SPECIAL REPORT - tmp.ucsb.edutransformation. This one will help you anticipate and manage the gnarly, often-ignored details that destroy many a well-intentioned plan. THE PHASES OF

WINTER 2020

How to plan for transformation, the power of interpersonal collaboration in driving change, and the importance of giving employees space for transformative learning.

The Nuts and Bolts of Digital Transformation

DIGITAL

SPECIAL SPECIAL REPORTREPORT

SPECIAL COLLECTION • “THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION”• MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW i

SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU WINTER 2020 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 27

STRATEGIZING ABOUT DIGITAL CHANGE in your organization won’t get you anywhere unless you’re making plans and setting goals that people will actually execute. But most senior executives struggle to establish realistic expectations, largely because they don’t have a clear sense of how or why employees on the front lines adopt new tools.

Those are problems you can fix, says Paul Leonardi, a professor of technology man-agement at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in the opening article of this special report. By understanding the six phases of digital adoption, Leonardi explains, leaders can strategize in reverse. That entails knowing what the tools can achieve in local performance gains — and then working your way back to define meaningful company objectives and secure what’s needed to get things rolling in the first place: employee buy-in.

To spark transformation, it’s also critical to boost employee engagement and collaboration, according to Rob Cross and Wendy Murphy at Babson College, and Amy Edmondson at Harvard Business School. Their analysis suggests that certain leadership behaviors, such as creating an en-vironment of trust and imbuing work with purpose, determine how effectively people collaborate, how engaged they are, and how readily they embrace new ways of working.

Leading digital change involves giving employees space for transformative learning, as well. They need a low-risk “playground” to imagine who they might become, not just what they can do differ-ently, says Gianpiero Petriglieri, an organizational behavior professor at INSEAD. Petriglieri points out some of the biggest obstacles to such learning and explains how organizations can make it easier for individuals to explore uncharted territory in the quest for development and growth.

—The Editors

SPECIAL REPORT

1You’re Going Digital — Now What?

8A Noble Purpose Alone Won’t Transform Your Company

15Learning for a Living

THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF

DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION

SPECIAL COLLECTION • “THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION”• MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 1

S P E C I A L R E P O R T : T H E N U T S A N D B O LT S O F D I G I T A L T R A N S F O R M AT I O N

YOU’RE GOING DIGITAL — NOW WHAT?ENOUGH WITH THE TOP-DOWN STRATEGIZING. UNDERSTAND HOW CHANGE REALLY HAPPENS ON THE GROUND — AND PLAN FOR IT ACCORDINGLY.BY PAUL LEONARDI

At the 30,000-foot level of the corporate suite, plotting digital change is heady, ex-

citing stuff. Business leaders can almost smell the gains in efficiency and speed

and the data-driven increase in customer satisfaction when they think about all

the new tools at their disposal and how they might restructure their organiza-

tions. As one senior executive at a large telecommunications company recently

told me, “Mapping out a new approach to compete in the digital era has been so

cool!”

But here’s the decidedly less cool, more mundane truth that I’ve learned

after 16 years of working on such transformations with more than two dozen

companies across eight industries: Success depends less on strategic inspiration

than on the way people on the front lines implement new digital tools, and most leaders aren’t laying a

foundation for those employees to succeed. In large part, that’s because senior managers don’t have any idea

what really happens at the ground level. So they’re caught by surprise when tools don’t get used the way

they’re supposed to be (or even at all), data-driven insights prove unremarkable, and anticipated gains fail

to materialize. Their digital transformations become digital flops.

To avoid that fate, leaders must understand how digital tools come to be used widely and effectively so

that they can create an environment that provides optimal conditions. They can’t hand that work off to IT

and hope for the best.

28 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW WINTER 2020 BRIAN STAUFFER/THEISPOT.COM

BRIAN STAUFFER/THEISPOT.COM


In this article, using an automotive company’s

effort as an archetypal example, I’ll describe how

digital transformations tend to be experienced and

processed by those on the ground and then show

how reverse planning — working backward from

that reality, phase by phase, to set broad corporate

goals — leads to change that sticks. Plenty of arti-

cles offer theories about and strategies for digital

transformation. This one will help you anticipate

and manage the gnarly, often-ignored details that

destroy many a well-intentioned plan.

THE PHASES OF DIGITAL ADOPTION

Most digital transformation efforts are

launched with extensive rollout plans that

outline activities such as financing the

transformation, reorganizing the company to make

it agile enough to get the most out of digital tools,

developing data-driven insights that allow the

company to deliver more customized products, and

reducing time to market.

All of that is critical. But so is another process,

one that doesn’t get mapped out with similar rigor. I

like to refer to it as the Work Digitization Process, or

WDP for short. (See “How to Plan Your Company’s

Transformation.”) This is a set of six interlinked

phases of ground-level change that must happen for a

digital transformation to take off. More often than

not, these phases build upon one another, so early

wins presage later successes, while early failures make

each ensuing phase more difficult. To see how the

process unfolds, and to clearly understand the impact

of management action (or inaction), let’s look at how

things played out at one major international

automotive design company that we’ll call Autoworks.

PHASE 1: Leaders sell the digital transfor-

mation. Without widespread buy-in from employees,

any major change initiative will wither and die.

Digital transformations are no different. That’s why

the first step in a successful effort is to explain the

benefits of digital change to the workforce, which

may or may not be receptive to altering standard

operating procedures.

The leaders of Autoworks understood this. Like

many companies in the automotive industry,

Autoworks had embarked upon a digital transforma-

tion in the mid-2000s. One goal was to accelerate

product development while cutting costs in

resource-intensive areas. To launch a single new

model, for example, Autoworks would crash-test at

least 30 preproduction vehicles. Each test cost

roughly $750,000. New digital design tools, however,

could cut that figure drastically by allowing engineers

to build and test virtual cars on their computers. Even

better, those simulations would allow the engineers

to collect more data, further optimizing their ability

to design better, safer, cheaper cars. Eager to get

started, Autoworks’ senior leaders beefed up the com-

pany’s supercomputing center and licensed a slew of

digital design applications. The CEO declared, “We’re

going to be a digital company.”

Senior leaders were vocal and clear about the

change they wanted. Moving performance testing

onto digital applications meant that product devel-

opment could get done faster and cheaper. Directors

heard “faster and cheaper” in their staff meetings,

managers heard “faster and cheaper” in their division

meetings, and engineers heard “faster and cheaper”

over and over from managers, directors, and execu-

tives in training sessions, at conferences, during

all-hands meetings, and in everyday work. “Faster


HOW TO PLAN YOUR COMPANY’S TRANSFORMATIONBy understanding how change naturally rolls out, you can start your planning with where you want to end up — identifying the gains in performance you can achieve with new digital tools — and work back from there to set company goals that employees will embrace.

Causal Chain of Events

Planning Process

Leaders Campaign for Buy-In on Goals

Employee Behavior Changes

Employees Decide Whether to Use Tools

Local Performance Improves

Employees Decide How to Use Tools

Performance Aligns With Company Goals


30 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW WINTER 2020 SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU


and cheaper” became the mantra of the digital

transformation.

Studies show that employees listen when senior

leaders broadcast goals and announce bold initiatives

for achieving them.1 Early on, such pronouncements

create frames of reference that people use to under-

stand the technology they’re being asked to

implement. If you asked employees at Autoworks

how they would know whether new tools could

transform the organization, they would (and often

did) answer, “I’ll know if they help me build simula-

tion models faster and cheaper.”

PHASE 2: Employees decide whether to use the

new technology. Once leaders have brought digital

tools to the company, touted the anticipated benefits,

and adequately funded training, they fully expect

that employees will shift their work to the new

applications. There’s no guarantee that will happen,

though. My research has shown that roughly 40% of

potential users decided not to use the technology, even

when it was mandated by their direct supervisors.

That’s a big number — big enough, in fact, to

derail a digital transformation. So it’s important for

leaders to understand why so many employees

might make that choice. I’ve found that it’s typi-

cally not because the technology is inadequate (it’s

usually pretty good) and not because training is

poor (ditto). Rather, employees consider whether

the technology enables them, as individuals, to

carry out the goals announced by the company’s

leaders. At Autoworks, that meant that the engi-

neers asked themselves, “Will this software help me

develop new car designs faster and cheaper?”

As it turned out, not everyone thought it would,

so “faster and cheaper” was more complicated rhet-

oric than Autoworks’ leaders had imagined. The

phrase inadvertently encouraged people to com-

pare the new tools with the old ones they knew

inside out and could already use quite efficiently.

Some of the company’s top engineers, who served

as early adopters, did just that — and decided that

it was in their company’s best interest for them to

stick with the tools they were already using, because

the new software actually slowed their work down.

Although they could see that it had other distinct

advantages for the organization, they rejected it for

failing, in their experience, to create the gains that

company leaders had deemed most important.

Making matters worse, other engineers decided

that if a colleague they respected had rejected the

new software, they didn’t even have to give it a try.

The early experimenters thus became negative in-

fluencers in the network of company engineers,

although their comfort with the old tools may have

tainted their perception of the new ones.

Of course, senior leaders had intended that

“faster and cheaper” would be seen as the broad goal

of the transformation effort. They hadn’t consid-

ered how those words might scan at various levels

and influence granular decision-making. That’s

why senior leaders must take great care in crafting

their rhetoric. If it doesn’t match up with the reality

of how work gets done, their prized new technology

won’t get implemented in the way they hope.

PHASE 3: Employees decide how they will use

the new technology. Even if the new technology en-

counters a band of naysayers, the many employees

who do make the switch will come to a second criti-

cal decision: how to use it. This, too, is a complicated

choice with significant long-term ramifications.

Almost any digital technology, whether for busi-

nesses or for individual consumers, can be adopted

in many different ways. (Think of Microsoft Excel,

for instance, with its hundreds of features and pos-

sible uses.) But in a digital transformation, the

features people choose to apply are deeply conse-

quential, because they determine what kind of data

will be recorded, produced, or analyzed, and how

that data will be used.

Autoworks’ leaders believed that data was a key

benefit of moving design processes into a digital envi-

ronment. The use of simulation tools would make it

possible for engineers to run hundreds or thousands of

iterations of crash tests or noise and vibration tests. By

comparing all those results, engineers would be able to

optimize a vehicle’s design with far more sophistica-

tion than when the company ran a few dozen wrecks

with crash test dummies. At least, that was the theory.

For one year, I tracked two departments that

used the same digital tool for automating simula-

tion designs. In one department, engineers engaged

with the tool in widely varying ways, according to

individual preference. In the other, every engineer

used the same features in the same order. By the end

of that year, the vehicles designed by the latter group

were outperforming those created by the former by




a 2-1 margin. Why? Because the data produced by

the engineers who had followed the same path with

the same features had a uniform foundation and

could be analyzed for patterns of effectiveness. The

engineers who had followed their own paths pro-

duced just as much data, but the information arose

from varying assumptions and choices. These kinds

of differences around the company made it difficult

to create a set of best practices for the new digital

tools. If a central value of digital technologies is the

creation of data that can be mined for efficiencies

and other valuable learning, shaping consistent

usage patterns is essential.

PHASE 4: New kinds of data change the way em-

ployees behave. In its pre-digital days, Autoworks

had developed a handoff approach for moving data

across the company. In the case of vehicle design

testing, the standard operating procedure went like

this: Engineers conducted crashes and various other

tests, collected the data, and passed it along to the

data analysis group, where analysts tried to glean

universal principles for good vehicle design. There

were engineers; there were data analysts. The differ-

ence between the two groups was clear.

Remember those engineers who used the new

digital simulation tools in consistent ways to pro-

duce comparable data? They’re the ones who started

to change the status quo. They could see the results

of their own tests, of course, and could examine re-

sults in the aggregate. But they went a step further

and started talking to one another about their re-

sults and thinking about them together. As one

engineer commented, “Now that we’ve gone digital,

our roles as design engineers are changing.” Instead

of being siloed away from one another while they

ceded analysis to an equally siloed data analysis

department, the design engineers had become a

collaborative team of data analysts.

Some “by the book” managers tried to curtail

this empowerment by insisting on keeping analysts’

and engineers’ responsibilities separate. But this

process — of more and better data changing tasks,

resulting in changed roles and relationships — is an

inevitable byproduct of digital transformations. At

their core, relationships between people in differ-

ent roles are based on data. When employees start

performing new roles because they have new data

and information, they necessarily start interacting

with different people. The result is the formation

of new and initially invisible social networks.

According to some research, these powerful new

networks may be the most important ingredient in

driving digital transformations.2

PHASE 5: Performance improves locally. There’s

often a dichotomy between the targets business

leaders impose for their digital transformations and

the benefits employees experience at a local level.

Once they were effectively using the new digital

tools and comparing results with others in their

emerging social network, Autoworks’ engineers

started to see concrete gains that they could appreci-

ate. For instance, they found that it was becoming

easier for them to optimize designs to improve such

key variables as crashworthiness and fuel economy.

The process of moving from testing to final de-

sign solutions improved significantly as well. In fact,

according to my analysis, engineers who changed

their roles to incorporate data analytics and shifted

their social networks to interact with other engi-

neers solidified the design of their vehicles 23%

faster and with 31% fewer laboratory tests than en-

gineers whose roles didn’t change. In other words,

engineers were working faster and cheaper, after all.

That sounds like the kind of success Autoworks’

leaders had been hoping for. It is, but with two im-

portant caveats. The first, of course, is that 40% of

engineers had initially rejected the software because

they hadn’t found it obviously faster and cheaper. The

second is that those engineers who did achieve faster

and cheaper gains arrived at them via metrics that

mattered to them in their roles, like design quality

improvements. If senior executives had customized

Senior leaders must take great care in crafting their rhetoric. If it doesn’t match up with the reality of how work gets done, their prized new technology won’t get implemented in the way they hope.



their rhetoric early on to resonate with engineers’ own

experience of their work, they might have motivated

more engineers to adopt the new digital tools sooner

and secured even more significant gains.

PHASE 6: Local performance aligns with com-

pany goals. A digital transformation gets traction

when it meets key corporate goals by employing tech-

nologies that improve local processes and results.

One reason Autoworks chose to focus intently on

vehicle design is that 20 years of robust statistical

analysis had identified that process — along with

supply chain, regulatory compliance, and manufac-

turing efficiency — as critical to reducing the time it

took to get cars from concept to dealer. Better time to

market would accelerate top-line growth.

Needless to say, the company was happy that the

technologies led to faster and cheaper designs.

Rather than sit on its laurels, however, Autoworks

conducted a deep analysis of how the gains had been

achieved. That’s how it discovered the remarkable

value of the social network that had been unleashed

by the new design software: Engineers who spent

three times more hours discussing vehicle design

with one another than they spent instrumenting

simulation models dramatically reduced the amount

of rework that needed to be done in later stages of

development. Sure, new software helped engineers

speed the delivery of a final, optimized vehicle de-

sign, but the dialogue spurred by the software

accelerated things even more. By digging into its suc-

cess, Autoworks uncovered knowledge that could

fuel further improvements in the years ahead.

PLANNING IN REVERSE

T he six phases I’ve just described illustrate the

way change develops internally during a digi-

tal transformation. Now let’s turn to how

understanding this process should shape planning

for your own company’s transformation. As I men-

tioned earlier, the best way to plan is in reverse:

Start by assessing what company goals you can

achieve locally with new digital tools, and build

from there. In my experience, business leaders can

kick-start this process effectively by answering

three questions.

1. Which local activities have the most poten-

tial to transform your company? Many corporate

leaders know where they’d like their company to go,

but few have a clear sense of how to get there.

Identifying the local activities with the highest

potential to transform will affect which digital tools

you bring in, inform how you lay the groundwork

for implementation, and buttress your efforts to

rally the company behind the changes you seek.

First, you’ll need to assemble and analyze your

company’s data about what kinds of local outcomes

best drive big organizational goals. For instance, I

once worked with a large children’s hospital that re-

ceived many emergency transfers from community

hospitals and had identified an urgent need to im-

prove survival rates for these vulnerable patients.

Digging deep into its data, the children’s hospital

discovered an undeniable link between transfer pa-

tients’ survival and the quality of the initial diagnosis

before they arrived. Seeing this link allowed the hos-

pital to target a specific solution: a digital platform

BUSTING MYTHS ABOUT DIGITAL CHANGEImplementing transformation often belies the hype.

THE PERFORMANCE MYTH: New technologies have immediate and direct effects on performance. REALITY CHECK: New technologies usually have, at best, an indirect effect on organizational performance. They change the way employees perform their tasks, which alters people’s roles, which alters the networks of people who work together on tasks. Ultimately, these changes in roles and social networks are what drive improvement in key performance metrics.

THE NOT-MY-JOB MYTH: Implementing new technologies is the IT department’s job. REALITY CHECK: Implementation is a job for business leaders. Most IT depart-ments are accustomed to managing support applications, like Microsoft Office and CRM software. But today’s powerful digital tools allow users to manipulate and analyze data in ways that can reinvent an organization. Rolling them out re-quires keen business insight and management skills. Senior leaders are most equipped to sort out where to deploy them and to understand how the tools might reshape the culture. They’re the ones who know which influencers can accelerate adoption and which bureaucratic obstacles must be cleared. They’re in the best position to ensure that employees actually use the technology so that they can meet the company’s objectives.

THE FAILURE MYTH: Most digital transformation efforts fail because the technology didn’t work. REALITY CHECK: Most digital transformation efforts fail because employees didn’t use the new technology. There are two main reasons for this. First, when people are not sufficiently trained, they can’t apply new tools effectively, so they stop using them and find alternatives. Second, when leaders promise certain outcomes that don’t quickly materialize — like an increase in customer satisfaction or swifter time to market — employees will make a principled deci-sion that it’s in the best interest of the company for them to find other methods to secure those outcomes.




that allowed community hospital physicians with

little expertise in pediatric emergency care to record

details about a child’s physical condition that could

be easily read by the expert nurses and physicians at

the children’s hospital, making it easier to appropri-

ately triage transfer patients.

After you identify local activities that can drive

success, it’s important to measure the impact of

your digital efforts in order to improve them.

Sometimes those metrics are clear: The hospital

knew it was succeeding, for example, when survival

rates for transfer patients increased significantly.

When the metrics aren’t so obvious, it helps to

break down whatever process you’re trying to im-

prove into discrete steps.

For instance, one large financial services company

I worked with was intent on increasing knowledge

sharing. That’s a pretty multifaceted process, so we

broke it down into several steps, like helping employ-

ees accurately identify experts and communicate

with those experts. Then we launched surveys to

gauge how accurately employees assessed one anoth-

er’s expertise and what volume of communication

between people best facilitated knowledge transfer.

With those baseline scores in hand, the company

implemented an enterprise social networking tech-

nology that allowed employees to see what other

people were working on. By tracking changes in the

two measures every six months, we were able to mon-

itor the progress of the knowledge-sharing initiative.

That kind of local data is essential for any digital

transformation. It’s the only way to know whether

behaviors deep within the company are enabling or

hindering your change effort.

2. How can you foster information flow and be-

havioral change in your organization? Business

leaders must create an environment that encourages

and allows their people to achieve the local perfor-

mance gains that will drive transformation. To make

the most of powerful new data and analytics, employ-

ees need to be able to change tasks, roles, and social

networks fluidly. Leaders can free them up to do so by

understanding information flow and removing insti-

tutional obstacles to the positive social change that

follows an injection of powerful new data.

How does a diagnosis of information flow help?

Consider the example of a large public utility I

worked with. The company saw great potential for a

new digital technology that allowed for remote

monitoring of utility consumption. By constantly

measuring usage and sending repair crews out pre-

emptively, the utility could avoid disastrous failures

of transmission equipment. But how could the in-

formation flow within the company ensure that this

preventive maintenance actually took place? The

billing department, which already monitored usage

on a monthly basis, would have to coordinate with

the maintenance department, which was accus-

tomed to increasing and decreasing the number of

workers on the clock according to peaks or valleys in

demand. This meant that some employees in billing

would have to shift from being mere data aggrega-

tors and bill producers to being analysts (much like

the engineers at Autoworks). Recognizing this,

company leaders set up training sessions, estab-

lished new targets for employees who made the

transition, and hired new employees who already

had these skills. In the wake of this effort, a new

social network arose consisting of employees de-

voted to preventive maintenance, and the digital

transformation proved a great success. This kind

of diagnostic work is often called organizational

network analysis; it’s one of the most useful and

unheralded tools for digital change.3

As the example makes clear, it’s not enough for

business leaders to know who will be employing the

new technologies. They also have to know how

groups of employees currently interact, so they can

support the new social networks that are so critical to

success. One of the reasons employees don’t end up

collaborating with the right people during a digital

transformation is that their formal roles are mis-

aligned with their emerging roles. If you don’t enable

a formal role transition for your employees and

codify the changes by altering job descriptions and

how you evaluate people’s performance, they will

be unmotivated to develop the skills to be good col-

laborators with their new social network partners.

3. Who are your key influencers, and how can

they help your culture become digitally ready?

Remember those key influencers at Autoworks? Most

helped drive adoption of the new digital tools, but a

sizable minority became naysayers who led col-

leagues to avoid the new digital tools altogether. By

identifying influencers before the launch of a digital

transformation, you can enlist them in your efforts to



broadcast the promise of the coming digital change.

I once worked with the leaders of a large medical

device manufacturer that was about to embark on a

digital transformation entailing the introduction of

new technologies and a significant structural reorga-

nization. They had a big problem: A faction of

midlevel executives opposed the effort. The leaders

worried that if these naysayers dragged their feet, they

might sink the transformation in a bureaucratic mire.

Based on the Work Digitization Process, I knew

that the best way to counter this opposition was to

recruit the company’s key influencers. Influencers

aren’t necessarily the most popular people or those

highest on the food chain. More often than not,

they’re central players in the informal advice-seeking

networks of the company. To identify them, I con-

ducted an organizational network analysis by

asking employees two simple questions: “Whom do

you go to for advice about technical issues?” and

“Whom do you go to for advice about strategic is-

sues?” That helped identify the 10 key influencers

in each business unit.

It was then important to turn as many of them

as possible into proponents of the new changes. I

started by interviewing each one and learning

about their initial reactions to the change. Some

liked both the new digital tools and the reorg; oth-

ers thought both were terrible; and a third group

was mixed — they liked the reorg but not the tech-

nology, or vice versa. I then developed an internal

marketing plan for each group. Working with the

company, I provided hard data that supported the

first group’s inclination, giving them something

concrete to point to when evangelizing. Company

leaders and I then met with the second group to

show how the changes could amplify the positive

aspects of their current work patterns and discuss

ways that things they didn’t like could be improved.

We provided the third group with examples of how

the reorg and the new technologies could build on

each other to drive significant change. That solidi-

fied support and won over quite a few skeptics. We

deepened the influencers’ involvement by asking

them to help us generate the messaging that would

convey the benefits to the bulk of the workforce.

We didn’t win everyone over. But taking the

influencers seriously paid big dividends. In the

business units where we worked with influencers,

the company saw a more than 75% adoption rate

for the new digital tools; in the few business units

that we didn’t work with, less than 25% of employees

got on board.

BEHIND THE GLIMMERING PROMISE of becoming

a digital company lies a stark reality: Implementing

digital technologies to create meaningful change is

hard work. To make a digital transformation take off,

business leaders have to first understand the internal

chain of events that is set off by the introduction

of new technologies. Only then can they lay the

groundwork for success, working from the end of

that chain (those places where local improvements

can drive big corporate goals) to the beginning

(where business leaders exhort the workforce to sup-

port a massive digital disruption of the status quo).

Success doesn’t automatically arise from sparkling

rhetoric and bold promises. Instead, it depends on

decisions made by employees on the front lines. The

reverse planning outlined in this article will help

them make the right choices.

Paul Leonardi (@pleonardi1) is the Duca Family Pro-fessor of Technology Management at the University of California in Santa Barbara. He advises companies on how to use the data enabled by new technologies to lead digital transformation. Comment on this article at http://sloanreview.mit.edu/x/61215.

REFERENCES

1. D. Leonard-Barton and I. Deschamps, “Managerial Influence in the Implementation of New Technology,” Management Science 34, no. 10 (October 1988): 1252-1265; and W. Lewis, R. Agarwal, and V. Sambamurthy, “Sources of Influence on Beliefs About Information Tech-nology Use: An Empirical Study of Knowledge Workers,” MIS Quarterly 27, no. 4 (December 2003): 657-678.

2. G.C. Kane, A. Nguyen Phillips, J.R. Copulsky, et al., “The Technology Fallacy: How People Are the Real Key to Digital Transformation” (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2019); and J. Battilana and T. Casciaro, “Change Agents, Networks, and Institutions: A Contingency Theory of Organizational Change,” Academy of Management Journal 55, no. 2 (April 2012): 381-398.

3. R. Cross and A. Parker, “The Hidden Power of Social Networks: Understanding How Work Really Gets Done in Organizations” (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2004); and S.P. Borgatti, M.G. Everett, and J.C. Johnson, “Analyzing Social Networks,” 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 2018).

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SPECIAL REPORT - tmp.ucsb.edutransformation. This one will help you anticipate and manage the gnarly, often-ignored details that destroy many a well-intentioned plan. THE PHASES OF