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Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Sensation
Section 2: The Senses
Section 3: Perception
Chapter Preview 1
Chapter Objectives · Section 1
Sensation
Understand that sensations occur anytime a stimulus activates a receptor and that perceptions allow humans to react to their environment.
Chapter Preview 2
Chapter Objectives · Section 2
The Senses
Describe how the sense organs are the receptors of sensations.
Chapter Preview 3
Chapter Objectives · Section 3
Perception
Define perception as the way we interpret sensations and organize them into meaningful experiences.
Section 1-Main Idea
Main Idea
Sensations occur anytime a stimulus activates a receptor. Perceptions allow humans to react to their environment.
Section 1-Key Terms
Vocabulary
• sensation
• perception
• psychophysics
• absolute threshold
• difference threshold
• Weber’s law
• signal-detection theory
Section 1-Objectives
Objectives
• Describe the field of study known as psychophysics.
• Define and discuss threshold, Weber’s law, and signal detection.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1-Polling Question
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
How many different stimulus are there?
A. two
B. three
C. four
D. five
Section 1
What is Sensation?
• Any aspect of or change in the environment to which an organism responds is called a stimulus.
• A stimulus can be measured in many physical ways, including its size, duration, intensity, or wavelength.
• A sensation occurs anytime a stimulus activates one of your receptors.
Section 1
What is Sensation? (cont.)
• A sensation can be combined with other sensations and your past experience to yield a perception.
• Psychophysics—the study of the relationship between sensory experiences and the physical stimuli that causes them.
Fraser’s Spiral
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
What are some examples of a perception?
A. color corresponds to the wavelength of the light
B. brightness corresponds to the intensity
C. Both A & B
D. None of the above
Section 1
Threshold
• Psychologists conduct experiments to determine the absolute threshold.
Gustav Theodor Fechner
The Human Senses
Section 1
Threshold (cont.)
• The absolute threshold for the five senses is as follows:
– Vision—seeing a candle flame 30 miles away on a clear night.
– Hearing—hearing a watch ticking 20 feet away.
– Taste—tasting 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved in 2 gallons of water.
– Smell—smelling 1 drop of perfume in a 3-room house.
– Touch—feeling a bee’s wing falling a distance of 1 centimeter onto your cheek.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
What is our vestibular sense?
A. Spatial movement
B. Gravitational pull
C. Movement and position of body parts
D. None of the above
Section 1
Sensory Differences and Ratios
• The difference threshold is the smallest change in a physical stimulus that can be detected between two stimuli half the time.
• The just noticeable difference (JND) refers to the smallest increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus that a person is able to detect half the time.
Section 1
Sensory Differences and Ratios (cont.)
• A particular sensory experience depends more on the changes in the stimulus than on the absolute size or amount.
• Weber’s law: the larger or stronger a stimulus, the larger the change required for a person to notice that anything has happened to it.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
How would you rate your sense of smell?
A. I smell the slightest odors
B. I can smell most odors
C. I smell only very strong odors
D. Not even a skunk would bother me
Section 1
Sensory Adaptation
• Our senses have an ability to adapt, or adjust themselves, to a constant level of stimulation.
• They get used to a new level and respond only to deviations from it.
The Disappearing Circle
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
What is the purpose of sensory adaptation?
A. notice differences in sensations
B. react to the challenges of different stimuli
C. react to the challenges of changing stimuli
D. All of the above
Section 1
Signal-Detection Theory
• The single-detection theory is the study of people’s tendencies to make correct judgments in detecting the presence of stimuli.
• Detection thresholds involve recognizing some stimulus against a background of competing stimuli.
Section 1
Signal-Detection Theory (cont.)
• The concept of absolute threshold: the stimulus (a signal) must be detected in the presence of competing stimuli, which can interfere with detection of the signal.
Section 1
• Psychologists have identified two different types of processing stimuli:
– Preattentive process
– Attentive process
Signal-Detection Theory (cont.)
The Stroop Effect
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
What are some reasons that “we notice some things automatically in spite of distracting information”?
A. Preattentive process
B. The Stroop Effect
C. Attentive process
D. None of the above
Section 2-Main Idea
Main Idea
The sense organs—the eyes, ears, tongue, nose, skin, and others—are the receptors of sensations.
Section 2-Key Terms
Vocabulary
• pupil
• lens
• retina
• optic nerve
• binocular fusion
• retinal disparity
• auditory nerve
• vestibular system
• olfactory nerve
• kinesthesis
Section 2-Objectives
Objectives
• Describe the nature and functioning of the sense organs.
• Identify the skin and body senses and explain how they work.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2-Polling Question
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
What are some internal senses?
A. vestibular
B. skin
C. kinesthetic
D. touch
Section 2
Vision
• How does vision occur?
– Light enters the eye through the pupil and reaches the lens, which focuses light on the retina.
– The retina contains tow types of light-sensitive receptor cells, or photoreceptors: rods and cones.
The Human Eye
Section 2
Vision (cont.)
– Rods: sensitive to much lower levels of light and are the basis for night vision.
– Cones: work best in the daylight and are sensitive to color.
– These cells are responsible for changing light energy into neuronal impulses.
– Impulses travel along the optic nerve to the brain, where they are routed to the occipital lobe.
Section 2
• Visible light is composed of waves of different length and frequency (observable with a prism).
• A prism transmits light while other objects absorb and reflect light.
• When some or all of a person’s cones do not function properly, he or she is said to be color deficient.
Vision (cont.)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Testing for Color Deficiency
Section 2
• Binocular fusion—the process of combining the images received from the two eyes into a single, fused image.
Vision (cont.)
• There is a difference between the images on the retinas, called retinal disparity.
Section 2
• Nearsightedness—having an eyeball that is too long, which causes problems seeing objects that are distant.
• Farsightedness—having an eyeball that is too short, which causes problems seeing up close.
Vision (cont.)
A Changing Flag
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B
C
D
0% 0%0%0%
If you have good night vision, you could be described as having _____.
A. sensitive cones
B. sensitive rods
C. binocular fusion
D. farsightedness
Section 2
Hearing
• Hearing is caused by sound waves that pass through various bones until they reach the inner ear, which contains tiny hairlike cells that move back and forth.
• These hair cells change sound vibrations into neuronal signals that travel through the auditory nerve to the brain.
Decibel Levels
Section 2
Hearing (cont.)
• The auditory nerve carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound.
– Sound pressure energy is measured in decibels.
– Pitch depends on sound-wave frequency.
The Human Ear
Section 2
• Two types of deafness:
– Conduction deafness
– Sensorineural deafness
Hearing (cont.)
A. A
B. B
C. C
Section 2
A B C
0% 0%0%
Which of the following is more likely to be caused by exposure to loud music?
A. Conduction deafness
B. Sensorineural deafness
C. Neither
Section 2
Balance
• The body’s sense of balance is regulated by the vestibular system inside the inner ear.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
What happens when the vestibular sense is overstimulated?
A. spinning
B. dizziness
C. motion sickness
D. all of the above
Section 2
Smell and Taste
• Smell and taste are referred to as the chemical senses because their receptors are sensitive to chemical molecules.
• In order to smell, the appropriate gaseous molecules must come into contact with the smell receptors in your nose.
• These receptors send messages about smells through the olfactory nerve to the brain.
Section 2
Smell and Taste (cont.)
• Olfactory nerve—the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain.
• In order to taste, appropriate liquid chemicals must stimulate receptors in the taste buds on your tongue.
• Taste information is relayed to the brain, along with data about the texture and temperature of the substance in your mouth.
Section 2
Smell and Taste (cont.)
• Four primary sensory experiences—sour, salty, bitter, and sweet—make up taste.
• Smell plays a large role in taste.
• The combining of taste, smell, and tactile sensations is known as flavor.
The Human Tongue
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Which of the four primary sensory experiences are you most sensitive to?
A. Sour
B. Salty
C. Bitter
D. Sweet
Section 2
The Skin Senses
• Receptors in the skin are responsible for sensing pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.
Section 2
The Skin Senses (cont.)
• There are two types of pain sensations:
– The sharp, localized pain you may feel immediately after an injury.
– The dull, generalized pain you may feel later.
Section 2
• Gate control theory of pain: we can lessen some pains by shifting our attention away from the pain impulses.
• This limits the number of impulses that can be transmitted, and can dull the pain.
The Skin Senses (cont.)
A. A
B. B
Section 2
A B
0%0%
Which of the following are you more sensitive to?
A. Warmth
B. Cold
Section 2
The Body Senses
• Kinesthesis cooperates with the vestibular and visual senses to maintain posture and balance.
• The sensation of kinesthesis comes from receptors in and near the muscles, tendons, and joints that send messages to the brain upon movement.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
What are the reasons why kinesthesis must cooperate with the vestibular and visual senses?
A. maintain posture
B. maintain movement
C. maintain balance
D. All of the above
Section 3-Main Idea
Main Idea
The way we interpret sensations and organize them into meaningful experiences is called perception.
Section 3-Key Terms
Vocabulary
• Gestault
• subliminal messages
• motion parallax
• constancy
• illusions
• extrasensory perception (ESP)
Section 3-Objectives
Objectives
• Outline the principles involved in perception.
• Describe how we learn to perceive and what illusions are.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3-Polling Question
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Which of the following phone numbers are you more likely to remember?
A. 555-723-9927
B. 555748975
C. 5 5 5 8 84 98 74
D. 55-5879-5178
Section 3
Principles of Perceptual Organization
• The brain makes sense of the world by creating whole structures out of bits and pieces of information in the environment.
• Gestalt
Section 3
Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont.)
• Principles used in organizing patterns include:
– Proximity
– Continuity
– Similarity
– Simplicity
– ClosureGestalt Principles
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
What principle would you primarily use to organize incomplete information?
A. Proximity
B. Similarity
C. Closure
D. Simplicity
Section 3
Figure-Ground Perception
• Figure-ground perception is the ability to discriminate properly between a figure and its background.
• It is applicable to both sight and hearing.
What Is It?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Without figure-ground perception, it would be especially difficult to do which of the following?
A. Play baseball
B. Read quietly
C. Sleep
D. Listen to a speaker with headphones.
Section 3
Perceptual Inference
• Perceptual inference—filling in the gaps based on past experiences with our senses.
A. A
B. B
C. C
Section 3
A B C
0% 0%0%
What is the most important factor in how we make perceptual inferences?
A. The level of stimuli
B. The amount of different stimuli
C. Experience
Section 3
Learning to Perceive
• An active involvement in one’s environment is important for accurate perception.
• We must learn to perceive.
• This learning process is influenced by our needs, beliefs, and expectations.
• Perceptual set—the idea that we see what we want to see.
Pop-Out Features
Section 3
Learning to Perceive (cont.)
• Subliminal messages
• Subliminal perception—the ability to notice stimuli that affect only the unconscious mind.
The Necker Cube
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Do you agree that we tend to twist the truth in order to make it fit into our belief system?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much
D. Not at all
Section 3
Depth Perception
• Depth perception is the ability to recognize distances and three-dimensionality.
• Monocular depth cue—a cue that can be used with a single eye to perceive distance and depth.
Section 3
Depth Perception (cont.)
• Monocular depth clues include:
– Relative height
– Interposition
– Light and shadows
– Texture-density gradient
– Motion parallax
– Linear perspective
Section 3
Depth Perception (cont.)
• Binocular depth cue—a cue that depends upon the existence or movement of both eyes.
Section 3
Depth Perception (cont.)
• Binocular depth cues include:
– Convergence
– Retinal disparity
A. A
B. B
Section 3
A B
0%0%
When you ride in a car, you would expect nearby scenery to appear to move in what direction in relation to you?
A. With your directionof travel
B. Opposite your direction of travel
Section 3
Constancy
• Constancy is the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting.
• Size constancy , color constancy, and brightness constancy are three examples.
Shape Constancy
A. A
B. B
Section 3
A B
0%0%
Do you agree that size consistency plays a major role in football?
A. Yes
B. No
Section 3
Illusions
• Illusions are incorrect perceptions that are created when perceptual cues are distorted.
Lines of Different Lengths?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Why do trains sometimes appear farther away than they actually are?
A. Perception compensation
B. Perceptual consistencies
C. Müller-Lyer illusion
D. None of the above
Section 3
Extrasensory Perception
• Extrasensory perception (ESP) includes the following four types:
– Clairvoyance
– Telepathy
– Psychokinesis
– Precognition
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
Do you believe in the existence of ESP?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much so
D. Not at all
Figure 1
Fraser’s SpiralFraser’s spiral illustrates the difference between sensation and perception. Our perception of this figure is that of a spiral, but it is actually an illusion. Trace a circle carefully. Your finger will always come back to its starting point.
Figure 2
The Human SensesThis chart lists the fundamental features that make up the human sensory system.
Figure 3
The Disappearing CircleSensation depends on change and contrast in the environment. Hold your hand over one eye and stare at the dot in the middle of the circle on the right. You should have no trouble maintaining the image of the circle. If you do the same with the circle on the left, however, the image will fade. The gradual change from light to dark does not provide enough contrast to keep the visual receptors in your eye firing at a steady rate. The circle reappears only if you close and reopen your eye or you shift your gaze to the X.
Figure 4
The Stroop EffectTry to name the colors of the boxes in a as fast as you can. Then try to read the words in b as fast as you can. Finally, try to name the colors of the words in b as fast as you can. You probably proceeded more slowly when naming the colors in b.
Figure 5
The Human EyeThis cross section of the human eye shows the passage of light. Note that the retina receives an inverted image.
Figure 6
The Electromagnetic SpectrumLight is the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. When the wavelengths in white light are separated, the visual effect is an array of colors because different wavelengths are seen as different colors.
Figure 7
A Changing FlagStare steadily at the lowest right-hand star for about 45 seconds. Then stare at the blank space to the left. You should see a negative afterimage of this figure. This occurs because the receptors for green, black, and yellow become fatigued or neuronal firing rates shift, allowing the complementary colors of each to predominate when you stare at the white paper.
Figure 8
Decibel LevelsThe loudness of a second (its amplitude) is measured in decibels. Each increase of 10 decibels makes a sound 10 times louder. A normal conversation at 3 feet measures about 60 decibels, which is 10,000 times louder than a whisper of 20 decibels. Sound becomes painful at 130 decibels.
Figure 9
The Human EarThe earflap funnels sound waves down the ear canal to the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear pick up the vibrations and transmit them to the inner ear.
Figure 10
The Human TongueWhen you chew, chemicals of the food mix with saliva and run down into trenches in your tongue. Once there, taste buds react to chemicals dissolved in saliva.
Figure 11
Gestalt PrinciplesHumans see patterns and groupings in their environment rather than disorganized arrays of bits and pieces.
Figure 12
What Is It?What did you see the first time you looked at this illustration—a vase or two profiles? People invariably organize their experience into figure and ground.
Figure 13
Pop-Out FeaturesReality is a jumble of sensations and details. The letter P probably pops out to you. The Qs may also pop out, but not as much as the P. You may not have noticed the O, though.
Figure 14
The Necker CubeThe Necker cube is an ambiguous figure. You can will yourself to see it as if you were looking down on it, with corner X closest to you, or as if you were looking up at it, with corner Y closest to you.
Figure 15
Shape ConstancyWe perceive the opening door as being rectangular in shape, although our view of the shape of it changes as it opens.
Figure 16
Lines of Different Lengths?The Müller-Lyer illusion (a) and the Ponzo illusion (b) are depicted here. The lines between the arrowheads in (a) are exactly the same length, as are the heavy black lines in (b). Some psychologists believe that the reason the lines in (a) seem of different lengths is because they are interpreted as offering different cues to their distance from the viewer. The lines in (b) may appear to be different in length because the brain interprets this diagram as though it is from a scene such as that in (c).
Figure 17
Testing for Color DeficiencyCan you see numerals in the dot patterns that make up this figure? Those with normal vision will see a number, while those with red-green deficiency will see only random patches of color.
Profile
Gustav Theodor Fechner1801–1887
“Imagine that you look at the sky through a tinted glass and
pick out a cloud that is just noticeable different from the
sky background. Now you use a much darker glass; the cloud does not vanish but is still just
barely visible—because although the absolute levels of
intensity are much lower through the darker glass, the ratio of intensities between
cloud and sky has not changed.”
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Effect of Light Source on Depth Perception
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Depth Perception: Texture Density and Interposition
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Vocab1
sensation: what occurs when a stimulus activates a receptor
Vocab2
perception: the organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences
Vocab3
psychophysics: the study of the relationships between sensory experiences and the physical stimuli that cause them
Vocab4
absolute threshold: the weakest amount of a stimulus that a person can detect half the time
Vocab5
difference threshold: the smallest change in a physical stimulus that can be detected half the time
Vocab6
Weber’s law: the principle that for any change (Δs) in a stimulus to be detected, a constant proportion of that stimulus (s) must be added or subtracted
Vocab7
signal-detection theory: the study of people’s tendencies to make correct judgments in detecting the presence of stimuli
Vocab8
pupil: the opening in the iris that regulates the amount of light entering the eye
Vocab9
lens: a flexible, elastic, transparent structure in the eye that changes its shape to focus light on the retina
Vocab10
retina: the innermost coating of the back of the eye, containing the light-sensitive receptor cells
Vocab11
optic nerve: the nerve that carries impulses from the retina to the brain
Vocab12
binocular fusion: the process of combining the images received from the two eyes into a single, fused image
Vocab13
retinal disparity: the differences between the images stimulating each eye
Vocab14
auditory nerve: the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound
Vocab15
vestibular system: three semicircular canals that provide the sense of balance, located in the inner ear and connected to the brain by a nerve
Vocab16
olfactory nerve: the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain
Vocab17
kinesthesis: the sense of movement and body position
Vocab18
Gestalt: the experience that comes from organizing bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Vocab19
subliminal messages: brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold
Vocab20
motion parallax: the apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position
Vocab21
constancy: the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting
Vocab22
illusions: perceptions that misrepresent physical stimuli
Vocab23
extrasensory perception (ESP): an ability to gain information by some means other than the ordinary senses
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