass boiler does not integrate readily into a typical modern kitchen.Biomass boilers are available in a wide range of domestic and commercial sizes. For a large installation,they are more likely to form part of a modular system rather than to displace conventional boilers entirely.There is a cost premium for the biomass storage and feed system, and the cost of the fuel is currentlycomparable with other solid fuels. As an addition to a conventional system, installed costs could range from200 to 250/kW. Biomass Combined Heat & Power (CHP) Conventional CHP installations consist of either an internalcombustion engine or a gas turbine driving an alternator, with maximum recovery of heat, particularly fromthe exhaust system. For best efciency, there needs to be a convenient and constant requirement for theoutput heat energy, and the generated electricity should also be utilized locally, with any excess exported tothe grid.Unless a source of fuel is available from landll gas, or from a local biomass digester, then an on-site bio-mass to gas conversion plant would be needed to fuel the CHP engine. Considering the cost implications forbiomass storage and handling as described for boilers, it appears that biomass CHP will only be viable inspecic circumstances, with installed system costs in the order of 2500 to 3000/kW (electrical).Renewable Energy Options 5 Investment yield table for various renewable technologiesIt can be quite difcult to compare renewable options in terms of how much energy they might save on a particularproject, and how that translates into CO2, especially if more than one option appears to be feasible. The tableillustrates the potential saving per 100,000 of renewable investment i.e. 100,000 is the notional extra over costof introducing a proportion of renewable energy into the particular building service. Grant aid has been ignored inthe table.The photovoltaic options indicated include no allowance for the displacement of conventional building fabric. Inpractice, the yield per 100,000 may be higher, e.g. if PV is fully-integrated.Renewable technology CandidatebuildingsPrerequisites Potential barriers Annual saving per100,000 of capital costkWh Kg CO2Tower-mounted windgeneratorsA F Environmental impact. Sitespace for large turbines100,000 43,000 c.f. elec.Building-mountedmicro windB G Environmental impact. Roofspace for small turbines.40,000 17,200 c.f. elec.*Photovoltaic roof or panels B H Available roof space 12,500 5,375 c.f. elec.*Photovoltaic rain screenor glassC H None 9,000 3,870 c.f. elec.Passive solar water heating D J None 50,000 9,500 c.f. gasGround source heat pump B K Site space for pipes 40,000 7,600 c.f. gasBorehole cooling D K Site space for pipes 12,000 5,160 c.f. elec.Biomass boilers B L Environmental impact,& maintenance100,000 19,000 c.f. gasBiomass CHP E M Environmental impact,& maintenance28,000+ 63,00012,000 c.f. elec.+ 12,000 c.f. gasKey:A Industrial, distribution centres G Average site wind speed minimum 3.5m/sB Most types of building H Roughly south-facing, un-shadedC Prestige ofces or retail J Roughly south-facing, un-shaded for hot waterD Residential and commercial, hotels & leisure K Feasible ground conditionsE Industrial, Hotel, leisure, hospital L Space and convenient source of fuelF Average site wind speed minimum 7 m/s M Space & convenient source of fuel for summer heatThe following exclusions relate to all of the aforementioned indicative costs:Ination beyond second quarter 2005, maintenance charges, general builders work, main contractors overheads,prot and attendance, main contract preliminaries, professional and prescribed fees, contingency and designreserve, grant aid, tax allowances, Value Added Tax. Price levels indicated are based on provincial locations.6 Renewable Energy Options Grey Water Recycling andRainwater HarvestingThe potential for grey water recycling and rainwater harvesting for both domestic residential and for var-ious types of commercial building, considering the circumstances in which the systems offer benets, bothas stand-alone installations and combined.Water Usage TrendsWater usage in the UK has increased dramatically over last century or so and it is still accelerating. The currentaverage per capita usage is estimated to be at least 150 litres per day, and the population is predicted to rise from60 million now to 65 million by 2017 and to 75 million by 2031, with an attendant increase in loading on watersupply and drainage infrastructures.Even at the current levels of consumption, it is clear from recent experience that long, dry summers can expose thedrier regions of the UK to water shortages and restrictions. The predicted effects of climate change include reducedsummer rainfall, more extreme weather patterns, and an increase in the frequency of exceptionally warm drysummers. This is likely to result in a corresponding increase in demand to satisfy more irrigation of gardens, parks,additional usage of sports facilities and other open spaces, together with additional needs for agriculture. The neteffect, therefore, at least in the drier regions of the UK, is for increased demand coincident with a reduction in waterresource, thereby increasing the risk of shortages.Water Applications and Re-use OpportunitiesAverage domestic water utilization can be summarized as follows, as a percentage of total usage (Source: ThreeValleys Water) Wash hand basin 8% Toilet 35% Dishwasher 4% Washing machine 12% Shower 5% Kitchen sink 15% Bath 15% External use 6%Water for drinking and cooking makes up less than 20% of the total, and more than a third of the total is used fortoilet ushing. The demand for garden watering, although still relatively small, is increasing year by year and coin-cides with summer shortages, thereby exacerbating the problem.In many types of building it is feasible to collect rainwater from the roof area and to store it, after suitable ltration,in order to meet the demand for toilet ushing, cleaning, washing machines and outdoor use thereby saving inmany cases a third of the water demand. The other, often complementary recycling approach, is to collect anddisinfect grey water the waste water from baths, showers and washbasins. Hotels, leisure centres, care homesand apartment blocks generate large volumes of waste water and therefore present a greater opportunity forrecycling. With intelligent design, even ofces can make worthwhile water savings by recycling grey water, notnecessarily to ush all of the toilets in the building but perhaps just those in one or two primary cores, with the greywater plant and distribution pipework dimensioned accordingly. Intuitively, rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling seem like the right things to do and rainwater harvestingis already common practice in many counties in Northern continental Europe. In Germany, for example, some60,000 to 80,000 systems are being installed every year compared with perhaps 2,000 systems in the UK. Greywater recycling systems, which are less widespread than rainwater harvesting, have been developed over the last20 years and the state of the art is to use biological and UV (ultra-violet) disinfection rather than chemicals, and toreduce the associated energy use through advanced technology membrane micro lters.In assessing the environmental credentials of new developments, the sustainable benets are recognized by theBuilding Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) whereby additional points can begained for efcient systems those designed to achieve enough water savings to satisfy at least 50% of the rele-vant demand. Furthermore, rainwater harvesting systems from several manufacturers are included in the EnergyTechnology Product List and thereby qualify for Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs). Claims are allowed not onlyfor the equipment, but also to directly associated project costs including: Transportation the cost of getting equipment to the site Installation cranage (to lift heavy equipment into place), project management costs and labour, plus anynecessary modications to the site or existing equipment Professional Fees if they are directly related to the acquisition and installation of the equipmentRainwater HarvestingA typical domestic rainwater harvesting system can be installed at reasonable cost if properly designed andinstalled at the same time as building the house. The collection tank can either be buried or installed in a basementarea. Rainwater enters the drainage system through sealed gullies and passes through a pre-lter to removeleaves and other debris before passing into the collection tank. A submersible pump, under the control of themonitoring and sensing panel, delivers recycled rainwater on demand. The non-potable distribution pipework to thewashing machine, cleaners tap, outside tap and toilets etc could be either a boosted system or congured for aheader tank in the loft, with mains supply back-up, monitors and sensors located there instead of at the controlpanel.Calculating the collection tank size brings into play the concept of system efciency relating the water volumesaved to the annual demand. In favourable conditions ample rainfall and large roof collection area it would bepossible in theory to achieve almost 100%. In practice, systems commonly achieve 50 to 70% efciency, withenough storage to meet demand for typically one week, though this is subject to several variables. As well asreducing the demand for drinking quality mains supply water, rainwater harvesting tanks act as an effective stormwater attenuator, thereby reducing the drainage burden and the risk of local ooding which is a benet to the widercommunity. Many urban buildings are located where conditions are unfavourable for rainwater harvesting lowrainfall and small roof collection area. In these circumstances it may still be worth considering water savingsthrough grey water recycling.Grey Water RecyclingIn a grey water recycling system, waste water from baths, showers and washbasins is collected by conventionalttings and pipework, to enter a pre-treatment sedimentation tank which removes the larger dirt particles. This isfollowed by the aerobic treatment tank in which cleaning bacteria ensure that all bio-degradable substances arebroken down. The water then passes onto a third tank, where an ultra-ltration membrane removes all particleslarger than 0.00005mm, (this includes viruses and bacteria) effectively disinfecting the recycled grey water. Theclean water is then stored in the fourth tank from where it is pumped on demand under the control of monitors andsensors in the control panel. Recycled grey water may then be used for toilet and urinal ushing, for laundry andgeneral cleaning, and for outdoor use such as vehicle washing and garden irrigation a substantial water savingfor premises such as hotels. If the tank becomes depleted, the distribution is switched automatically to the mainswater back-up supply. If there is insufcient plant room space, then the tanks may be buried but with adequatearrangements for maintenance access. Overow soakaways are recommended where feasible but are not aninherent part of the rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling systems.8 Grey Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting Combined Rainwater/Grey Water SystemsRainwater can be integrated into a grey water scheme with very little added complication other than increased tanksize. In situations where adequate rainwater can be readily collected and diverted to pre-treatment, then heavydemands such as garden irrigation can be met more easily than with grey water alone. An additional benet is thatthey reduce the risk of ooding by keeping collected storm water on site instead of passing it immediately into thedrains.Indicative System Cost and Payback ConsiderationsRainwater Harvesting Scenario: Ofce building in Leeds having a roof area of 2000m and accommodating 435people over 3 oors. Local annual rainfall is 875mm and the application is for toilet and urinal ushing. An under-ground collection tank of 25,000 litres has been specied to give 4.5 storage days.Rainwater harvesting cost breakdown Cost System tanks and lters and controls 18,000Mains water back-up and distribution pump arrangement 4,000Non-potable distribution pipework 1,000Connections to drainage 1,000Civil works and tank installation (assumption normal ground conditions) 7,000System installation & commissioning 2,000TOTAL COST 33,000Rainwater Harvesting Payback ConsiderationsAnnual water saving: 1100m @ average cost 2.00 / m = 2200Annual Maintenance and system energy cost = 700Indicative payback period = 33,000/1,500 = 22 yearsGrey water recycling scenario: Urban leisure hotel building with 200 bedrooms offers little opportunity for rainwaterharvesting but has a grey water demand of up to 12000 litres per day for toilet and urinal ushing, plus a laundry.The grey water recycling plant is located in a basement plant room.Grey water recycling cost breakdown Cost System tanks and controls 34,000Mains water back-up and distribution pump arrangement 4,000Non-potable distribution pipework 4,000Grey water waste collection pipework 4,500Connections to drainage 1,000System installation & commissioning 5,000TOTAL COST 52,500Grey Water Recycling Payback ConsiderationsAnnual water saving: 4260m @ average cost 2.00 / m = 8,520Annual Maintenance and system energy cost = 2,000Indicative payback period = 52,500/6,520 = 8 yearsGrey Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting 9 Exclusions Site organization and management costs other than specialist contractors allowances Contingency/design reserve Main contractors overhead and prot or management fee Professional fees Tax allowances Value Added Tax Ination beyond third quarter 2007ConclusionsThere is a justied and growing interest in saving and recycling water by way of both grey water recycling andrainwater harvesting. The nancial incentive at todays water cost is not great for small or inefcient systems butwater costs are predicted to rise and demand to increase not least as a result of population growth.The payback periods for the above scenarios are not intended to compare to potential payback periods of rainwaterharvesting against grey water recycling but rather to illustrate the importance of choosing horses for courses. Theofce building with its relatively small roof area and limited demand for toilet ushing results in a fairly inefcientsystem. Burying the collection tank also adds a cost so that payback exceeds 20 years. Payback periods of lessthan 10 years are feasible for buildings with large roofs and a large demand for toilet ushing or for other uses.Therefore sports stadia, exhibition halls, supermarkets, schools and similar structures are likely to be suitable.The hotel scenario is good application for grey water recycling. Many hotels and residential developments willgenerate more than enough grey water to meet the demand for toilet ushing etc. and in these circumstances largequantities of water can be saved and recycled with attractive payback periods.10 Grey Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting Ground Water CoolingThe use of ground water cooling systems, considering the technical and cost implications of this renew-able energy technology.The application of ground water cooling systems is quickly becoming an established technology in the UK withnumerous installations having been completed for a wide range of building types, both new build and existing(refurbished).Buildings in the UK are signicant users of energy, accounting for 60% of UK carbon emissions in relation to theirconstruction and occupation. The drivers for considering renewable technologies such as groundwater cooling arewell documented and can briey be summarized as follows: Government set targets The Energy White Paper, published in 2003, setting a target of producing 10% ofUK electricity from renewable sources by 2010 and the aspiration of doubling this by 2020. The proposed revision to the Building Regulations Part L 2006, in raising the overall energy efciency of nondomestic buildings, through the reduction in carbon emissions, by 27%. Local Government policy for sustainable development. In the case of London, major new developments (i.e.City of London schemes over 30,000m2) are required to demonstrate how they will generate a proportion ofthe sites delivered energy requirements from on-site renewable sources where feasible. The GLAs expec-tation is that, overall, large developments will contribute 10% of their energy requirement using renewables,although the actual requirement will vary from site to site. Local authorities are also likely to set lower targetsfor buildings which fall below the GLAs renewables threshold. Company policies of building developers and end users to minimize detrimental impact to the environment.The Ground as a Heat Source/SinkThe thermal capacity of the ground can provide an efcient means of tempering the internal climate of buildings.Whereas the annual swing in mean air temperature in the UK is around 20 K, the temperature of the ground is farmore stable. At the modest depth of 2 m, the swing in temperature reduces to 8K, while at a depth of 50m thetemperature of the ground is stable at 1113C. This stability and ambient temperature therefore makes ground-water a useful source of renewable energy for heating and cooling systems in buildings.Furthermore, former industrial cities like Nottingham, Birmingham, Liverpool and London have a particular problemwith rising ground water as they no longer need to abstract water from below ground for use in manufacturing. Theuse of groundwater for cooling is therefore encouraged by the Environment Agency in areas with rising ground-water as a means of combating this problem.System TypesGround water cooling systems may be dened as either open or closed loop.Open Loop SystemsOpen loop systems generally involve the direct abstraction and use of ground water, typically from aquifers (porouswater bearing rock). Water is abstracted via one or more boreholes and passed through a heat exchanger and isreturned via a separate borehole or boreholes, discharged to foul water drainage or released into a suitable avail-able source such as a river. Typical ground water supply temperatures are in the range 610C and typical re-injection temperatures 1218C (subject to the requirements of the abstraction licence). Open loop systems fed by groundwater at 8C, can typically cool water to 12C on the secondary side of the heatexchanger to serve conventional cooling systems.Open loop systems are thermally efcient but overtime can suffer from blockages caused by silt, and corrosion dueto dissolved salts. As a result, additional cost may be incurred in having to provide ltration or water treatment,before the water can be used in the building.Abstraction licence and discharge consent needs to be obtained for each installation, and this together with themaintenance and durability issues can signicantly affect whole life operating costs, making this system lessattractive.Closed Loop SystemsClosed loop systems do not rely on the direct abstraction of water, but instead comprise a continuous pipeworkloop buried in the ground. Water circulates in the pipework and provides the means of heat transfer with theground. Since ground water is not being directly used, closed loop systems therefore suffer fewer of the operationalproblems of open loop systems, being designed to be virtually maintenance free, but do not contribute to the con-trol of groundwater levels.There are two types of closed loop system:Vertical Boreholes Vertical loops are inserted as U tubes into pre drilled boreholes, typically less than 150mm indiameter. These are backlled with a high conductivity grout to seal the bore, prevent anycross contamination and to ensure good thermal conductivity between the pipe wall andsurrounding ground. Vertical boreholes have the highest performance and means of heatrejection, but also have the highest cost due to associated drilling and excavationrequirements.As an alternative to having a separate borehole housing the pipe loop, it can also beintegrated with the piling, where the loop is encased within the structural piles. This obviouslysaves on the costs of drilling and excavation since these would be carried out as part of thepiling installation. The feasibility of this option would depend on marrying up the piling layoutwith the load requirement, and hence the number of loops, for the building.Horizontal Loops These are single (or pairs) of pipes laid in 2 m deep trenches, which are backlled with neaggregate. These obviously require a greater physical area than vertical loops but arecheaper to install. As they are located closer to the surface where ground temperatures areless stable, efciency is lower compared to open systems. Alternatively, coiled pipework canalso be used where excavation is more straightforward and a large amount of land isavailable. Although performance may be reduced with this system as the pipe overlaps itself,it does represent a cost effective way of maximizing the length of pipe installed and henceoverall system capacity.The Case for Heat PumpsInstead of using the groundwater source directly in the building, referred to as passive cooling, when coupled to areverse cycle heat pump, substantially increased cooling loads can be achieved.Heat is extracted from the building and transferred by the heat pump into the water circulating through the loop. Asit circulates, it gives up heat to the cooler earth, with the cooler water returning to the heat pump to pick up moreheat. In heating mode the cycle is reversed, with the heat being extracted from the earth and being delivered to theHVAC system.The use of heat pumps provides greater exibility for heating and cooling applications within the building thanpassive systems. Ground source heat pumps are inherently more efcient than air source heat pumps, their energy12 Ground Water Cooling requirement is therefore lower and their associated CO2 emissions are also reduced, so they are well suited forconnection to a groundwater source.Closed loop systems can typically achieve outputs of 50W/m (of bore length), although this will vary with geologyand borehole construction. When coupled to a reverse cycle heat pump, 1m of vertical borehole will typically deli-ver 140kWh of useful heating and 110kWh of cooling per annum, although this will depend on hours run andlength of heating and cooling seasons.Key Factors Affecting Cost The cost is obviously dependent on the type of system used. Deciding on what system is best suited to aparticular project is dependent on the peak cooling and heating loads of the building and its likely load pro-le. This in turn determines the performance required from the ground loop, in terms of area of coverage inthe case of the horizontal looped system, and in the case of vertical boreholes, the depth and number orbores. The cost of the system is therefore a function of the building load. In the case of vertical boreholes, drilling costs are signicant factor, as specic ground conditions can bevariable, and there are potential problems in drilling through sand layers, pebble beds, gravels and clay,which may mean additional costs through having to drill additional holes or the provision of sleeving etc. Thecosts of excavation obviously make the vertical borehole solution signicantly more expensive than theequivalent horizontal loop. The thermal efciency of the building is also a factor. The higher load associated with a thermally inefcientbuilding obviously results in the requirement for a greater number of boreholes or greater area of horizontalloop coverage, however in the case of boreholes the associated cost differential between a thermally inef-cient building and a thermally efcient one is substantially greater than the equivalent increase in the costof conventional plant. Reducing the energy consumption of the building is cheaper than producing theenergy from renewables and the use of renewable energy only becomes cost effective, and indeed shouldonly be considered, when a building is energy efcient. With open loop systems, the principal risk in terms of operation is that the user is not in control of thequantity or quality of the water being taken out of the ground, this being dependent on the local groundconditions. Reduced performance due to blockage (silting etc.) may lead to the system not delivering thedesign duties whilst bacteriological contamination may lead to the expensive water treatment or the systembeing taken temporarily out of operation. In order to mitigate the above risk, it may be decided to provideadditional means of heat rejection and heating by mechanical means as a back up to the borehole system,in the event of operational problems. This obviously carries a signicant cost. If this additional plant werenot provided, then there are space savings to be had over conventional systems due to the absence ofheating, heat rejection and possibly refrigeration plant. Open loop systems may lend themselves particularly well to certain applications increasing their costeffectiveness, i.e. in the case of a leisure centre, the removal of heat from the air-conditioned parts of thecentre and the supply of fresh water to the swimming pool. In terms of the requirements for abstraction and disposal of the water for open loop systems, there are risksassociated with the future availability and cost of the necessary licenses; particularly in areas of high fore-cast energy consumption, such as the South East of England, which needs to be borne in mind whenselecting a suitable system.Whilst open loop systems would suit certain applications or end user clients, for commercial buildings the risksassociated with this system tend to mean that closed loop applications are the system of choice. When coupled toa reversible heat pump, the borehole acts simply as a heat sink or heat source so the problems associated withopen loop systems do not arise.Ground Water Cooling 13 Typical CostsTable 1 gives details of the typical borehole cost to an existing site in Central London, using one 140m deepborehole working on the open loop principle, providing heat rejection for the 600kW of cooling provided to thebuilding. The borehole passes through rubble, river gravel terraces, clay and nally chalk, and is lined above thechalk level to prevent the hole collapsing. The breakdown includes all costs associated with the provision of aworking borehole up to the well head, including the manhole chamber and manhole. The costs of any plant orequipment from the well head are not included.Heat is drawn out of the cooling circuit and the water is discharged into the Thames at an elevated temperature. Inthis instance, although the boreholes are more expensive than the dry air cooler alternative, the operating cost issignicantly reduced as the system can operate at around three times the efciency of conventional dry air coolers,so the payback period is a reasonable one. Additionally, the borehole system does not generate any noise, doesnot require rooftop space and does not require as much maintenance.This is representative of a typical cost of providing a borehole for an open loop scheme within the London basin.There are obviously economies of scale to be had in drilling more than one well at the same time, with two wellssaving approximately 10% of the comparative cost of two separate wells and four wells typically saving 15%.Table 2 provides a summary of the typical range of costs that could expected for the different types of systembased on current prices.14 Ground Water Cooling Table 1: Breakdown of the Cost of a Typical Open Loop Borehole SystemDescription Cost General Items Mobilization, Insurances, demobilization on completion 20,000 Fencing around working area for the duration of drilling and testing 2,000 Modications to existing LV panel and installation of new power supplies forborehole installation 14,000Trial Hole Allowance for breakout access to nearest walkway(Existing borehole on site used for trial purposes, hence no drilling costsincluded)3,000Construct Borehole Drilling, using temporary casing where required, permanent casing andgrouting 31,000Borehole Cap and Chamber Cap borehole with PN16 ange, construct manhole chamber in roadway,rising main, header pipework, valves, ow meter 12,000 Permanent pump 13,000Samples Water samples 300Acidization Mobilization, set up and removal of equipment for acidization of borehole,carry out acidization 11,500Development and Test Pumping Mobilize pumping equipment and materials and remove on completion oftesting Calibration test, pre-test monitoring, step testing4,0003,500 Constant rate testing and monitoring Waste removal and disposal19,0003,000Reinstatement Reinstatement and Making Good 1,500Total 144,300Ground Water Cooling 15 Table 2: Summary of the Range of Costs for Different SystemsRangeSystem Small4 kWth Medium50 kWth Large400 kWth NotesHeat pump (per unit) 3,5004,500 30,00040,000 140,000170,000Slinky pipe(per installation)including excavation 3,0004,000 40,00050,000 360,000390,000(1) (1)Based on 90 nr 50 m lengthsVertical, closed(per installation)usingstructural pilesN/A 40,00060,000 Not available Based on 50 nr piles. Includes boreholecap and header pipework but excludesconnection to pump room and heatpumpsVertical, closed(per installation)including excavation 2,0003,000 60,00080,000 360,000390,000 Includes borehole cap and headerpipework but excludes connection topump room and heat pumpsVertical, open(per installation)including excavation 2,0003,000 45,00065,000 330,000360,000 Excludes connection to pump room andheat exchangers16 Ground Water Cooling Fuel CellsThe Application of Fuel Cell Technology within BuildingsFuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy in fuel into electrical energy directly, with-out combustion, with high electrical efciency and low pollutant emissions. They represent a new type of powergeneration technology that offers modularity, efcient operation across a wide range of load conditions, andopportunities for integration into co-generation systems. With the publication of the energy white paper in Februarythis year, the Government conrmed its commitment to the development of fuel cells as a key technology in theUKs future energy system, as the move is made away from a carbon based economy.There are currently very few fuel cells available commercially, and those that are available are not nancially viable.Demand has therefore been limited to niche applications, where the end user is willing to pay the premium for whatthey consider to be the associated key benets. Indeed, the UK currently has only one fuel cell in regular com-mercial operation. However, fuel cell technology has made signicant progress in recent years, with prices pre-dicted to approach those of the principal competition in the near future.Fuel Cell TechnologyA fuel cell is composed of an anode (a negative electrode that repels electrons), an electrolyte membrane in thecentre, and a cathode (a positive electrode that attracts electrons). As hydrogen ows into the cell on the anodeside, a platinum coating on the anode facilitates the separation of the hydrogen gas into electrons and protons. Theelectrolyte membrane only allows the protons to pass through to the cathode side of the fuel cell. The electronscannot pass through this membrane and ow through an external circuit to form an electric current.As oxygen ows into the fuel cell cathode, another platinum coating helps the oxygen, protons, and electronscombine to produce pure water and heat.The voltage from a single cell is about 0.7 volts, just enough for a light bulb. However by stacking the cells, higheroutputs are achieved, with the number of cells in the stack determining the total voltage, and the surface area ofeach cell determining the total current. Multiplying the two together yields the total electrical power generated.In a fuel cell the conversion process from chemical energy to electricity is direct. In contrast, conventional energyconversion processes rst transform chemical energy to heat through combustion and then convert heat to elec-tricity through some form of power cycle (e.g. gas turbine or internal combustion engine) together with a generator.The fuel cell is therefore not limited by the Carnot efciency limits of an internal combustion engine in convertingfuel to power, resulting in efciencies 2 to 3 times greater. Fuel Cell SystemsIn addition to the fuel cell itself, the system comprises the following sub-systems: A fuel processor This allows the cell to operate with available hydrocarbon fuels, by cleaning the fuel andconverting (or reforming) it as required A power conditioner This regulates the dc electricity output of the cell to meet the application, and topower the fuel cell auxiliary systems An air management system This delivers air at the required temperature, pressure and humidity to the fuelstack and fuel processor A thermal management system This heats or cools the various process streams entering and leaving thefuel cell and fuel processor, as required A water management system Pure water is required for fuel processing in all fuel cell systems, and fordehumidication in the PEMFCThe overall electrical conversion efciency of a fuel cell system (dened as the electrical power out divided by thechemical energy into the system, taking into account the individual efciencies of the sub-systems) ranges from3555%. Taking into account the thermal energy available from the system, the overall or cogeneration efciency is7590%.Also, unlike most conventional generating systems (which operate most efciently near full load, and then sufferdeclining efciency as load decreases), fuel cell systems can maintain high efciency at loads as low as 20% of fullload.Fuel cell systems also offer the following potential benets: At operating temperature, they respond quickly to load changes, the limiting factor usually being theresponse time of the auxiliary systems They are modular and can be built in a wide range of outputs. This also allows them to be located close tothe point of electricity use, facilitating cogeneration systems Noise levels are comparable with residential or light commercial air conditioning systems Commercially available systems are designed to operate unattended and manufactured as packaged units Since the fuel cell stack has no moving parts, other than the replacement of the stack at 35 year intervalsthere is little on-site maintenance. The maintenance requirements are well established for the auxiliarysystem plant Fuel cell stacks fuelled by hydrogen produce only water, therefore the fuel processor is the primary sourceof emissions, and these are signicantly lower than emissions from conventional combustion systems Since fuel cell technology generates 50% more electricity than the conventional equivalent without directlyburning any fuel, CO2 emissions are signicantly reduced in the production of the source fuel Potentially zero carbon emissions when using hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources The facilitation of embedded generation, where electricity is generated close to the point of use, minimizingtransmission losses The fast response times of fuel cells offer potential for use in UPS systems, replacing batteries and standbygeneratorsTypes of Fuel CellThere are four main types of fuel cell technology that are applicable for building systems, classed in terms of theelectrolyte they use. The chemical reactions involved in each cell are very different.Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) are the dominant current technology for large stationary applications and havebeen available commercially for some time. The only working fuel cell installation in the UK, in Woking, uses aPAFC, rated at 200kW. There is less potential for PAFC unit cost reduction than for some other fuel cell systems,and this technology may be superseded in time by the other technologies.18 Fuel Cells The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) offers signicant exibility due to its large power range and wide fuel compat-ibility. SOFCs represent one of the most promising technologies for stationary applications. There are difcultieswhen operating at high temperatures with the stability of the materials, however, signicant further developmentand cost reduction is anticipated with this type.The relative complexity of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) has tended to limit developments to large scalestationary applications, although the technology is still very much in the development stages.The quick start-up times and size range make Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) suitable for smallto medium sized stationary applications. They have a high power density and can vary output quickly, making themwell suited for transport applications as well as UPS systems. The development efforts in the transport sectorsuggest there will continue to be substantial cost reductions over both the short and long term.All four technologies remain the subject of extensive research and development programmes to reduce initial costsand improve reliability through improvements in materials, optimization of operating conditions and advances inmanufacturing. It is expected that all types will be commercially available in limited markets by 2006 and with massmarket availability by 2010.The Market for Fuel CellsThe stationary applications market for fuel cells can be sectaries as follows: Distributed generation/CHP For large scale applications, there are no drivers specically advantageous tofuel cells, with economics (and specically initial cost) therefore being the main consideration. So, until costcompetitive and thoroughly proven and reliable fuel cells are available, their use is likely to be limited toniche applications such as environmentally sensitive areas from 2005. Wider commercialization is likelycloser to 2010, with high temperature cells (MCFCs and SOFCs) being most suitable, although PEMFCsmay preferable in specic areas, i.e. where hydrogen is available. Domestic and small scale CHP The drivers for the use of fuel cells in this emerging market are bettervalue for customers than separate gas and electricity purchase, reduction in domestic CO2 emissions, andpotential reduction in electricity transmissioncosts. However, the barriers of resistance to distributed gen-eration, high capital costs and competition from Stirling engines needs to be overcome. Commercializationdepends on cost reduction, and successful demonstration which is expected to begin in the next 23 years,leading to wider commercialization before 2010. Systems based on SOFCs and PEMFCs are being devel-oped for this application. Small generator sets and remote power The drivers for the use of fuel cells are high reliability, low noiseand low refuelling frequencies, which cannot be met by existing technologies. Since cost is often not theprimary consideration, fuel cells will nd early markets in this sector. Existing PEMFC systems are close tomeeting the requirements in terms of cost, size and performance. Small SOFCs have potential in thismarket, but require further development.Cost ComparisonTable 1 provides an indication of the capital and operating costs of the different fuel cell types, together with com-parative gures for the existing technologies. The projected gures for the fuel cell technologies are based oneconomies typically achieved through mass manufacture.The projected costs for 2007 show the fuel cell technologies still being signicantly more expensive than theexisting technologies. To extend fuel cell application beyond niche markets, their cost needs to reduce signicantly.The successful and wide-spread commercial application of fuel cells is dependent on the projected cost reductionsindicated, with electricity generated from fuel cells being competitive with current centralized and distributed powergeneration.Fuel Cells 19 It has been estimated that if the cost reductions are met, fuel cells could achieve up to 50% penetration of theglobal distributed energy market by 2020.Typical Current Project CostsTable 2 gives an indication of the typical cost breakdown to be expected for the installation of a fuel cell system inthe UK. This is based on information from the manufacturer and from economic evaluation/feasibility studies, sincewith only one working system installed to date in the UK there is no available accurate cost data.The unit is a standard commercially available PAFC, complete with fuel processor, fuel stack and power con-ditioning system. The parameters are as follows: Rating 200kW/235kVA, 400V, 3ph Power generating efciency 40% Heat output 204kW, 60C hot water Fuel, consumption Natural gas, 54m/hr External location Size 5.5m 3 m 3 m (h) Weight 20 tons Noise level at full load 62dBA at 10mThe above illustrates the fact that the costs to supply, install and set to work a modestly sized fuel cell unit areprohibitively high, compared with incumbent generator technologies. Despite being the only commercially availableunit, only 220 units have been sold worldwide, and so the full benets of volume manufacture have not been real-ized, and a proportion of the costs associated with developing the unit is included within the unit cost.ConclusionsDespite signicant growth in recent years, fuel cells are still at a relatively early stage of commercial development,with prohibitively high capital costs preventing them from competing with the incumbent technology in the marketplace. However, costs are forecast to reduce signicantly over the next ve years as the technology moves fromniche applications, and into mass production.However, in order for these projected cost reductions to be achieved, customers need to be convinced that the endproduct is not only cost competitive but also thoroughly proven, and Government support represents a key part inachieving this.The Governments of Canada, USA, Japan and Germany have all been active in supporting development of the fuelcell sector through integrated strategies, however the UK has been slow in this respect, and support has to datebeen small in comparison. It is clear that without Government intervention, fuel cell applications may struggle toreach the cost and performance requirements of the emerging fuel cell market.20 Fuel Cells Table 1: Cost Comparison for Stationary Generation EquipmentPeriodFuel Cell TypePEMFC PAFC MCFC SOFCCapital Costs (/kW) 2004 2,6006,500 2,0003,400 2,0005,000 5,00010,0002006 1,500 1,900 1,850 2,3002010 (Projected) 700 1,500 950 1,0002015 (Projected) 500 1,300 700 7502020 (Projected) 300 1,100 550 550Operating Costs (/kW/h)2004 0.040.06 0.08 0.040.08 0.05Maintenance Costs (/kW/h)2006 0.0030.01 0.0030.01 0.0030.01 0.0030.01Period Conventional SystemsInternalCombustion GeneratorMicro Turbine GeneratorGas Turbine Steam turbineCapital Costs (/kW) 2004 2006 200820 450820 450570 5006302010 (Projected) 2015 (Projected) 2020 (Projected) Operating Costs (/kW/h)2004 Maintenance Costs (/kW/h)2006 0.0050.01 0.0020.01 0.0020.06 0.003Fuel Cells 21 Table 2: Breakdown of Typical Project CostsItem Fuel Cell Stack 225,000Fuel Processor 85,000Plant 113,600Labour 113,400Total 567,000Delivery to Site (Outside USA) 20,000Installation Costs (Site and Application dependent)Standard (Generation Only) 50,000Non Standard 80,000CHP 100,000200,000Spares 10% of Capital CostMaintenance 16,00026,000 paTotal (/kW) 3,5494,415Fuel StackFuel Stack Replacement 150,000 every 4 yearsFuel Stack Refurbishment 120,000 every 4 yearsNote: Excludes Incoming Gas Supply, BWIC, Main Contractors Overheads ad Prot, attendance, Pre-liminaries and Professional Fees etc, VAT.22 Fuel Cells Biomass EnergyThe potential for biomass energy systems, with regards to the adequacy of the fuel supply and the viabilityof various system types at different scales.Biomass heating and combined heat and power (CHP) systems have become a major component of the low-carbon strategy for many projects, as they can provide a large renewable energy component at a relatively lowinitial cost. Work by the Carbon Trust has demonstrated that both large and small biomass systems were viableeven before recent increases in gas and fuel oil prices, so it is no surprise that recent research by South BankUniversity into the renewables strategies to large London projects has found that 25% feature biomass or biofuelsystems.These proposals are not without risk, however. Although the technology is well established, few schemes are inoperation in the UK and the long-term success depends more on the effectiveness of the local supply chain thanthe quality of the design and installation.How the Biomass Market WorksBiomass is dened as living or recently dead biological material that can be used as an energy source. Biomass isgenerally used to provide heat, generate electricity or drive CHP engines. The biomass family includes biofuels,which are being specied in city centre schemes, but which provide lower energy outputs and could transferfarmland away from food production.In the UK, much of the focus in biomass development is on the better utilization of waste materials such as timberand the use of set-aside land for low-intensity energy crops such as willow, rather than expansion of the biofuelssector. There are a variety of drivers behind the development of a biomass strategy. In addition to carbon neutrality,another policy goal is the promotion of the UKs energy security through the development of independent energysources. A third objective is to address energy poverty, particularly for off-grid energy users, who are most vulner-able to the effects of high long-term costs of fuel oil and bottled gas.Biomass position in the zero-carbon hierarchy is a little ambiguous in that its production, transport and combustionall produce carbon emissions, albeit most is offset during a plants growth cycle. The key to neutrality is that thegrowing and combustion cycles need to occur over a short period, so that combustion emissions are genuinelyoffset. Biomass strategy is also concerned about minimizing waste and use of landll, and the ash produced bycombustion can be used as a fertilizer.Dramatic increases in fossil fuel prices have swung considerations decisively in favour of technologies such asbiomass. Research by the Carbon Trust has demonstrated that, with oil at $50 (25) a barrel, rates of return ofmore than 10% could be achieved with both small and large heating installations. CHP and electricity-onlyschemes have more complex viability issues linked to renewable incentives, but with oil currently trading at over($100) 50 a barrel and a plentiful supply of source material, it is argued that biomass input prices will not rise andso the sector should become increasingly competitive. The main sources of biomass in the UK include: Forestry crops, including the waste products of tree surgery industry Industrial waste, particularly timber, paper and card: timber pallets account for 30% of this waste stream byweight Woody energy crops, particularly those grown through short rotation methods such as willow coppicing Wastes and residues taken from food, agriculture and manufacturingBiomass is an emerging UK energy sector. Most suppliers are small and there remains a