Special Emphasis Handbook

8/11/2019 Special Emphasis Handbook

1/39

Special Emphasis Areas Handbook

FAA Airline Transport Pilot and Type Rating

Practical Test Standards Special Emphasis Areas(based onATP PTS FAA-S-8081-5F with Changes 1 & 2 - July 2008)

Revision: Rev. 1.0


2/39


3/39

Special Emphasis Areas Handbo ok

2 Rev. 1.0

This Page Intentionally Left Blank


4/39

Rev. 1.0 3


T BLE of CONTENTS

CH PTER P GE

Posi tive Aircraft Control.... 5

Procedures for Posit ive Exchange of Flight Controls.. 7

Stall and Spin Awareness.9

Special Use Airspace and Other Airspace Areas... 12

Coll is ion Avoidance Procedures. 14

Wake Turbulence and Low Level Windshear Avoidance Procedures.. 15

17

Land And Hold Short Operations (LAHSO).. 20

Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT).. 22

Aeronautical Decis ion Making (ADM) and Risk Management. 24

Crew Resource Management/Single-Pilot Resource Management (CRM/SRM) to

include Automation Management... 26

Recognit ion of Wing Contamination to Icing...29

Traffic Awareness, See and Avoid Concept.35

References.37

Runway Incursion Avoidance and Good Cockpit Discipline During Taxi Opera-

tions

Adverse Effects of Wing Contamination in Icing Condit ions During Takeoff,

Cruise and Landing Phases of Flight..... 32

Icing Procedures of Information Published by the Manufacturer, within the

AFM, that is specific to the Type of Aircraft.34


5/39


4 Rev. 1.0

This Page Intentionally Left Blank


6/39

Rev. 1.0 5


Positive Aircraft Control

Positive aircraft control is maintained by the smooth and positive application of controlactions to achieve stabilized flight. Positive control involves:

Coordinated, smoothly-executed control inputs

Avoidance of excessive angles of attack

Control of airspeed, pitch, bank and yaw

Positive control requires an ability to anticipate conditions that increase the risk oflosing aircraft control. Those conditions include, but are not limited to:

Wake turbulence

Windshear Crosswind

Contaminated runways

Disengagement of an automated system


7/39


6 Rev. 1.0

When turbulence, wind shear, or other unexpected forces disrupt stabilized flight, aproficient pilot promptly returns the aircraft to a stable configuration by executingsmooth, positive, and appropriate control actions.

Loss of positive control can also be caused by unexpected disengagement of theautopilot. Most autopilot systems are designed to disengage when the aircraft exceedsspecified operating limitations. Become thoroughly familiar with these limitations, andwith the mode indications for your autopilot. Continuously monitor your automatedsystems, and be prepared to resume manual control promptly. Neglecting to monitorthese systems decreases your situational awareness. The time youll use regainingthat awareness could be critical.

When flying with the autopilot engaged, assign one pilot to actively monitor theaircrafts actual flight path. Avoid situations in which both pilots are engaged in headsdown activity.


8/39

Rev. 1.0 7


Procedures for Positive Exchange of Flight Contro ls

Transfer of control of an aircraft should be accomplished using a standard operating

procedure that enhances the situational awareness of both crewmembers. Thisinvolves both a physical and a mental transfer. Following well-established StandardOperating Procedures (SOPs) will enhance safety by reducing the likelihood ofconfusion and uncertainty.

Positive transfer is defined as a challenge and response method of communicationwhereby the Pilot Flying (PF) maintains control of the aircraft until a deliberate andspecific response is received from the Pilot Monitoring (PM) indicating that he/she hasassumed control.

Prior to the physical transfer of control, an equally important mental transfer must

occur. The PF should brief the following appropriate items prior to relinquishingcontrol:

The challenge and response method ensures that both pilots are actively involved in,and aware of, the transfer of control. The use of specific phraseology preventsambiguity.

Pilot Flying (PF) Mental Transfer

Current clearance Altitude, Airspeed, Heading.

Navigation Where we are going ?

Level of automation Whats engaged, what mode its in.

Fuel Status Total fuel and any abnormal fuel

Communications To whom youre talking (approach,

center).

Any abnormal conditions Give details.


9/39


8 Rev. 1.0

When exchanging or transferring flight controls, a verbal briefing containing thealtitude, heading, automation status, and any crossing or clearance limits (if applicable)should be conducted between the crewmembers.

For example, Heading is two-two zero degrees, altitude is one-one thousand feet, theautopilot is engaged, and we have a crossing restriction at STONZ of three thousandfeet, you have the controls.

In turn, the pilot receiving the controls should acknowledge the items briefed byrepeating them back along with the phase, I have the controls.

The primary purpose for the briefing is to maintain the current level of situationalawareness between the two pilots. Omitting any of the variables during the exchangeof flight controls briefing may result in the aircraft violating an air traffic controlinstruction or expectation.

Several factors can contribute to a negative transfer of aircraft control, including:

Complacency

Lack of standardization

Distractions


10/39

Rev. 1.0 9


Stall and Spin Awareness

The following excerpt from AC 61-67C details the areas of emphasis for understanding

stall and spin awareness:

STALL/SPIN EFFECTS AND DEFINITIONS.A stall is a loss of lift and increase in drag

that occurs when an aircraft is flown at an angle of attack (AOA) greater than the angle

for maximum lift. If recovery from a stall is not effected in a timely and appropriate

manner by reducing the AOA, a secondary stall and/or a spin may result. All spins are

preceded by a stall on at least part of the wing. The angle of the relative wind is

determined primarily by the aircraft's airspeed and attitude. Other factors are

considered, such as aircraft weight, center of gravity, configuration, and the amount of

acceleration used in a turn.

Angle of At tack. AOA is the angle at which the chord line of the wing meets the

relative wind. The chord line is a straight line drawn through the profile of the wing

connecting the extremities of the leading edge and trailing edge. The AOA must be

small enough to allow attached airflow over and under the airfoil to produce lift. A

change in AOA will affect the amount of lift that is produced. Consequently, AOA is an

element of lift. An excessive AOA will disrupt the flow of air over the airfoil. If the AOA

is not reduced, a section of the airfoil will reach its critical AOA, lose lift, and stall.

Exceeding the critical AOA for a particular airfoil section will always result in a stall of

that section.

Stall travels fromStall travels from

wing tip inboardwing tip inboardAir flows perpendicularAir flows perpendicular

to wing at tipsto wing at tips

Stall travels fromStall travels from

wing tip inboardwing tip inboardAir flows perpendicularAir flows perpendicular

to wing at tipsto wing at tips


11/39


10 Rev. 1.0

Ai rspeed. Airspeed is controlled primarily by the elevator or longitudinal control

position for a given configuration and power. Conversely, airspeed is controlled by

power at a given configuration and AOA. If an airplane's speed is too slow, the AOA

required for level flight will be so large that the air can no longer follow the uppercurvature of the wing. The result is a separation of airflow from the wing, loss of lift, a

large increase in drag, and eventually a stall if the AOA is not reduced. The stall is the

result of excessive AOA - not insufficient airspeed. For example, at a 60 banked turn

in level coordinated flight, the load factor is 2 G's and the stall speed increases 40

percent over the straight and level stall speed. A STALL CAN OCCUR AT ANY

AIRSPEED, IN ANY ATTITUDE, AT ANY POWER SETTING.

Configuration. Flaps, landing gear, and other configuring devices can affect an

airplane's stall speed. Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will increase drag.

Flap extension will generally increase the lifting ability of the wings, thus reducing theairplane's stall speed. The effect of flaps on an airplane's stall speed can be seen by

markings on the airplane's airspeed indicator, where the lower airspeed limit of the

white arc (power-off stall speed with gear and flaps in the landing configuration) is less

than the lower airspeed limit of the green arc (power-off stall speed in the clean

configuration).

VSO. means the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing

configuration.

VS1. means the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified

configuration.

VA. is the design maneuvering speed. Do not use full or abrupt control movements at

or above this speed. It is possible to exceed the airplane structural limits at or above

VA.

Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wings to the

actual weight of the airplane and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in

terms of "G." The aircraft's stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the

load factor.

It should be noted that structural damage can result from the high load factors that

could be imposed on the aircraft by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane's

design maneuvering speed.

Center of Gravity (CG). The CG location has a direct effect on the effective lift and

AOA of the wing, the amount and direction of force on the tail, and the degree of


12/39

Rev. 1.0 11


The CG position, therefore, has a significant effect on stability and stall/spin recovery.

As the CG is moved aft, the amount of elevator deflection needed to stall the airplane

at a given load factor will be reduced. An increased AOA will be achieved with less

elevator control force. This could make the entry into inadvertent stalls easier, andduring the subsequent recovery, it would be easier to generate higher load factors due

to the reduced elevator control forces. In an airplane with an extremely aft CG, very

light back elevator control forces may lead to inadvertent stall entries and if a spin is

entered, the balance of forces on the airplane may result in a flat spin. Recovery from a

flat spin is often impossible. A forward CG location will often cause the stalling AOA to

be reached at a higher airspeed. Increased back elevator control force is generally

required with a forward CG location.

Weight. Although the distribution of weight has the most direct effect on stability,

increased gross weight can also have an effect on an aircraft's flight characteristics,regardless of the CG position. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the stall

speed increases. The increased weight requires a higher AOA to produce additional lift

to support the weight.

Al ti tude and Temperature. Altitude has little or no effect on an airplane's indicated

stall speed. Thinner air at higher altitudes will result in decreased aircraft performance

and a higher true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. Higher than standard

temperatures will also contribute to increased true airspeed for a given indicated

airspeed. However, the higher true airspeed has no effect on indicated approach or

stall speeds. The manufacturer's recommended indicated airspeeds should therefore

be maintained during the landing approach, regardless of the elevation or the density

altitude at the airport of landing.

Snow, Ice, or Frost on the Wings . Even a small accumulation of snow, ice, or frost

on an aircraft's surface can cause an increase in that aircraft's stall speed. Such

accumulation changes the shape of the wing, disrupting the smooth flow of air over the

surface and, consequently, increasing drag and decreasing lift. Flight should not be

attempted when snow, ice, or frost have accumulated on the aircraft surfaces.

Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at a significantly higher airspeed

than in stable conditions. A vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change inthe relative wind, and result in an abrupt increase in AOA. When flying in moderate to

severe turbulence or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach speed should

be maintained. In cruise flight in moderate or severe turbulence, an airspeed well

above the indicated stall speed and below maneuvering speed should be used. It

should be noted that maneuvering speed is lower at a lower weight.


13/39


12 Rev. 1.0

Special Use Airspace and Other Airspace Areas

Order JO 7400.8P and AC 210-5B outline the definitions of Special Use and Other

Airspace.

Special Use Airspace:

Special use airspace consists of airspace wherein activities must be confined because

of its nature and/or wherein limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that

are not a part of those activities.

Prohibited Areas

Designated airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited without the

permission of the controlling agency. Prohibited areas are designated for security, or

other reasons of national welfare.

Restricted Areas

Airspace established to denote the existence of unusual, often invisible hazards to

aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or missiles, etc. Penetration of restricted

areas my be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants and is legally

prohibited. Authorization to transit restricted areas which are not in use may be

obtained from the using or controlling agencies.

Warning Areas Definition.

Areas established in international airspace to identify for pilots where military activities

occur that can be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. Pilots planning to penetratewarning areas should contact the using or controlling agencies for real-time information

on the activities being conducted along their route of flight.

Military Operations Areas Definition.

Airspace established outside Positive Control Area (PCA) to separate/segregate

certain military activities from Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) traffic and to identify for

VFR traffic where these activities are conducted.

Alert Areas

Airspace which may contain a high volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type

of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to aircraft.

Controlled Firing Areas

Airspace wherein activities are conducted under conditions so controlled as to

eliminate hazards to non participating aircraft. Limitations are imposed on the use of

CFAs to ensure that these areas do not impact civil operations.


14/39

Rev. 1.0 13


Other Airspace Areas:

Temporary Flight Restrictions

Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations

Published VFR Routes

Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)

National Security Areas


15/39


14 Rev. 1.0

Collision Avoidance Procedures

Most midair collisions, and most near midair collision incidents, occur during good

weather and daylight hours. FAA Advisory Circular 90-48C, Pilots Role in CollisionAvoidance, explains pilots responsibilities for understanding and adhering to midaircollision and near-midair collision avoidance procedures.

AC 90-48C cites the following areas as warranting special attention:

See and Avoid:Maintain vigilance at all times, regardless of whether an operation isconducted under IFR or VFR.

Visual Scanning: Remain constantly alert to all traffic movement within yourfield of vision, and periodically scan the entire visual field outside your aircraft to

detect conflicting traffic.

Clearing Procedures: Before taxiing onto a runway for takeoff, scan theapproach areas for possible landing traffic by maneuvering your aircraft toprovide a clear view even if your takeoff clearance has been issued. Duringclimb and descent, execute gentle turns left and right to visually scan thesurrounding airspace.

Ai rspace, Fl ight Rules and Operational Equipment: Be aware of the type ofairspace in which you intend to operate, and comply with flight rules applicableto that airspace. General rules governing the operation of aircraft within the

United States are found in FAR Part 91. Information regarding the NationalAirspace System is disseminated in aeronautical charts, the AIM, and theNOTAM system.

Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eyemovements that bring successive areas of the sky into your central visual field. Eachmovement should not exceed 10 degrees, and should be observed for at least onesecond. Visual search at night depends almost entirely on your peripheral vision. Ifanother aircraft appears to have no relative motion, it is likely to be on a collisioncourse with you.

The basic AIM contains a section dealing with services available to pilots, includinginformation on VFR advisory services, radar traffic information services for VFR pilots,and recommended traffic advisory practices at non-towered airports. Remember thattraffic advisories are secondary to the controllers primary duties. Request trafficadvisories when they are available, and use them to augment your visual scanning.

ATC traffic advisories do not lessen your obligation to see and avoid traffic.


16/39

Rev. 1.0 15


Wake Turbulence and Low Level Windshear Avoidance Procedures

Wake vortices can be encountered in flight, as well as in an airport movement area. If

you encounter wake vortex, your ability to counteract its imposed roll depends primarilyon the wingspan and counter-control responsiveness of your aircraft. The probabilityof imposed roll increases when your heading is aligned with, or parallel to, thegenerating aircrafts flight path.

Imposed roll is minimal, and counter-control is usually effective, when the wingspan ofthe encountering aircraft extends beyond the vortex rotational field. Pilots of shortwingspan aircraft must be especially alert to vortex encounters.The following characteristics of vortex behavior are important:

Vortices remain spaced a bit less than a wingspan apart.

Vortices drift with the wind, at altitudes greater than a wingspan above the ground.

Vortices generated by large aircraft descend at a rate of several hundred feet perminute. The rate of descent slows in proportion to the time and distance behindthe aircraft.

Atmospheric turbulence hastens vortex breakup.

Greatest vortex strengths occur when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean andslow.

When the vortices of a large aircraft sink close to the ground, they tend to movelaterally over the ground at speeds of 2 to 3 knots (during no-wind conditions).

During ground operations jet engine blast can cause damage and upsets, ifencountered at close range. Light aircraft should maintain adequate separationfrom larger jet aircraft.

For VFR departures behind heavy aircraft, air traffic controllers are required to useat least a two-minute separation interval, unless a pilot has requested a deviationand has indicated acceptance of responsibility for maneuvering to avoid the waketurbulence hazard.


17/39


16 Rev. 1.0

Operational Tips for Avoiding Vortex Wake

When landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway, stay at or above that

aircrafts final approach flight path. Note the larger aircrafts touchdown point, and

land beyond it.

2. When landing behind a larger aircraft on a parallel runway closer than 2,500

feet, be alert to possible vortex drift onto your runway.

3. When landing behind a larger aircraft on an intersecting runway, cross above

the larger aircrafts flight path.

4. When landing behind a departing larger aircraft on the same runway, note that

aircrafts rotation point, and land well prior to that point.

5. When landing behind a departing larger aircraft on an intersecting runway, note

the aircrafts rotation point. If the larger aircraft rotates prior to reaching the

runway intersection, avoid flying below its flight path even if you must

abandon the approach.

6. When departing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway, rotate before

reaching the larger aircrafts rotation point. Continue to climb above the larger

aircrafts climb path until turning clear of its wake.

7. Pass over the flight path of the larger aircraft, altering course, if necessary, toavoid the area behind and below the larger aircraft.

8. If a larger aircraft has executed a missed approach, ensure that an interval of at

least two minutes has elapsed before your takeoff or landing.

9. If you must pass under the flight path of a larger aircraft, pass under it by at

least 1,000 feet.

10. Stay to the windward side of the larger aircrafts flight path.

11. Be especially cautious if there are larger aircraft upwind from your approach ortakeoff flight path.

12. Try to visualize the location of the vortex trail behind a larger aircraft.

13. Keep alert, especially on calm days, when vortices persist longest.


18/39

Rev. 1.0 17


Runway Incursion Avoidance and Good Cockpit Discipline During TaxiOperations

Two Advisory Circulars (AC 91-73 and AC 120-74) provide specific guidance on thedevelopment of standard operating procedures for safe taxi operations. These

Advisory Circulars emphasize the importance of planning, coordination andcommunication.

The FAA defines a runway incursion as:

Any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, orobject on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in loss ofseparation with an aircraft taking off, intending to take off, landing, orintending to land.

Runway incursions are distinguished from surface incidentsby the followingcriteria:

If an aircraft is sent around within one mile of the landing threshold due to anaircraft, vehicle or pedestrian on the runway, that is a runway incursion.

If the aircraft on final was a mile or more from the landing threshold, the event is

classified as a surface incident.

If a departing aircraft has been cleared for takeoff and is rolling down the runwaywhen the takeoff clearance is cancelled, that is a runway incursion.

If the takeoff roll has not commenced, the event is classified as a surface incident.

Los Angeles International (LAX)


19/39


20/39

Rev. 1.0 19


AC 91-73, Appendix 1: RUNWAY INCURSION PREVENTION, BEST PRACTICES

1. Read back all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions;

2. Review airport layouts as part of preflight planning and before descending to land,and while taxiing as needed;

3. Know airport signage;

4. Review Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) for information on runway/taxiway closures

and construction areas;

5. Do not hesitate to request progressive taxi instructions from ATC when unsure of

the taxi route;

6. Check for traffic before crossing any Runway Hold Line and before entering a

taxiway;

7. Turn on aircraft lights and rotating beacon or strobe lights while taxiing;

8. When landing, clear the active runway as quickly as possible then wait for taxi

instructions before further movement;

9. Study and use proper radio phraseology as described in the Aeronautical

Information Manual in order to respond to and understand ground control

instructions;

10. Write down complex taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports.


21/39


20 Rev. 1.0

Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

AIM 4-3-11 describes Land and Hold Short Operations as:

Operations which include landing and holding short or an intersecting runway, an inter-secting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway other than an intersectingrunway or taxiway.

LAHSO is a management tool used by Air Traffic Control (ATC) to increase airport ca-pacity, maintain efficiency and enhance safety. The success of this tool relies on par-ticipation by pilots and air traffic controllers to balance the needs for system efficiencyand safety. However, as the pilot in command, you are ultimately responsible for safeoperation of the aircraft, and you are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance, if itwould compromise safety.

When considering LAHSO operations, it is important to apply appropriate policies andprocedures. Before accepting a LAHSO clearance, seek all available information con-

cerning LAHSO procedures at the destination. Use pre-flight preparations and in-flightplanning to reduce your workload and increase your situational awareness.


22/39

Rev. 1.0 21


Pre-flight considerations include:

Locating the Available Landing Distance (ALD) and runway slope information foryour destination.

Calculating the Required Landing Distance (RLD) for your aircraft.

Determining which LAHSO combinations at the airport are acceptable.

Retrieving and interpreting the airports rejected landing procedures.

Ensuring that MEL requirements are satisfied.

In-flight considerations include:

Verifying that LAHSO capabilities can still be met.

Ensuring weather and visibility minima are satisfactory for LAHSO.

Verifying that the designated runway is dry and is free of contamination.

Determining if windshear limits have not been violated.

Ensuring that proper LAHSO communication protocols have been followed.

Accomplishing a stabilized approach.

Touching down within accepted limits.

Maintaining heightened situational awareness, including intra-cockpit communica-tion and traffic awareness.

Identifying the runway markings, signage and lighting associated with LAHSO.

LAHSO operations can benefit both ATC and your flight operation by assisting in eas-

ing airport congestion .


23/39


22 Rev. 1.0

Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) is one of the most frequent causes of fatal acci-

dents among corporate and air carrier operators.

CFIT is defined as an event in which a mechanically sound airplane is inadvertentlyflown into the ground, into water, or into an obstacle. The accidents cause is attrib-uted to flight crew error.

FAA Principal Operations Inspectors (POI's) are required to ensure that pilots in aircarrier operations receive both initial and recurrent simulator training in ground prox-imity warning escape maneuvers.

Although the number of CFIT-related accidents has declined since the introduction of

ground proximity warning systems (GPWS) in the mid-1970s, there is a need for con-tinued emphasis on reducing CFIT risks and avoiding CFIT accidents.


24/39

Rev. 1.0 23


Nearly all CFIT accidents can be attributed to the loss of vertical and/or lateralsituational awareness. Several risk factors either contribute to, or reflect, this loss ofawareness:

Incorrect or ambiguous altimeter settings, such as:

Inches of mercury versus millimeters of mercury, or millibars

Differences for transition altitude / transition level at non-U.S. airports

Descent below safe altitudes

Approach operations during below minimum weather

VFR flight during IMC conditions

Poor communication with Air Traffic Control

Flight crew complacency or distractions

Inadequate standard operating procedures

Improperly flown approaches

Failure to establish and maintain a stable approach

Failure to execute a missed approach or a rejected landing after recognizing non-stabilized approach conditions

Poorly-managed navigation aids / automated flight management systems

Flight crews can employ several practices to reduce their CFIT risks:

Conduct pre-flight and in-flight briefings

Maintain vigilance to latent errors when using navigation aids and automated flightmanagement systems

Comply with route and destination familiarization procedures

Adhere to altitude awareness techniques and procedures

Perform all mandatory call-outs (especially altitude call-outs) per SOP

Know GPWS functions and related escape

maneuvers

Participate in CFIT avoidance training, especiallyin recognizing potential CFIT traps


25/39


24 Rev. 1.0

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) provides a systematic approach to risk assess-ment. It is a tool to select the best response for a given set of circumstances. Optimaluse of ADM requires effective performance of Crew Resource Management (CRM)skills, especially in communicating with other crewmembers to maintain situationalawareness.

FlightSafety recommends the decision making process illustrated in the following dia-gram:

This continuous-loop process includes the following steps:

Recognize the need for a decision.

Identify the problem, and define it in terms of time and risk.

Collect facts.

Identify alternative responses.

Weigh the impact of each alternative response.

Select a response.

Implement that response.

Evaluate the effects of your response.

Decision Making ProcessDecision Making Process

Recognize

Need

Identify

and state

problem

Collect

facts

Identify

alternatives

Weigh

impact of

alternatives

Select

response

Implement

response

Evaluate

response

Recognize

Need

Identify

and state

problem

Collect

facts

Identify

alternatives

Weigh

impact of

alternatives

Select

response

Implement

response

Evaluate

response


26/39

Rev. 1.0 25


The DECIDE Model is another logical approach to decision making. The six elementsin this model also present a continuous-loop decision making process.

DECIDE ModelDetect the fact that a change has occurred.

Estimate the need to counter or react to this change.

Choose a desirable outcome (in terms of success) for the flight.

Identify actions that could successfully control the change.

Do what is necessary.

Evaluate the effects of your action on countering the change.

ADM enhances conventional decision-making by considering personal attitudes. Per-

sonal attitudes are considered hazardous attitudesif they distort a flight crews aware-ness of risks. ADM recognizes five hazardous attitudes and recommends an antidotefor each:

Hazardous Attitude Antidote

Anti-authority: Dont tell me . . . Follow the rules. They are usuallyright.

Impulsiveness: Do somethingquickly.

Not so fast. Think first.

Invulnerability: It wont happen tome.

It could happen to me.

Macho: I can do it all. Taking chances is foolish.

Resignation: Whats the use? Im not helpless.

I can make a difference.


27/39


28/39

Rev. 1.0 27


Briefings can help maintain a crews situational awareness. Conduct a pre-flightbriefing to plan task assignments, to distribute workload throughout your flight, and toclarify equipment issues. Use in-flight briefings to communicate and confirm revised

entries in your automated systems. Perform an arrival briefing to confirm your landingclearance and taxiing instructions.

Fatigue and stress can adversely affect your reaction times, your situationalawareness, and your decision-making ability. Remain vigilant to signs of fatigue andstress in yourself and in others. If necessary, re-distribute workload to avoidoverloading crewmembers whose capabilities are diminished by fatigue or stress.

Error management is another pivotal CRM concept. The best error managementstrategy is error avoidance. If you can anticipate an error, you may be able to avoid itsoccurrence. Monitoring NOTAMs, for example, may prompt you to avoid icing

conditions.

When an error cannot be avoided, you may still be able to detect and trap itsconsequences. You might, for example, fly into freezing rain without warning. But ifyou detect ice accumulation quickly, you may be able to fly out of the unfavorableweather before it jeopardizes your safety.

Most aviation accidents result from a series of errors rather than from a single event.That series of errors is known as an error chain. An inadequate pre-flight (the firstlink) may result in an in-flight abnormal or emergency situation (the second link). If not

handled properly (the third link), the emergency can result in an accident.

No matter where an error chain begins, established operating procedures may helpyou interrupt the chain and minimize its consequences. Abnormal and EmergencyProcedures are written specifically to provide this guidance. Departing from SOPs, onthe other hand, is a clue that you may be forging an error chain.


29/39


30/39

Rev. 1.0 29


Recogni tion of Wing Contamination to Icing.

The FARs detail the restrictions for operating in icing conditions:

Sec. 91.527 - Operating in icing conditions.

(a) No pilot may take off an airplane that has --

(1) Frost, snow, or ice adhering to any propeller,windshield, or powerplant installation or to an air-speed, altimeter, rate of climb, or flight attitudeinstrument system;

(2) Snow or ice adhering to the wings or stabiliz-ing or control surfaces; or

(3) Any frost adhering to the wings or stabilizing or control surfaces, unless that frosthas been polished to make it smooth.

(b) Except for an airplane that has ice protection provisions that meet the requirementsin section 34 of Special Federal Aviation Regulation No. 23, or those for transport cate-gory airplane type certification, no pilot may fly --

(1) Under IFR into known or forecast moderate icing conditions; or

(2) Under VFR into known light or moderate icing conditions unless the aircraft hasfunctioning de-icing or anti-icing equipment protecting each propeller, windshield, wing,stabilizing or control surface, and each airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb, or flight atti-tude instrument system.

(c) Except for an airplane that has ice protection provisions that meet the requirementsin section 34 of Special Federal Aviation Regulation No. 23, or those for transport cate-gory airplane type certification, no pilot may fly an airplane into known or forecast se-vere icing conditions.

(d) If current weather reports and briefing information relied upon by the pilot in com-

mand indicate that the forecast icing conditions that would otherwise prohibit the flight

will not be encountered during the flight because of changed weather conditions since

the forecast, the restrictions in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section based on forecast

conditions do not apply.


31/39


30 Rev. 1.0

There are four different types of deicing and anti-icing methods:

Mechanical

Broom or rope across wings

Engine pre-heat

Sun

Heater Hangar

Considered effective if the aircraft is coated with ice.

The downside is that it can be time consuming, ex-

pensive and ice melts within the hangar.

Fluid (Sprayed)

The most common technique for deicing/anti-icing of aircraft is the application of

chemical deicing/anti-icing fluids (ADF), which are composed primarily of ethylene or

propylene glycol. Temperature and weather conditions dictate the required concentra-

tion of glycol in ADF. Deicing/anti-icing fluids also contain additives, including corro-

sion inhibitors, flame retardants, wetting agents and thickeners that protect aircraft

surfaces and allow ADF to cling to the aircraft, resulting in longer holdover times (the

time between application and takeoff during which ice or snow is prevented from ad-

hering to aircraft surfaces).


32/39

Rev. 1.0 31


Contractor

Utilizes vendors, fixed based operators, and other carriers and requires specific aircraft

technique required to clean the aircraft. Consult the Airplane Flight Manual for these

details.

After deicing, crews should inspect the aircraft to ensure the process has been thor-ough and sufficient. Keep in mind it is impossible to detect minute but potentially fatalcontamination from inside the cockpit. A thin layer of clear ice can be extremely difficultto see unless a tactile inspection is performed on the aircraft surface.


33/39


32 Rev. 1.0

Adverse Effects of Wing Contamination in Icing Condit ions During Takeoff,

Cruise, and Landing Phases of Flight

It is essential that pilots understand that a small, almost visually imperceptible amountof ice distributed on an airplanes wing upper surface can have the same aerodynamicpenalties as much larger (and more visible) ice accumulations.

The only way to ensure that a surface is completely free from critical contamination is

to perform a tactile inspection. Frost from a distance can be very difficult to recognize

and is easily missed due to the white paint used on the upper wing surface of most air-

craft. It is a common misconception among pilots that if they have sufficient engine

power (thrust) available, they can simply power through any performance degradation

that might result from almost imperceptible amounts of upper wing surface ice accumu-

lation. THIS IS FALSE!Pilots of all experience levels seem to understand that visible and substantial ice con-

tamination on a wing can cause severe aerodynamic and control penalties, but recent

accident and incident history reports indicate that many pilots do not realize that minute

amounts of ice adhering to a wing surface can result in similar penalties.

The takeoff and landing sequence are the most critical stages where ice contamination

can cause a loss of control effectiveness, subsequent aerodynamic stall, and possible

departure from controlled flight.

Undetected upper wing ice contamination has been cited as the probable cause or sole

contributing factor in a disproportionate number of takeoff accidents of non-slatted, tur-bojet, transport-category airplanes. Two recent Challenger 604 accidents in Montrose,

Colorado and Birmingham, England respectively were due to inadequate preflight deic-

ing and anti-icing procedures, in addition to a failure to inspect the upper wing sur-

faces. Both accidents resulted in fatalities.

ENROUTE ICING RISK TABLE

CumulusClouds

CUMULUSCLOUDS

STRATIFORMCLOUDS

RAIN ANDDRIZZLE

HIGH 0 to -20C32 to -4F

0 to -15C32 to 5F

0C and below32F and below

MEDIUM -20 to -40C-4 to -40F

-15 to -30C

5 to -22F

LOW < than -40C


34/39

Rev. 1.0 33


Wind tunnel and flight tests conducted by NASA have shown that ice accumulations(on the leading edge or upper surface of the wing) no thicker or rougher than a piece ofcoarse sandpaper can reduce lift by 30 percent and increase drag up to 40 percent.

Non-protected surfaces, such as antennas, flap hinges, the fuselage frontal area, andwindshield wipers, are also an area that must be considered by even aircraft equippedfor flight into icing conditions. In one NASA study, results showed that close to 30 per-cent of the total drag associated with an ice encounter remained even after all the pro-tected surfaces were cleared.

Small accumulations an have the same results as:

Photos courtesy of NASA.


35/39


34 Rev. 1.0

Icing Procedures of Information Published by the Manufacturer, within the AFM,

that is specific to the Type of Aircraft

Crewmembers should consult the aircraft Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) to learn whatareas are considered critical areas for their specific aircraft type. The AFM may alsoprovide guidance on Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and engine usage during the deicingprocess. Crewmembers should insure that all personnel conducting the deicing andanti-icing procedures are familiar with the specific aircraft requirements. De-icing aKing Air 200 requires drastically different procedures than the deicing of a Gulfstream550. Never assume that ground personnel are trained on your aircraft type.

Most jet operators are equipped with heated wing leading edge surfaces. It should benoted that there are still jet aircraft in production, the Gulfstream 150 as an example,and numerous other turboprop aircraft that utilize a deicing boot for leading edge pro-tection. Recent studies and newer more advanced boot systems have debunked someboot myths of the past. In particular the issue of ice bridging has been revisited in re-cent studies. It has been determined that bridging does not occur with any modernboots. Pilots can cycle the boots as soon as an ice accumulation is observed on mostnew aircraft types. Pilots should reference their specific aircraft AFM for information onthe operation of their specific boot system.

In 2005 a Citation 560 operated by Circuit City Corporation departed controlled flightand crashed while on approach to Pueblo Memorial Airport (PUB), Pueblo, Colorado.The subsequent investigation determined that an in-flight icing encounter withSupercooled Large Water Droplets (SLDs) was a contributing factor to the accident.The report stated, The pilots were unaware that they were flying in conditions that theplane was not certificated for because there are no reliable methods for flight crews todifferentiate, in flight, between water drop sizes that are outside the certification enve-lope.

Pilots must recognize that even with ice detection and protection systems on boardtheir aircraft, they must maintain vigilance as to what icing conditions are being en-countered. AFMs can be good sources of information for the operation of surface deicesystems. When utilizing an AFM for guidance, a complete review of the manual shouldbe performed. In the accident mentioned above the Citation AFM stated in one sectionthat the deice boots be used when the ice buildup is between to inchesthick... While in a later section it was clearly stated, When configuring for approach

and landing with any ice accretion visible on the wing leading edge, regardless ofthickness, activate the surface deice system. A completeunderstanding of the deicesystems is essential to the safe operation of the aircraft.

Flight experience can lead to complacency. From 1990 to 2000 there were 388 icingrelated accidents in the United States. 105 of these accidents were fatal. Pilot experi-ence seems to have been a factor, but not in preventing the accidents. In 186 (48%) ofthe accidents the pilots involved had more than 1000 hours.


36/39

Rev. 1.0 35


Traffic Awareness, See and Avoid Concept

"See and Avoid" Concept.

1. The flight rules prescribed in Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) setforth the concept of "See and Avoid." This concept requires that vigilance shall be

maintained at all times, by each person operating an aircraft, regardless of whether

the operation is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) or Visual Flight

Rules (VFR).

2. Pilots should also keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining a

vigilant lookout regardless of the type of aircraft being flown. Remember that most

MAC accidents and reported NMAC incidents occurred during good VFR weather

conditions and during the hours of daylight.

Visual Scanning.

1. Pilots should remain constantly alert to all traffic movement within their field of vi-

sion as well as periodically scanning the entire visual field outside of their aircraft to

ensure detection of conflicting traffic. Remember that the performance capabilities

of many aircraft, in both speed and rates of climb / descent, result in high closure

rates limiting the time available for detection, decision, and evasive action

2. The probability of spotting a potential collision threat increases with the time spent

looking outside, but certain techniques may be used to increase the effectiveness

of the scan time. The human eyes tend to focus somewhere, even in a featurelesssky. In order to be most effective, the pilot should shift glances and refocus at inter-

vals. Most pilots do this in the process of scanning the instrument panel, but it is

also important to focus outside to set up the visual system for effective target acqui-

sition.

3. Pilots should also realize that their eyes may require several seconds to refocus

when switching views between items in the cockpit and distant objects. Proper

scanning requires the constant sharing of attention with other piloting tasks, thus it

is easily degraded by such psycho physiological conditions such as fatigue, bore-

dom, illness, anxiety, or preoccupation.

4. Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye

movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each

movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed for at

least 1 second to enable detection. Although horizontal back and forth eye move-

ments seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern

that is most comfortable and then adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.


37/39


36 Rev. 1.0

5. Peripheral vision can be most useful in spotting collision threats from other aircraft.

Each time a scan is stopped and the eyes are refocused, the peripheral vision

takes on more importance because it is through this element that movement is de-

tected. Apparent movement is almost always the first perception of a collision threatand probably the most important, because it is the discovery of a threat that triggers

the events leading to proper evasive action. It is essential to remember, however,

that if another aircraft appears to have no relative motion, it is likely to be on a colli-

sion course with you. If the other aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion, but is

increasing in size, take immediate evasive action.

6. Visual search at night depends almost entirely an peripheral vision. In order to per-

ceive a very dim lighted object in a certain direction, the pilot should not look di-

rectly at the object, but scan the area adjacent to it. Short stops, of a few seconds,

in each scan will help to detect the light and its movement.

7. Lack of brightness and color contrast in daytime and conflicting ground lights at

night increase the difficulty of detecting other aircraft (8) Pilots are reminded of the

requirement to move one's head in order to search around the physical obstruc-

tions, such as door and window posts. The doorpost can cover a considerable

amount of sky, but a small head movement may uncover an area which might be

concealing a threat.

Ai rspace, Flight Rules, and Operational Environment.

1. Pilots should be aware of the type of airspace in which they intend to operate in or-der to comply with the flight rules applicable to that airspace. Aeronautical informa-

tion concerning the National Airspace System is disseminated by three methods:

aeronautical charts (primary); the Airman's Information Manual (AIM); and the No-

tices to Airmen (NOTAM) system. The general operating and flight rules governing

the operation of aircraft within the United States are contained in Part 91 of the

FAR.

2. Pilots should use currently effective aeronautical charts for the route or area in

which they intend to operate.


38/39

Rev. 1.0 37


References

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers.

AC 90-66, Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns and Practices for Aeronautical

Operations at Airports Without Operating Control Towers.

AC 120-57, Surface Movement Guidance and Control System.

AC 120-71, Standard Operating Procedures for Flightdeck Crewmember, 8/10/00

AC 61-134, General Aviation Controlled Flight into Terrain Awareness, 4/10/3

Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall Awareness Training Study.

FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.

FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook.

AC 61-67C, Stall and Spin Awareness Training, 9/25/00

FAA-S-8081-5F, Airline Transport Pilot and - Practical Test Standards for Airplane.

FAA AC 120-74A, Runway Incursion Prevention Introduction, 9/26/03 and Appendix 1,

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Template for Ground Operations and the

Prevention of Runway Incursions, 9/26/03.

AC210-5B, Military Flying Activity, 8/8/90

FAA, Order JO 7400.8P

AC 90-48C, Pilots Role in Collision Avoidance, 3/18/83

AC 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and Flight Crew Procedures During Taxi Operations and Part 135

Single-Pilot Operations, 6/18/01

AC 120-51E, Crew Resource Management Training, 1/22/04

NBAA Automated Flight Deck Training Guidelines: June 30, 2000

AC 61-115, Positive Exchange of Flight Controls, 3/10/95

FAA Inflight Aircraft Icing Plan, April 1997

NASA

Acknowledgments to the following contributors: Victoria Benefield, Geno Cromatie, Geoff

Diener, Molly X. Gee von Holdt, Rick Goad, Bill Griffith, Shannon Forrest, Sandra Moore, Kim

Sanchez, Larry Schuman.


39/39

Documents

Special Emphasis Handbook