Spoken Language Group(DA)

8/21/2019 Spoken Language Group(DA)

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Fikha PrastidiarmiAstirini

Amilia Maita SariMelati Queentinie

SpokenLanguage


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Introduction

Spoken language is a vast subject, and little isknown in hard statistical terms of thedistribution of different types of speech in

people’s everyday lives. If we list at random anumber of different types of speech andconsider how much of each day or week wespend engaged in each one, we can only roughlyguess at some sort frequency ranking, otherthan to say that casual conversation is almostcertainly the most frequent for most people.


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Some diferent types o speech might be:

• Telephone Calls (business and private)

• Service Encounters (shops, ticket ofces, etc)

• Interviews (jobs, journalistic, in ofcial settings)

• Classroo (classes, seinars, lectures, tutorials)• !ituals (church pra"ers, serons, weddings)

• #onologues (speeches, stories, jokes)

• $anguage%in%action (talk a copan"ing doing: &'ing,cooking, assebling, deonstrating, etc)

• Casual Conversation (strangers, riends, intiates)• rganising and *irecting +eople (work, hoe, in the street)


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ADJACENCY PAIRS

• Pairs of utterances in talk are often mutually dependent; a

most obvious example is that a question predicts an

anser! and that an anser presuposes a question"

• #ome examples mi$ht be%

Utterance Function Expected Response

Greeting greeting

Congratulation thanks

Appology acceptanceInform acknowledge

Leave-taking leave-taking


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• Pairs of utterances such as greeting-greeting and appology-aceptance are

called ad'acency pairs" (he mutualdependence of such utterances isunderlined by the fact that e can only beabsolutely sure of the function of theinitiatin$ utterance )the first pair-part as itis usually called*! and vise versa )thus+hello, in -n$lish could be a $reetin$! a

request to a telephone caller to identifythemselves! or an expression of surprise%+hello. /hat,s this here0,*


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• /e can se$ment the polite refusal of theinvitation into appreciation )+thanks verymuch,*! softener )+I,m afraid,*! reason )+I,mbooked up,* and facesaver )+hatabout """,*" (his pattern ould typically be

found beteen adult friends! colle$ues!etc" in informal but polite situations"

• ore intimate situations may ell omit the+softener," -ach of these elements illhave several possible realisations! andthese can be practised in lan$ua$elearnin$ in a systimatic ay


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• 5ifferent roles and settin$s ill $eneratedifferent structures for such ad'acency pairs! and

discourse analysts try to observe in natural data 'ust hat patterns occur in particular settin$s"#carcella and 6runak )1781* compared nativeand nonnative speakers, stra$ies for $ivin$informal invitations" (he native speakers

prefaced their invitations )e"$" +I as onderin$!uh! e,re havin$ a party""",*! hile the nonnatives ere sometimes too formal or too blunt)e"$" +I ould like to invite you to a party,; +I antyou to come in a party,*" #imilarly! it seems thatnative speakers usually preface disagreement second pairparts in -n$lish ith partiala$reement )+yes! but""",* and ith softeners)Pearson 178*"


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• (he principle of ad'acency pairs and ho

they are realised in natural speech point tothe importance of creatin$ minimalcontexts in the teachin$ of commoncommunicative functions and the limitedvalue of teachin$ sin$le utterances"

• (he structure and elaboration of thead'acency pair is determined by role and

settin$! and that the functions of itscomponent utterances depend on the copresence of both parts"


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EC-./0ES

• -xchan$es are independently

observable entities; ad'acency pairsmay be found ithin their boundaries

but first and second pairparts do not

necessarily coincide ith initiatin$ and

respondin$ moves"


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• In +:, belo! there is such a coincidence!

but in +, ad'acency pairin$ occurs in the

initiation and response )statement ofachievement-congratulation*! and in the

respondin$ and folloup move

)congratulation-thanks*%

:" h! con$ratulations"


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• $ook at soe coon ollow%up oves in

eliciting e'changes in ever"da" talk1 2hilespeakers outside classroos do not usuall"behave like teachers and evaluate the quality oone another3s utterances (in ters o correctness,

4uenc", etc1), the" oten evaluate (or at leastreact to) its content5 we ight copare what cansoeties happen in the classroo 66 with whatis likel" to happen in the real world 6731 (see thee'aple on page 89:, point (;1< and ;1=)


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Turn-Taking

• In any piece of natural -n$lish discourse! turnsill occur smoothly! ith only little overlap andinterruption! and only very brief silencesbeteen turns )on avera$e! less than a second*"

People take turns hen they are selected ornominated by the current speaker! or if no one isselected! they may speak of their on accord)self-selection*"

• (here are specific lin$uistic devices for $ettin$the turn hen one is unable to enter the normalflo of turntakin$ or hen the settin$ demandsthat specific conventions be folloed"


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• These vary greatly in level of formality and appropriacy todifferent situations (‘If I may, Mr Chairman’, ‘I wonder if Imight say something’, ‘Can I just come in here’, ‘ang on aminute’, ‘!hut up will you, I can’t get a word in edgewise’"#

• There are also linguistic means of not ta$ing the turn whenone has the opportunity, or simply of ma$ing it clear to thespea$er that we are attending to the message#

• These are usually reffered to as back-channel responses,and consist of vocalisations such as mm,

ah-ha , and short words and phrases such as yeah, no,right, sure#

• The overall conclusion is that turn%ta$ing in itself is

something that may not need to &e ‘taught’, &ut specificlinguistic realisations can &e presented and practised andsignificant cultural differences can at least &e pointed outto the learner#


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TRANSACTIONS AND TOPICS

TRANSACTIONS

?ere e are concerned ith ho speakers mana$elon$er stretches of talk"

• @or example%

/?-A- shall e have the (


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TOPICS

• (opics could be defined! on the formal level! as stretches

of talk bounded by certain topic andCor transactional

markers! such as lexical ones (by the way, to change the

subject), or phonological ones (changes in pitch). >r e

could take a semantic frameork! and try to express the

content of different se$ments of talk accordin$ to sin$le

ord or phrasal titles )e"$"! +holidays,! +buyin$ a house,*!

or else e could use interactive criteria and say that

somethin$ is only a topic if more than one speakermakes an utterance relevant to it"


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Interactional and Transactional tal

. distinction is oten ade b" discourse anal"sisbetween transactional and interactional talk1

Transactional tal is or getting b!siness done inthe "orld , i1e1 in order to produce soe change in the

situation that pertains1 It could be to tell soebod"soething the" need to know, to e>ect the purchase osoething, to get soeone to do soething, or an"other world%changing things1 Interactional talk onthe other hand, has as its primary functions that lubrication of the social wheels, establishing roles and

relationships with another person prior to transactionaltal , con&ring and consolidating relationships,e'pressing solidarit", and so on1


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• It is iportant to note that natural data show that even inthe ost strictl" 6transactional3 o settings, people otenengage in interactional talk, e'changing chat about the

weather and an" unpredictable things, as in thesee'changes? the &rst is in a @ritish cheist3s shop5 the secondis a universit" porter registering soe newl" arrivedstudents at their capus accoodation ?

(;18;) Custoer? can "ou give e astrong painkiller or anabscess, or else a suicide note1

.ssistant ? (laughing) h dearA 2ell, we3ve gotB (etc)

!author"s #eld notes$

(;18


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Stories# anecdotes# $oes

• .lost an" piece o conversational data between riends will "ield

occasions where people engage in the telling o stories,anecdotes, jokes, and other kinds o narratives1 The abilit" to tella good stor" or joke is a highl" regarded talent, probabl" in allcultures1 .s with other t"pes o language events, discourseanal"sts have sought to describe what all narrative developed b"$abov (8=9)1 The labov odel, rather, like the proble solution

odel we have reerred to at various points in this book, speci&eseleents that are coonl" ound in noral narratives1 The"are?

.bstract

rientationsCoplicating event Evaluation

!esolution

Coda


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• .bstracts are short stateents o what the stor" is going to beabout (6I ust tell "ou about an ebarrassing oent "esterda"3)1

• rientation sets out the tie, place and characters or thereaderFlistener (6"ou know that secretar" in our ofce, well, last

week 113)1 Coplicating events are the ain events that ake the

stor" happen (6the ero' achine caught &re3)1

• !esolutions are how the events sort theselves out (6and she got

G9,HHH copetition3)

• Codas provide a bridge between the stor" world the oent o

telling (6and ever since, I3ve never been able to look at a ango

without eeling sick3)

• Evaluation eans aking the stor" worth listening toFreading,

either b" directl" telling one3s audience (6"ou3ll love this one5 6its

not the world3s unniest joke, but I like it3)


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Soe coon openers to spoken stories and jokes in English include?

I3ll alwa"s reeber the tie11*id I ever tell "ou about 11

Then there was the tie we B

I ust tell "ou about B

-ave "ou heard the one about 11

7ou3ll never guess what happened "esterda" B

I heard a good one the other da" B

I had a unn" e'perience last week B

There are also regularl" occurring arkers or coplicating events?

.nd then, suddenl" F out o the blue B

/e't thing we knew B.nd as i that wasn3t enough B

Then guess what happened 11l1


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$isteners are active, constantl" reacting (usuall"with back%channel responses) to the narrative andasking uestions that &ll out unspeci&ed detail1

The ollowing data saple illustrates1 . and @ are

telling a series o stories about driving incidents toC1


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(;18=) A: I rememer that !ourney, "e "ent from #armouth, "hen "e hadthe car

$: #eah

%: and "e "ent into &or"ich, and there's a ring roadround &or"ich, and this road to Fareham "as o( thisring road )) *ell, "e turned right if you rememer

$: +h I can't rememerA: and "e "ent right round this ring road, I et "e did t"enty miles, and "hen "e came

ack it "as the net one on the left to "here "e'd started

%: od .laughs/)A: I rememer that, I thought "e "ere ne0er going to 1nd it)%: #ou "ent right round the city)A: #es)

%: ood od, the must ha0e een frustrating)A: It "as epensi0e as "ell .laughs/ ) ) )$ : $ut the time I turned into the police station)A : +h) ) ) ) 2ear)% : #eah, "hat "as that3

$ : 2orset %onstaulary 4ead5uarters) 4e says you, you

$ : *e "ere going to 6yme 7egis)A : 4e ga0e us the map)$ : +n this tree there "as this "ooden thing, it had on 86yme 7egis'

and there "ere these ig massi0e gates, ig iron gates)A : &o, it "as Iris and I, "e said you turn left here, and he turned

immediate left, instead of going on to the net road, and it said8Fi0e miles an hour' and "e "ere creeping along, and there "ereoies looking at us, t"o of them in a car)

% : .laughs/ *ell, great, yeah)%A!thor&s data '()(*


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+ther Spoken 2iscourse Types

The sae goes or coon discourse t"pes such as giving route directions, a

avorite activit" in the language classroo1 Telling soeone how to getone3s house, or where to locate things on a ap are oten the basis oinoration%gap e'ercise, and these can be ver" successul in generatingtalk1 *iscourse anal"sts have observed about the organiJation o talk in asetting such as direction giving1

+sathas and KoJlo> (8=


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Speech and +rammar

@rie ention ust be ade here o the role o graaticalaccurac" in unprepared speech1 $anguage teachers tend towork with a set o nors based on the written language,where clause and sentence structure are clearl" de&ned1Spoken data, however, present a di>erent picture, andreuentl" contain ors that would be considered

ungraatical in writing1 Such Listakes3 usuall" go uiteunnoticed in natural talk, and it is onl" when we look attranscripts that we realiJe how coon the" are1 nee'aple is the wh% clause structure with ebedded reportedclauses, as in these two attested native%speaker utterances?

(;18) .? .nd there3s a therostat at the back which I don3tknow how it works1

(;19H) .? There3s another secretar" too who I don3t know whatshe3s responsible or1


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Than yo!Than yo!

,ye ,-.,ye ,-.

riends///riends///

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Spoken Language Group(DA)