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spirit writing, shamans and mediums: contact with the

extra-human world

Oxford vpn for Youtube

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most important: possession (medium)◦ impersonation of deceased by descendant◦ by deity/demon◦ human or object (e.g. writing object or sedan chair)

less common: spirit travel (shaman)◦ world of the dead◦ world of the unborn child (Flower Gardens, in

southern China) visitation by or encounter with extra-humans dreams moonblocks etc.

types of contact

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巫 , 覡 archaizing terminology, not necessarily shaman as defined above

降 , 下 describes the descent of a deity/demon 附 describes possession, usually of a demon 尸 possession (only in pre-Han texts) 見鬼 seeer of demons (very common in zhiguai texts) 香頭 (N. China) 童乩 (Fujian/Taiwan) 鸞壇， 扶乩 抽籤 筊 beware:

◦ autonym or label (almost invariably the latter)◦ terms such as wu never sufficient evidence

varied terminology

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very big sticks! 觀音籤東京浅草寺　

廣東

northeastern Guangdong

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筊 1 筊 2 機率 俗稱平面朝上

平面朝上 0.5*0.5=

0.25 笑筊平面朝上

凸面朝上 0.25 聖筊

凸面朝上

平面朝上 0.25 聖筊

凸面朝上

凸面朝上 0.25 陰筊

 

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disapproval educated elite over last centuries

prohibited & persecuted after 1911, certainly 1949

seen as typical “ethnic minority” fieldwork highly sensitive

insufficient research

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楚辭◦ 離騷 attributed to Qu Yuan 屈原 since bio by Sima Qian 司馬遷◦ 九歌◦ 招魂◦ attributions more relevant as beliefs than as historical facts

shamanic songs?◦ 離騷 an emotional song about his fate in (political) life, no

indication of spirit travel, leave alone possession (e.g. translation)

◦ 九歌 ritual songs, neither spirit travel or possession◦ 招魂 precursor Daoist ritual, if anything

source of elite stereotype◦ “south” as shamanic (and north not!)◦ “south” as location Nuo exorcist ritual

a preliminary issue

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some possibilities◦ medium cults derided by early Daoists of

Heavenly Master tradition, later also educated elite in general

◦ on elite/prestige level accepted until early Song◦ shift performers, regionally differentiated, from

male to female (Ioan Lewis thesis) regional specificity

◦ to be combined with historical change, ex. Huizhou *dangki (late Ming local history)

issues

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(how) does it work?◦ minimizing incertitude◦ delegating impossible decisions◦ interpreters of medium/spirit writers “messages”

know local people & local situation examples

◦ Arthur Kleinman argument for Taiwan◦ Record of Miraculous Responses by the Generals

將軍靈驗記 from the Lord Guan cult

aided decisions

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mediums & charismatic cults

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Max Weber’s concept in the eyes of the beholder, not an absolute

quality: belief by followers that someone possesses extraordinary qualities◦ routinized charisma (when derived from office, special

objects, lineage)◦ personal charisma (without pedigree)

outside institutionalized structures, not bound (NB there may be cultural conventions about what counts as charismatic)

charisma gives a personal hold over people, feared and rejected/persecuted by establishment

charisma

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ling 靈 ability to work miracles (positive) yin 淫 “ licentiousness” & “dissolute”:

quality of acting out of bounds (negative) nao 閙 “ to upset”, “create havoc”:

upsetting of normal order as source power (liminal)

relevant Chinese terminology

熱鬧

李三太子 ( 哪吒 ) 閙天鬧房

熱鬧

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territorial deity controls territory

and worshippers with right of residence

communal representation & benefits

ascribed formal rites (state,

communal, Daoist, Buddhist)

charismatic deity helps whoever

worships personal requests &

benefits hence erratic nature

of benefits voluntary inspired rites

(shamans, mediums)

territorial : charismatic

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limen=border => liminal place as border & transition (see discussion of

Daoist ritual) liminal creatures live between here and there

=>can mediate between worlds (good), can come to

attack us (bad) origins:

◦ incomplete transition (hungry ghosts/demons 餓鬼 )◦ non-humans changing form ◦ humans attaining life beyond life (immortals)

liminal position enables charisma

liminal as source of charisma

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violent death origin of most deities◦ bone/grave cults◦ plague deities

despised by early and later Daoist ritual traditions◦ as manifestations of stale qi◦ for their mediums

for some: routinization of charisma ◦ deity becomes territorial (may be local, socially

incomplete)◦ hagiography cleaned up◦ state support

ghosts turning charismatic deities

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Four Great Families ( 四大門 ): fox 狐 / 胡仙 , snake 柳仙 ( 蛇 ), weasel黄仙 ( 黄鼠狼 ), hedgehog 白仙 ( 刺猬 )◦ sometimes the rat 灰仙 (老鼠 ) or others as fifth◦ live on margins of cultivated land◦ self-cultivation> ability of transforming into human shape◦ not to be confused with literary topos

each animal was unique member of overall type◦ family name same, personal name varies◦ often nr. + lang 郎

small shrines◦ irregular sightings as human/animal◦ could be male and female◦ privately worshipped for personal favours◦ even worshipped in yamen

charismatic power◦ erratic & vindicative deities◦ help with insecurity/contingency of events for worshippers (仙 ): wealth,

health, crops etc. (and its reverse!)◦ disapproved by state & outsiders (妖 ,精 )=>sexual accusations

underlying part of the fox stories in 聊齋志異◦ female seducers & male friends◦ fox from the fox cults

Four Great Families

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A survey of animal and other shrine deities in Jilin City

animal cults other shrine cults

Hu 胡 78 Earth God 23

Huang 黃 36 Mountain God 20

Liu 柳 4 Five Paths ( 五道 ) 15

Mang 莽 3

Bai 白 1

Five Great Household Immortals

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(grand total: 62 small shrines, mostly for several deities at a time)

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member of the Four Great Families possess people◦ possessed person starts to behave and talk strangely◦ identified as “possessed” (by “incensers” or experienced

people)◦ the deity communicates the issue or carries out a

punishment◦ explanatory value

“incensers” ( 香頭 )◦ initially possessed involuntarily ◦ need to identify immortal descending into them◦ tutor◦ initiation ritual◦ local network of customers

possession

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Wutong 五通 / Wuchang 五猖◦ Yangzi region in particulardeveloped from demonic

creatures, esp. “one legged mountain demon”◦ later seen as animal or animal transformation

deal with insecurities of life/money economy charisma => labelled licentious 淫

◦ state: heavily persecuted, esp. 18th century◦ local outside perception: sexual accusations

we know little about shamanic practice, except that they existed and functioned more or less like the “incensers”

Wutong

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enactment Wuchang, no longer possession

Wutong: modern fiction

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esp. well-documented in Fujianese cultural zone (historically Fujian, Taiwan, SE Asia)

etymology◦ speculation on Austronesian roots word◦ jitong (!): Mandarin cultural imperialism◦ not necessarily young, mostly male

function◦ communication less clearly important◦ demonstrative of divine power and presence

examples:◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS8kWCjNI6k◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOkNPbdZ3kA◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DEUIxrwcUk

dangki 童乩

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analogous “incensers” in northern China male and female, personal deity, any age example:

◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8

regular mediums

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early example possession relatively well-documented in 真誥 a.o. works

(show pdf file?)◦ possession

眾眞並未降事 非降楊時也 自此後諸真共語耳 右南嶽夫人言

◦ record 定錄 喻書此。紫陽旨也。

◦ read passage p. 19 together

Maoshan-revelations

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spirit writing

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Tang origins in signs 紫姑 -cult (acc. to 許地山 )=> divine writing in characters

common form of revelation & communication by Song◦ immortals (rarely well-known deities)◦ poetic communication◦ writing thru winnowing basket, wooden pencil etc.◦ writers and interpreters

practitioners ◦ originally mostly educated elite◦ prestige form of divine communication

example:◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptzZ_2f-Kh8

spirit writing

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文昌化書 (Song: Terry Kleeman) early Qing onwards (why so late unclear to

me)◦ Lü Dongbin texts◦ combined with charitable movement

True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經

Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經

allowed creative fusion local (oral) culture & educated culture(s)

text production: creative force

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Unity Way 一貫道◦ continued use spirit writing

new religious movements

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shamanic travel

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shamanic travel to Flower Gardens◦ world unborn child (pot flowers, red/white buds)◦ rituals for changing sex of future child & healing◦ prognostication future children

southern culture◦ Fujian/Taiwan◦ Guangdong◦ local cultures (Yao, Miao a.o.)

some research (Berthier; Taiwanese colleagues)

Flower Gardens

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travels thru underworld◦ relationship ritualized visits by specialists unclear◦ to investigate deceased or ill people who are

already partly in underworld lack of ethnographical descriptions

underworld

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dangers and fears

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not necessarily by shamans/mediums◦ Hong Xiuquan 洪秀全

shamans in Chinese context rarely have visions mediums do have revelations

◦ potential for scenario-revelations scenarios most commonly moral rearmament either way: action requires further conditions to be

fulfilled◦ non-scenario more common

Taiwanese & HK cases provide solutions to people’s problems

revelations