Speaking with one's self - Autoscopic phenomena in writings from

Shahar Arzy, Moshe Idel,Theodor Landis & Olaf Blanke

Speaking With One’s SelfAutoscopic Phenomena in Writings

from the Ecstatic Kabbalah

Abstract: Immediate experience localizes the self within the limits of the physical

body. This spatial unity has been challenged by philosophical and mystical tra-

ditions aimed to isolate concepts of mind and body. A more direct challenge of

the spatial unity comes from a well-defined group of experiences called

‘autoscopic phenomena’ (AP), in which the subject has the impression of seeing

a second own body in an extrapersonal space. AP are known to occur in many

human cultures and have been described in healthy, as well as neurological and

psychiatric populations. In this article we investigate the phenomenology of AP

as described in the writings of the ecstatic Kabbalah of the thirteenth century,

and search for similarities and differences with respect to AP from these and

other populations. The article discusses potential common research areas

between cognitive science and the science of religious experience.

Key words: autoscopic phenomena, ecstatic Kabbalah, neurology, phenomenol-

ogy, mystical experience, temporo-parietal junction.

I: Introduction

Autoscopic phenomena (AP) are defined as illusory visual experiences during

which the subject has the impression of seeing a second own body in extra-

personal space (Devinsky et al., 1989; Brugger et al., 1997). During some AP a

fundamental component of the self is isolated, as the self experiences itself

beyond the corporeal boundaries. Thus, it has been argued that the investigation

of AP is a valuable tool in the scientific study of the self (Blackmore, 1982;

Irwin, 1985; Blanke et al., 2004; Blanke & Arzy, 2005). Moreover, Metzinger

Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12, No. 11, 2005, pp. 4–29

Correspondence:Shahar Arzy, Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Brain-Mind Institute, Ecole PolytechniqueFédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. Email: [email protected]

(2005) suggests that philosophy and folk-psychology include AP in their defini-

tion and exploration of the self, as well as in the creation of theories concerning

the interactions between body–soul and brain–mind (see also Rank, 1925;

Sheils, 1978; Metzinger, 2003). However, AP are rarely discussed in the

neuroscientific literature, though they have long fascinated writers and physi-

cians (for review see: Dening & Berrios, 1994).

Another approach that may further our understanding of self and AP may be

the detailed analysis of mystical experiences. The person’s body and self have a

prominent role in mysticism (Idel, 1990; Hollenback, 1996; Forman, 1998). For

example, mystical experiences may be characterized by feelings of expanding

one’s body beyond its physical limits; feelings of forgetting one’s own body; or

sensing ‘something’ filling the body (Idel, 1988; 1990; Forman, 1998). In other

instances, the self is perceived as semi-permeable, while others have reported a

unity between self and object; splitting of the self; or experienced themselves in

bizarre positions (Forman, 1998). Forman claims that mystical experience facili-

tates a direct approach in understanding such phenomena. These, in turn, may

teach us relevant characteristics about the relations between mind, conscious-

ness and self-consciousness, found usually within complex mental activities and

perceptions. Although Forman (1998) emphasizes the value of meditation tech-

niques and non-ecstatic mysticism, others suggest the importance of ecstatic

mysticism for a better understanding of consciousness (see Appendix A). Thus,

Hollenback (1996) understands the term ‘ex-stasis’ as an ‘out-of-body experi-

ence’, which include a variety of phenomena such as AP (see below), ‘journey of

the soul’ (i.e. experience of leaving the body, paralysed or asleep, with paranor-

mal experience of encountering ‘heavenly entities’) and unio-mystica. (i.e. expe-

rience of unification with the divine) (Idel, 1990).

The present paper will discuss one group of these phenomena, namely volun-

tarily induced AP in a mystical trend of the Jewish Kabbalah of the thirteenth

century. These mystics induced AP by using a specific technique as described

previously (Idel, 1988; 1989; 2001). It is hoped that our analysis will clarify the

following points: First, deciding whether AP were involved in the ecstatic

Kabbalah, and if so, which one. Second, to compare their AP with those experi-

enced amongst contemporary healthy subjects as well as brain damaged patients.

Third, to further our understanding of AP and self models. Fourth, to shed light

on the historical evolution in understanding ‘self’ (Metzinger, 2005). A final

point concerns the scholarship of mysticism: the comprehension of different

experiences of revelation with respect to known neurological phenomena may

help in understanding mechanisms of religious experiences and vice versa.

II: Autoscopic Phenomena

Three distinct forms of autoscopic phenomena have been defined (see Fig. 1):

(1) Autoscopic hallucination (AH): the experience of seeing a ‘double’ of one-

self in extrapersonal space viewed from the perspective of one’s own physi-

cal body, i.e. in AH the subject feels his ‘self’ or centre of awareness within

SPEAKING WITH ONE’S SELF 5

the physical body (Dening and Berrios, 1994; Brugger et al., 1997; Blanke

et al., 2004).1

(2) Out-of-body experience (OBE): people are awake and feel their centre of

awareness as located outside their physical body. The subjects ‘see’ their

body and the world from an elevated extrapersonal location, resulting in per-

ceptions which are organized consistently with this visuo-spatial perspec-

tive (Lukianowicz, 1958; Grüsser & Landis, 1991; Blanke et al., 2004).

(3) Heautoscopy (HAS): an intermediate form between AH and OBE. During

HAS subjects also see their double in extrapersonal space; although it may

be difficult for the subjects to decide whether they are disembodied and

whether the self is localized in the physical or the double’s body. In addi-

tion, subjects may experience the world from two simultaneous or alternat-

ing visuo-spatial perspectives: the habitual physical visuo-spatial

perspective and the extracorporeal one (Brugger et al., 1994; Blanke et al.,

2004).

6 S. ARZY, M. IDEL, T. LANDIS & O. BLANKE

Figure 1. Phenomenology of Autoscopic Phenomena (AP)

Figure 1a. Autoscopic hallucination: experience of seeing one’s body in extracoporeal space (as adouble) without disembodiment (experiencing the self as localized outside one’s physical bodyboundaries). The double (right figure) is seen from the habitual egocentric visuo-spatial perspec-tive (left figure).

Figure 1b. Heautoscopy: an intermediate form between AH and OBE; the subject experiences see-ing his body and the world in an alternating or simultaneous fashion from an extracorporeal and hisbodily visuo-spatial perspective; often it is difficult for the subject to decide whether the self islocalized in the double or in one’s own body.

Figure 1c. OBE: During an OBE the subject appears to ‘see’ himself (bottom figure) and the worldfrom a location above his physical body (extracorporeal location and visuo-spatial perspective; topfigure). The self is localized outside one’s physical body (disembodiment).

The directions of the subject’s visuo-spatial perspective during the APare indicated by the arrows (modified from Blanke, 2004a).

[1] Dening & Berrios distinguished between AH and OBE as did Devinsky et al. (1989); previousauthors like Menninger-Lerchenthal (1935) and Hécaen & Ajuriaguerra (1952) distinguishedbetween AH and HAS.

AP are mainly described visually (leading probably to their name), though not

limited to visual manifestations. In fact, there are several associated non-visual

sensations mostly vestibular sensations, such as floating, elevation, lightness,

tilting or vertigo (Hécaen & Ajuriaguerra, 1952; Grüsser & Landis, 1991;

Blanke et al., 2004) as well as body schema disturbances and visual body part

illusions, such as the illusion of shortening, transformation or movement of an

extremity (Menninger-Lerchenthal, 1935; Hécaen & Ajuriaguerra, 1952;

Frederiks, 1969; Devinsky et al., 1989; Brugger et al., 1997). In addition to these

sensory manifestations, AP are also associated with various emotions. Fear was

reported most often, but also feelings of joy and elation. Some subjects consid-

ered the experience as neutral, yet intriguing and surprising (Devinsky et al.,

1989; Brugger et al., 1994; Blanke et al., 2004).

AP are associated with a wide range of neurological diseases: epilepsy,

migraine, neoplasm, infarction, and infection (Grüsser & Landis, 1991; Dening

& Berrios, 1994). Recent neurologic reports support the role of multisensory

integration deficits of body-related information and vestibular dysfunctions in

AP at the temporo-parietal junction (Blanke et al., 2004; see also Blanke & Arzy,

2005), but other brain regions have also been implicated (Menninger-

Lerchenthal, 1935; Hécaen & Ajuriaguerra, 1952; Devinsky et al., 1989;

Grüsser & Landis, 1991; Dening & Berrios, 1994; Brugger et al., 1997)

Although AP are often related to clinical situations, they have been found in

10% of the general population, occurring once or twice in a lifetime (Blackmore,

1982). AP are thus quite frequent experiences. Yet, their rarity in a lifetime, and

their appearance mostly outside a clinical setting contribute to the lack of scien-

tific examination within behavioural neurology and cognitive neuroscience.

Nevertheless, AP (in the normal population) have been illustrated in many cul-

tures (Blackmore, 1982). Yet, there are also some differences, which may be due

to alternative approaches to the definition of body-boundaries that have been

developed in different cultures. Eastern cultures generally have wider body bor-

ders and may include subjects and objects from extrapersonal space, while west-

ern cultures rather restrained the borders of the self and tied the self to the body

borders (Kleinman, 1988). The ecstatic Kabbalists mediate between these two

cultures in their emphasis on inducing AP, as well as in their influence on west-

ern mysticism and on its historical, cultural and intellectual consequences

(Wirszubski, 1969; Scholem, 1969; Eco, 1989; Idel, 1989). In the following the

ecstatic Kabbalists and their approach to AP will be presented. This will be fol-

lowed by a detailed phenomenological analysis and discussion of the similarities

and differences of their experiences with respect to AP in healthy and

neurological subjects.

III: The Ecstatic Kabbalah and its Technique

Abraham Abulafia was a thirteenth-century mystic who mainly lived in south-

western Europe (see box 1). His mystical method focused on the nature of the

human being and ways to reach states of prophetic-like ecstasy. The method was

based on specific techniques, experiences and perceptions, unlike most


Kabbalah mystics — the Theurgic Kabbalists — who endeavoured to describe

the structure of the divine and the processes running in them (Idel, 1988; Pines,

1988; Idel, 1990). Abulafia envisioned his prophetic-ecstatic Kabbalah as more

advanced than previous forms, since it dealt mainly with linguistic matters.

Thus, Abulafia invented a special technique using the basic stones of the 22

Hebraic letters and their combinations (Pines, 1988). The main ‘prophetic-

ecstatic’ experience was characterized by the visual appearance of a human

form. This form had the appearance of the mystic himself (the double or

Doppelgänger), talked to the mystic,2 and is similar to AP that we described

above. In their writings, Abulafia and his followers detailed their methods and

techniques, and described their visual and other sensory sensations during

ecstasy in quite a detailed fashion.


Box 1: Abraham Abulafia

Born in Saragossa, Spain, in 1240, Abulafia’s life was characterized by ceaseless

wandering. His first journey was to Israel when he was twenty years old. On his

return he decided to go to Rome, but stopped short in Capua, where he devoted him-

self with passionate zeal to the study of philosophy and the ‘Guide for the per-

plexed’ by Maimonides, under the tutelage of the well-known philosopher and

physician Hillel ben-Samuel of Verona. With an eagerness to teach others, he wrote

extensively on Kabbalistic, philosophical, and linguistic subjects, succeeding in

surrounding himself with numerous students, to whom he imparted much of his

enthusiasm. At the age of thirty-one he returned to Barcelona, where he immersed

himself in the study of the book ‘Yetzirah’ [Creation] and its numerous commentar-

ies. This book explains the creation of the world and man as based on letter combi-

nations. The book, and particularly the commentary and method of the German

mystic Eleazar of Worms, exercised a deep influence upon Abulafia, and greatly

increased his mystical tendencies. Letters of the alphabet, numerals, vowel-points,

all became symbols of existence to him. Their combinations and permutations pos-

sessed for him an illuminating power most effective in ameliorating his degree of

perception and his ability to explore the riddles of mind, the problems of human life,

and the purpose of the perceptions.

Abulafia soon left Spain again, and in 1279 wrote in Patras, Greece, the first of

his prophetic books, Sefer ha-Yashar (The Book of the Righteous). Then, in 1280,

he went to Rome to meet Pope Nicholas III. The Pope, then in Suriano, issued orders

to burn the fanatic as soon as he reached town. The very night Abulafia arrived to

Suriano, the Pope suddenly died. Returning to Rome, Abulafia was thrown into

prison by the Minorites, but was released after four weeks detention. He was next

heard of in Sicily, where he appeared as a prophet. The local Jewish congregation in

Palermo addressed this issue to Shlomo ben-Aderet, who subsequently wrote a let-

ter against Abulafia. Abulafia had to take up the pilgrim’s staff anew, and under dis-

tressing conditions compiled his Sefer ha-Ot (The Book of the Sign) on the little

island of Comino, near Malta, 1285–88. In 1291 he wrote his last work, Imre Shefer

(Words of Beauty). Since then, all traces of him are lost (Adopted from Idel, 1988;

1989; Kohler et al., 2002).

[2] This linkage of linguistics and human form is derived from the second to sixth century ‘Book of Cre-ation’ and from the idea that a demiurgic power is hidden in the speech and the letters (Scholem, 1971).

The ecstatic Kabbalists referred to the feeling of an ‘autoscopic’ body as a

higher mystical achievement. Such a connection, between mysticism and bodily

sensation, was known from ancient times. Thus, one of the texts of Hellenistic

magic, ‘Mitrash Liturgy’, contains a passage that speaks of man’s ‘perfected

body’ (Dietrich, 1923). In the Gnosis, there are also meetings between man and a

primal celestial image, the Doppelgänger. According to the song of the pearl and

the song of the soul this is one of the highest forms of self-knowledge

(Reitzenstein, 1927; Meirovitch, 1972; Scholem, 1991), and comparable to

eastern methods of Yoga or Tantric meditation,3 Iranian Zoroastrianism and

oriental-Greek Hesychasm4 (Pangborn, 1983; Idel, 1988; Couliano, 1991). Yet,

whereas in these other traditions the eventual goal is the achievement of maximal

concentration by repeating a simple formula, Abulafia suggested a method that is

based on a stimulus that continuously changed (Idel, 1988). His intention is not

to relax the consciousness by meditation,5 but to purify it via a high level of con-

centration which required doing many actions at the same time. For this, he used

letters. He proposed to take two ‘Names’ that may contain up to 72 letters each,

and pair them, resulting in as much as 5000 variations of combinations (Fig. 2a).

To each letter, he added one of five possible vowels, creating up to 25,000 com-

binations. This may be related to absorption, which Irwin (1985) has described

as an important factor in OBEs. An individual in a state of absorption is in a

‘heightened sense of the reality of the object of attention, even when the object is

imaginal’ (Irwin, 1985, p. 280). To this basis Abulafia suggested adding physio-

logical manoeuvres and mental imagery, similar to those utilized in modern

experiments in cognitive science which use such techniques to induce similar

conditions (Fig. 2b) (Palmer, 1978; Pylyshyn, 1979; Zacks et al., 1999; Blanke

et al., 2005; see discussion).

Abulafia’s method includes three steps (Idel, 1988). The first step, prepara-

tion: the mystic writes out different letter combinations (Fig.2a). The second

step, physiological manoeuvres: the mystic chants the letters in conjunction with

specific respiratory patterns, as well as head positioning. The third step, mental

imagery of letters and human forms: the mystic imagines a human form, and

himself without a body. Then the mystic ‘draws’ the letters mentally, projects

them onto the ‘screen’ of the ‘imaginative faculty’, i.e. he mentally imagines the

patterns of figure 2a. He then rotates the letters and turns them, as Abulafia

describes in Imrei Shefer:


[3] There is an important similarity between Abulafia’s technique and Tantric Sadhana practices. Bothinclude mental rotation of letters and words, their recitation, and visualization of oneself as facinganother similar image (see Gyatso, 1996). Mutual influence between eastern traditions such as IndianTantra or Shamanism and western mystical techniques such as the one discussed here are also plausi-ble (see for example Idel, 2005), and this influence requires further investigation.

[4] In all of the rich magical papyri material there are very few Greek instructions on how to attain this‘self-vision’, which we would expect, following Socrates’ advice that in order to ‘know thyself!’ oneshould ‘see thyself!’ (Scholem, 1991). Using Abulafia’s method, the mystic might follow thisSocratic order when inducing AP during meditation.

[5] As it is suggested by Bowers & Glasner (1958); in the same notion, it is hard to accept Abulafia’smethod as self-hypnosis. In hypnosis, the subject is required to lower his mental and physical activity,the opposite of Abulafia’s requirements.

And they [the letters], with their forms, are called the Clear Mirror, for all the forms

having brightness and strong radiance are included in them. And one who gazes at

them in their forms will discover their secrets and speak of them, and they will speak

to him. And they are like an image in which a man sees all his forms standing in front

of him, and then he will be able to see all the general and specific things (Ms. Paris

BN 777, fol. 49).

During the final step of mental imagery, the mystic passes a succession of four

experiences. The first is an experience of body-photism or illumination, in which

light not only surrounds the body but also diffuses into it, giving the impression

that the body and its organs have become light.6 As the ecstatic Kabbalist contin-

ues to practise, combining letters and performing physiological manoeuvres, the


Figure 2. Letters tasks

Figure 2a. Abulafia’s letter combinations task: Combinations of pairs of letters and vowels(� = A; � = y) before and after transformations. The signs underneath and above the letters are thevowels, which indicate different expression of each pair. See Idel (1988) for further details.

Figure 2b. Contmporary letter transformations task: the four different stimuli as used in theletter transformations task of Blanke et al. (2005), designed to distinguish self mental-rotationfrom external object’s mental-rotation.

[6] The connection between light and body was described in a school in Greece around the same time. Inthe history of Simon the theologian of the eleventh century the experience is described as coming into

result is the second experience: weakening of the body, in an ‘absorptive’ man-

ner as described above.7 Subsequently, the mystic may feel an enhancement of

his thoughts and imaginative capacity (as described in Sha’arei Tzedeq). This is

the third experience. The fourth experience is characterized mainly by fear and

trembling.8 Abulafia emphasizes that trembling is a basic and necessary step to

obtain prophecy (Sitrei Torah, Paris Ms. 774, fol. 158a). In another place he

writes: ‘all your body will begin to tremble, and your limbs begin to shake, and

you will fear a tremendous fear […] and the body will tremble, like the rider who

races the horse, who is glad and joyful, while the horse trembles beneath him’

(Otzar Eden Ganuz, Oxford Ms. 1580, fols. 163b-164a; see also Hayei Haolam

Haba, Oxford 1582, fol. 12a). For Abulafia the fear is followed by an experience

of pleasure and delight. This feeling is a result of sensing another ‘spirit’ within

his body, as he describes in Otzar Eden Ganuz: ‘And you shall feel another spirit

awakening within yourself and strengthening you and passing over your entire

body and giving you pleasure’ (Oxford Ms. 1580 fols. 163b-164a). Yet, a feeling

of happiness is rare in descriptions given by Abulafia’s followers. As one of his

students writes (in Sha’arei Tzedeq): ‘enormous trembling seized me, and I

couldn’t gather strength, and my hair stood on end’ (Jerusalem Ms., 148 8° fols.

64b-65a). Only after passing these successive experiences does the mystic reach

his goal: the vision of a human form, which is closely linked to his own physical

appearance (see below) and generally experienced as standing in front of the

mystic. The experience is increased when the mystic experiences his autoscopic

form (or ‘double’) as speaking: the double begins to talk to the mystic, teaching

him the unknown and revealing the future.

IV: Neurophenomenology

In this section we will describe autoscopic experience of seven ecstatic

Kabbalists.9 Using ‘technical’ mysticism, their writings are instructive, leading

the performer through the sensations they experienced. Rarely, they express

their experiences as first person descriptions.10 However, the similarity between

the instructional directives and the first person descriptions suggest that the

instructions were probably based on first person experience.


the body (Hausherr, 1929); There were some attempts to explain these experiences, however withoutestablished rational fashion (Zimmer, 1960; Deikmann, 1962). For a general review of the light inmysticism see Eliade (1969).

[7] Other mystics ‘weakened’ themselves or their bodies by other methods. For instance, the author of thebook Sha’arei Tzedeq avoided sleeping for two nights, similar to descriptions of people who had APafter great efforts, like marathon running (Metzinger, 2005) or 12 hour-long work as a waitress(Green, 1968).

[8] These feelings are described prior to OBEs (Green, 1968; Blackmore, 1982; Irwin, 1985; Blanke etal., 2004).

[9] The descriptions are based on the work of Idel (1988; 1989; 2001).

[10] We assume that they followed Abulafia, whose interest was to present his strictly designed technique,rather than experiences. This is different from the experiences described in James’ Varieties (1985).

Mystic 1 (M1) – Abraham Abulafia (HAS)

Abraham Abulafia describes the experience of seeing a human ‘form’ many

times in his writings (for detailed quotes and references see Idel 1988; 1989;

2001). However, initially it is not clear who this ‘form’ is. As the dialogue

between the mystic and the ‘form’ proceeds, the reader understands that the

‘form’ is the image of the mystic himself. Addressing his students and followers

in Sefer Hakheshek, Abulafia further elaborates the scenario (New York Ms. JTS

1801, fol. 9a; British Library Ms. 749, fols. 12a-12b):

… and sit as though a man is standing before you and waiting for you to speak with

him; and he is ready to answer you concerning whatever you may ask him, and you

say ‘speak’ and he answers […] and begin then to pronounce [the name] and recite

first ‘the head of the head’ [i.e. the first combination of letters], drawing out the

breath and at great ease; and afterwards go back as if the one standing opposite you

is answering you; and you yourself answer, changing your voice …

Apparently, by utilizing the letters of ‘the Name’ with specific breath tech-

niques, a human form should appear. Only in the last sentence Abulafia suggests

that this form is ‘yourself’. Yet he explicitly put it, as he has also explained in

another book, Sefer Hayei Haolam Haba: ‘And consider his reply, answering as

though you yourself had answered yourself’ (Oxford Ms. 1582, fol. 56b).

Most of Abulafia’s descriptions are written in a similar fashion. Yet, in Sefer

Haoth Abulafia describes a similar episode, but from an explicit self-perspec-

tive. Upon a first reading it appears to be the form of another man:

I saw a man coming from the west with a great army, the number of the warriors of

his camp being twenty-two thousand men […] And when I saw his face in the sight,

I was astonished, and my heart trembled within me, and I left my place and I longed

for it to call upon the name of God to help me, but that thing evaded my spirit. And

when the man has seen my great fear and my strong awe, he opened his mouth and

he spoke, and he opened my mouth to speak, and I answered him according to his

words, and in my words I became another man (pp. 81–2).

With respect to this passage, Idel (1988, pp. 95–100) suggests that ‘the man’ is

Abulafia himself because he is ‘seen’ as having ‘a letter inscribed in blood and

ink […] like a shape of a staff separating between them, and it was a very hidden

letter’. On the same page Abulafia continues that this ‘letter’ is the very sign of

himself, and that ‘I looked [at him], and I saw there [in my heart] my likeness and

image moving in two paths’.11

Regarding the different subtypes of AP, we suggest that Abulafia experienced

HAS. We base this classification on the presence of several HAS components in

his reports such as the presence of a strong affinity between Abulafia’s body and

the double, the sharing of the double’s self-location, and explicit reduplication of

the self, in particular auditory reduplification. As exemplified in the first quote

from Sefer Hakheshek, Abulafia describes the AP: ‘go back as if the one standing

opposite you is answering you; and you yourself answer, changing your voice’.


[11] With respect to the army of 22,000 men, this might refer to the 22 Hebrew alphabet letters, the ‘tools’Abulafia uses in his technique.

This is HAS, as Abulafia experienced his self to be localized at two positions at

the same time, at his physical and the double’s body position. In addition to visu-

alisation, Abulafia also describes speaking of the ‘double’ and an auditory dia-

logue that develops between the physical and the autoscopic body (sharing of

words and thoughts between the two bodies). Interestingly, HAS was described

as seeing of an identical image which is taken as another person, accompanied by

a dialogue between physical and autoscopic body (Steffens & Grube, 2001).

Absorption is the core of Abulafia’s technique as he instructs the practitioner:

‘and the one who draws them [the letters] should think as they are speaking with

him like a man to his friend and as they are themselves men with speech ability’

(Ms. New-York JTS 1801, fol. 8a). Finally, Abulafia describes the double in a

standing position, and elaborates on the antecedent feelings of fear and

trembling, which subsequently turn to delight.

Mystic 2 (M2) – Nathan ben Saàdyah Har’ar (HAS)

An explicit description of AP is also found in the words of Abulafia’s student,

Nathan ben Sa’adyah Har’ar. In Shushan Sodot (Oxford Ms. 1655, fol. 69b) he is

quoted: ‘Know that the perfection of the secret of prophecy for the prophet is that

he should suddenly see the “form” of himself standing before him’. He states fur-

ther that ‘one will then forget one’s own self, which will then disappear from the

subject. And the person will see the form of his self in front of him speaking with

him and telling him the future’. Har’ar describes an experience of seeing a dou-

ble, accompanied by depersonalization. As depersonalization is more commonly

associated with HAS than with AH and because there is no mention of disembod-

iment or change in visuo-spatial perspective, we classify this scenario as HAS. In

addition, Har’ar heard the double speaking to him. With respect to position, the

double was in a standing position, as the mystic’s body. However, when he

began practising Abulafia’s method, he had not yet succeeded in inducing AP

despite his efforts:

And, with the combinations method and isolation it happened to me; what happened

with the light I saw going on with me as I mentioned in Sha’arei Tzedeq. However,

seeing a figure of myself standing before me, this I didn’t arrive to do and couldn’t

[stand] on that (Oxford Ms. 1655, fol. 69b).

This description has special importance in that it testifies to the reliability of the

present phenomenology. In addition, while inducing AP, Har’ar encountered

different features of the phenomena, which are sometimes ignored due to the pre-

dominant emphasis on the form’s appearance. As previously noted, by fasting

and sleep deprivation, subjective thought acceleration occurred, causing him the

feeling that his forehead ‘is going to be broken’. In a detailed report in Sha’arei

Tzedeq he also describes absorption: ‘and all of these letters, one should move

them in a fast movement which warms up the thought and increases eagerness

and happiness’ (Jerusalem Ms. 148 8�, fol. 73a).


He describes physical and emotional experiences: ‘enormous trembling

seized me, and I couldn’t gather strength, and my hair stood on end’ (Jerusalem

Ms., 148 8°, fols. 64b-65a), and the experience of body-photism:

in the third night [of practising the technique] after midnight, I nodded off a little,

quill in hand and paper on my knees. Then I noticed that the candle was about to go

out. I rose to put it right, as oftentimes happens to a person awake. Then I saw that

the light continued, I was greatly astonished, as though, after close examination, I

saw that it issues from myself. I said: I do not believe it. I walked to and fro all

through the house and, behold, the light is with me; I lay on a couch and covered

myself up, and behold, the light is with me all the while (Jerusalem Ms. 148 8°, fols.

63b-64a).

This scenic illumination occurred between waking and sleeping (hypnagogic),

which has been described as classical situation in AP (Dening & Berrios, 1994).

Further, the mystic was sitting and suddenly it happened. Finally, regarding

auditory sensations (in the epoch of writing Sha’arei Tzedeq) Har’ar was not

able to hear the double. Nevertheless, he heard a voice that emerged involun-

tarily from his own throat: ‘Behold, like the speech which emerges from my

heart and comes to my lips, forcing them to move; and I said that perchance, God

Forbid, it is a spirit of folly which has entered me, and I perceived it speaking

[matters of] wisdom. I said that this is certainly the spirit of wisdom’ (Jerusalem

Ms. 148 8°, fol. 65a).12 As this is not speech of the ‘double’ as described by

Abulafia, we do not classify it as such, nor as ‘hearing of a presence’ (HP) (see

discussion) since in the latter the subject generally hears someone else speaking

behind him, whereas Har’ar heard someone speaking within his body. A similar

report is supplied by Brugger et al.’s subject 1 whose AP occurred while climb-

ing in a high altitude: ‘I heard someone speaking French. The voice seemed to

emanate from within my own body, and I heard myself responding. It was in

French too — amazing, if you consider that I do not speak French at all…’

(Brugger et al., 1999). Therefore, this may be a variant of the double’s speech in

addition to the direct speech and the HP mentioned above (see discussion).

Mystic 3 (M3) – Yitzhak Hacohen (HAS)

Another important ecstatic mystic is Yitzhak Hacohen. Though not a contempo-

rary of Abulafia, Hacohen was an earlier mystic who had a similar approach, and

might have influenced the Abulafia school. He also witnesses AP as part of the

ecstatic process (Idel, 1988, p. 73; Scholem, 1934; ibn-Gabai, Avodat

Hakodesh):

All agree they possess the form of a body, similar to [that of] a human being, and

very awesome. And the prophet sees all sorts of his powers becoming weaker and

changing from form to form, until his powers cast of all forms and are embodied

into the power of the form revealed to him, and then his strength is exchanged with

the angel who speaks with him. And that form gives him strength to receive


[12] The tradition that the prophet expresses in his voice God’s words originates in the midrash (seeHeschel, 1962, pp. 267–8) and expressed by Azriel of Gerona and Hayim Vital (Idel, 1988, pp. 67–8).

prophecy, and it engraved in his heart as a picture […] the prophet casts of that form

and returns to his original form, and his limbs and strength come back as they were

before and are strengthened, and he prophesies in human form.

We classify this experience as HAS due to the presence of autoscopy, deperson-

alization, affinity between the physical body and the double, and the alternation

of embodiment between the last two as the subject is ‘embodied’ in the double,

and then ‘returns’ into his ‘original form’. Hacohen’s experience is also associ-

ated with the sensation of fear and weakness. The subject heard his double speak-

ing to him although the experience is mostly visual. His body position is not

mentioned. Although it could be argued that his experience contains some

OBE-like features as ‘are embodied into the power of the form revealed to him’,

Hacohen does not explicitly describe disembodiment or an extracorporeal

visuo-spatial perspective.

Mystic 4 (M4) – Yitzhak of Acre (HAS)

While practising Abulafia’s technique, Yitzhak of Acre reports:

this supernal spirit of holiness suddenly comes […] only heavenly voice speaking

within it, teaching him [the mystic] sciences which have never been heard or have

never been seen […] [All this will happen] after he has stripped off every corporeal

thing, because of the great immersion of his soul in the divine spiritual world. This

‘container’ will see his own form, literally standing before him and speaking to him,

as a man who speaks to his friend; and his own [physical] form will be forgotten as if

his body doesn’t exist in the world […] their soul stands opposite them in the form

of the very ‘container’ speaking with them, and they say that the Holy One, Blessed

Be He, speaks with them. And what caused them this great secret? the stripping out

of sensory things by their souls, and their divestment from them and the embodi-

ment in the Divine Spirit (Otsar Hayim, Moscow-Ginsburg Ms. 775, fols.

162b-163a).

He also adds a personal description ‘that one day I was sitting and writing down a

Kabbalistic secret, when suddenly I saw my body form standing in front of me

and my self disappeared from me, and I refrained from writing but I was com-

pelled’ (Shushan Sodot, fol. 69b; Scholem, 1991, pp. 253–4; Idel, 2001). We

classify Yitzhak of Acre’s description as HAS for the following reasons: First,

the experience of depersonalization reported by the mystic points to HAS. Sec-

ondly, the visuo-spatial perspective alternates between the physical body and the

double. While it moves into the double, the physical body disappears. Finally,

the standing position of the double is common in AH/HAS. Though emotions are

not elaborated, he was ‘compelled’ by the experience.

Mystic 5 (M5) – Elnathan ben-Moshe Kalkish (HAS)

Elnathan ben-Moshe Kalkish analyses the AP evoked by Abulafia’s technique

and describes absorption. He claims that by completely concentrating on the pro-

cess of letter combinations, one may neglect all external stimuli. The internal


thought can ‘externalize’, causing the illusion that his own figure exists or

speaks independently:

for every apprehension which man receives of the spiritual apprehensions, its

beginning is in human thought, and when man thinks continually […] and views all

corporeal and bodily matters as the image of contingent things, and spiritual matters

as the essential ones […] and he shall do all this by combining the holy letters and

words and the pure language, which are the vehicles of all thoughts, then there are

born from their combination thoughts of wisdom and understanding, and, because

of its intense meditation on them, the intellect will perceive reality, and there will

come the renewed spirit […] and will speak by itself, but the thinker will recognize

that there is a mover and cause which causes him to think and to speak and to guide

and to compose until, through the great [mental] activity [by the technique] the

inner one will return as if externally apprehended, and the two of them, the one

apprehending and the object of apprehension, are one thing, and they are mental

apprehension (Even Sapir, Paris Ms. 727, fols. 158a-158b).

Though not an explicit description, by analysing Kalkish’s experience infer-

ences to some aspects of the phenomenology can be made. Thus, there is an ‘ex-

ternal’ form that speaks to the mystic, the ‘internal’. The two are one and seem to

exist simultaneously. The ‘self’ seems to extend beyond the physical body and

include both forms. The experience of the external form is described as an illu-

sion with some degree of depersonalization, while both forms are ‘mentally

apprehended’. Based on these observations (autoscopy, depersonalization, affin-

ity, no disembodiment), we classify Kalkish’s experience as HAS. With regard

to non-visual features, Kalkish does not mention the body position of the double,

nor his associated emotions. However, the double is speaking to the mystic ‘by

himself’; and this is a result of disciplined mental activity.

Mystic 6 (M6) – Yehuda ben-Nissim ibn-Malka (AH)

Another mystic from a close circle, Yehuda ben-Nissim ibn-Malka, also sug-

gests that the ‘form’ reflects the physical appearance of the mystic himself. This

is described in Ktab Anas Uetafsir (in: Vida, 1974, p. 22–3):

I have seen with my own eyes a man who saw a power in the form of an angel while

he was awake, and he spoke with him and told him future things. The sage [angel]

said: ‘Know that he sees nothing other than himself, for he sees himself front and

back, as one who sees himself in a mirror, who sees nothing other than himself, and

it appears as if it were something separate from your body, like you’. In the same

manner, he sees that power, which guards his body and guides his soul and then his

soul sings and rejoices, distinguishes and sees.13


[13] Immediately after the above citation, ibn-Malka offers an explanation that the process is a psychologi-cal one; namely, taking place between three inner faculties: ‘And three powers overcome him: the firstpower is that which is intermediary between spirit and soul, and the power of memory and the power ofimagination, and one power is that which imagines. And these three powers are compared to a mirror, asby virtue of the mixing the spirit is purified, and by the purification of the spirit the third power is puri-fied. But when the spirit apprehends the flux which pours out upon the soul, it will leave power to thepower of speech, according to the flow which comes upon the soul, thus shall it influence the power ofspeech, and that itself is the angel which speaks to him and tells him future things’ (Vida, 1974, p. 23).

We classify ibn-Malka’s experience as AH. The ‘double’ is described as ‘sepa-

rated’ from the body with a weak affinity between the physical and autoscopic

body. There is no hint of depersonalization or disembodiment. Interestingly, the

mystic refers explicitly to mirror-like reflections to describe the autoscopic

events. This analogy has also been mentioned by patients with AHs (i.e. Féré,

1891; Sollier, 1903; Brugger, 2002; hence the older term ‘specular hallucina-

tions’). Ibn-Malka describes a speaking double, without reference to emotion or

position. Interestingly, the transformation ‘front and back’ described here is

quite close to experimental procedures designed to investigate own body mental

imagery (Zacks et al., 1999) and autoscopic phenomena (Blanke et al., 2005; see

below for discussion).

Mystic 7 (M7) – Sefer ha-Hayim (AH)

The anonymous Sefer ha-Hayim (sometimes attributed to Abraham ibn-Ezra)

states that:

in the manner that a man sees a form within the water or the form of the moon or the

form of some other thing or the form of himself […] he sees his own image in the

light of God and His glory, and this is a form against my eyes (Ms. Oxford-

Bodleiana 574, fol. 13b).

This appears while the mystic prepares himself for the prophetic experience.

Another paragraph of the anonymous Kabbalistic text (Ms. Oxford-Bodleiana

1954, fol. 68a) states that the manner of seeing one’s own form is ‘as one looks in

a mirror’. Reflected in the following is the origin of the vision in the technique,

and its emotional manifestations:

a vision occurred when a man is awake and reflects upon the wonder of God, or

when he does not reflect upon them, but pronounces the Holy Names or those of

angels in order that he be shown [whatever] he wishes or be informed of a hidden

matter, and the Holy Spirit then reveals itself to him […] and he trembles and shakes

from the power of the holy spirit, and is unable to stand it (Ms. Oxford-Bodleiana

1574, fol. 34b).

Though not detailed, the descriptions point to AH, as suggested by the description

of the ‘form’ as a mere image of the mystic, the term ‘mirror’ as well as the absence

of descriptions of depersonalization and affinity between autoscopic and physical

body. Furthermore, body position of the autoscopic double is not mentioned.

Summary of results

Amongst the mystics we reviewed, two had an experience of AH (M6; M7), five

had HAS (M1-M5), none had OBE. All mystics described verbal communication

between physical and autoscopic body. All mystics reported that they saw them-

selves in front-view, that is double and subject were facing each other; two

reported seeing themselves also in back view (M2; M6). Scenic illumination as a

prominent feature was described by two mystics (M2; M7). Five mystics men-

tioned the position of the autoscopic body, all of them saw their double in a



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standing position (M1; M2; M4; M5; M6). Three mystics (M1; M2; M4) were

sitting during the experience. Five mystics reported an experience of ‘trembling’

(M1; M2; M3; M4; M7). The sensation of fear was described only amongst HAS

mystics (M1; M2; M3). Happiness was experienced by three of the mystics (M1;

M4; M6). These phenomenological results are summarized in Table 1.

V: Discussion: Autoscopic Phenomena in the Ecstatic Kabbalah

In the following we will discuss the present results on AP in a group of ecstatic

Kabbalists from the thirteenth century with respect to current studies on AP in

neurological patients as well as in healthy subjects. We then evaluate the contri-

bution of such a comparative approach in the study of mysticism for cognitive

science and science of religious experience.

Visuo-spatial perspective, self-location and depersonalization

Our data show that the above mystics had two types of AP: HAS and AH. Five of

the seven mystics experienced HAS, which was characterized by the experience

of a realistic double. In these latter cases self-location was frequently ambiguous

as the mystic could not decide easily whether his self was localized in the physi-

cal or the autoscopic body. Thus, mystics M1 and M5 experienced seeing the

world from their embodied and the disembodied visuo-spatial perspective at the

same time (simultaneous HAS): ‘go back as if the one standing opposite you is

answering you; and you yourself answer, changing your voice’ (New York Ms.,

JTS 1801, fol. 9a). M2, M3 and M4 had the impression that they were alternating

between the two positions and perspectives (alternating HAS) along with feeling

of depersonalization while seeing the double (‘my self disappeared from me’;

Scholem, 1991, p. 254). Both types of HAS (simultaneous and alternating) have

been described in neurological patients and healthy subjects. The simultaneous

type was described by Blanke et al. (2004, case 2b) and the alternating type by

Kamiya and Okamoto (1982), Brugger et al. (1994) as well as cases 4 and 5 in

Blanke et al. (2004). Alternating and simultaneous HAS have also been

described by Muldoon & Carrington (1929). Whereas all three HAS-mystics

with alternating HAS experienced depersonalization, the HAS-mystics with

simultaneous HAS did not. Clear disembodiment (experience of the self as being

localized outside one’s physical body boundaries) as described in OBEs was not

described by any of the mystics.

Two of the mystics experienced AH, i.e., they saw their double in

extrapersonal space viewed from their physical body and perspective. The loca-

tion of the observing self was, thus, unambiguous. These mystics felt that their

self remained within their bodies and saw their double in extrapersonal space:

‘something separate from your body like you’ (Vida, 1974, p. 23). One AH-mys-

tic stated that the double appeared ‘in front’ of him. Both AH-mystics explicitly

used the term ‘mirror image’ to describe how they experienced seeing the

autoscopic body. This is typically reported by subjects with AH of neurological

origin (Lukianowicz, 1958; Dening & Berrios, 1994). Finally, mystics with AH


did not report depersonalization or disembodiment, the first characterizes HAS

(and OBE) and the second characterizes OBE. Due to the small sample size, we

discuss our finding for HAS-mystics and AH-mystics together.

Characteristics of the autoscopic body

With regard to the visual characteristics of the double’s body, five mystics

reported seeing themselves in front-view, i.e. double and subject were facing

each other (M1; M3; M4; M5; M7); two mystics (M2; M6) reported seeing back-

view as well. All of the mystics saw the face of the autoscopic body (i.e. their

‘double’) as their own face. This was noted by Dening and Berrios (1994) in AP

of psychiatric and neurological origin. Nevertheless, none of the mystics specifi-

cally mentioned seeing other parts of the autoscopic body or whether they saw

their autoscopic body in its entirety. Partialness of the autoscopic body is com-

monly reported in AP subjects and Dening and Berrios (1994, p. 812) noted that

‘in almost all cases the subject viewed the face, commonly the upper body, and

less often the whole body’. Partialness was also common in psychiatric patients

reported by Lukianowicz (1958) and neurological patients reported by Blanke et

al. (2004).

Visual sensation of body photism was described by three mystics. Thus, M2

saw light as ‘it issues from myself’. The experience of seeing a bright light com-

ing from ones own body is also reported by Devinsky et al. (1989, case 4): ‘light

moved from my body on the floor. It lit up the room […] somehow I became the

light source’. The experience of illusory light sources or visual hallucinations

had also been described by other patients (Lukianowicz, 1958 [‘flashes’];

Dewhurst and Pearson, 1955 [‘white lights’]; Blanke et al., 2004, cases 1, 4, 6).

The experience of light is also common in subjects with OBEs as was described

by Twemlow et al.’s (1980) in 30% of subjects observing a brilliant white light

during their OBE (quoted by Irwin, 1985, p. 95).

Body position of the physical and autoscopic body

Blanke et al. (2004) noted that AH- and HAS-patients tend to see their double in

a standing/sitting position, identical to their physical body position, whereas

patients with OBEs tend to have the experience in a supine position. The authors

suggested that the patient’s body position influences the experienced position of

the autoscopic body. In the present study, in all instances where the mystic men-

tioned his position, mystic and double were in a sitting or standing position. Five

mystics reported they saw their double in a standing position (M1; M2; M4; M5;

M6). Three of them (M1; M2; M4) mentioned that they were themselves in a sit-

ting position during the AP. M4 stated that he did not experience HAS until he

got out of the supine position into the sitting position. The absence of OBEs in

these ecstatic Kabbalaists might, therefore, have been influenced by the sitting

position that Abulafia instructed his followers to utilize: ‘sit as though a man is

standing before you’ (Sefer ha-Hesheq, Ms. New York, JTS 1801, fol. 9a; Idel,

1988, pp. 111–12).


Non-visual manifestations

As previously reported, AP are not limited to the visual appearance of the

autoscopic body (Lukianowicz, 1958; Blackmore, 1982; Irwin, 1985; Dening

and Berrios, 1994), but include a selective set of other sensory manifestations

(Devinsky et al., 1989; Blanke et al., 2004). Likewise, the present AP were asso-

ciated with a variety of non-visual phenomena. Thus, five mystics reported sen-

sations of ‘trembling’ (M1; M2; M3; M4; M7) which were previously reported

in subjects with AP (Muldoon & Carrington, 1929; Menninger-Lerchenthal,

1935; Devinsky et al., 1989; Grüsser & Landis, 1991). Although tactile and/or

proprioceptive sensations were not described in the texts by the analysed mystic

school, M2 associated the effect of the letter combinations method with vestibu-

lar manifestations: ‘letters transpose [...] affects the “proper” balance of the

body, so has this an effect on the soul by the power of the name’ (Sha’arei

Tzedeq, Jerusalem Ms., 148 8° fols. 48b-49a). Most mystics did not elaborate on

locomotive action of the autoscopic body, yet Abulafia saw the double as

approaching the physical body. No vestibular sensations were described.

A pattern that has not been widely reported previously was the frequent asso-

ciation of auditory manifestations. All mystics not only saw the double, but also

heard the autoscopic body speaking. This may be similar to the observation made

by Dening and Berrios (1994) who mentioned ‘talking images’ in patients with

AP. Latter patients were characterized by male gender, a long duration of AP,

and psychiatric illness. Likewise, cases D, F, and G of Lukianowicz (1958)

stated that they ‘heard’ their double speak. Case D heard the double ‘in my head

and in my mind’ and case G ‘hear[d] him [the double] speaking to me’. A patient

of Hécaen and Ajuriaguerra (1952) also heard his double speaking to him. Other

forms of auditory phenomena, not directly related to the autoscopic body, have

also been reported. Thus, cases 1 and 4 of Devinsky et al. (1989) heard a voice

talking to them or to their double while having an OBE. A patient of Lunn (1970;

case 1) reported formed auditory hallucinations (‘voices from below’) and case 3

of Devinsky et al. (1989) reported hearing a ‘beeping sound’. Machinery sounds

and undefined voices were also reported by Williams (1956). Blanke et al.

(2003) suggested that there may be an auditory analogue to AP: the hearing of a

presence. This is characterized by only hearing the double (or another person)

close by, instead of seeing the double as in AP. This auditory form was described

as the convincing feeling of hearing another person behind oneself. Blanke et al.

(2003) suggested a functional relationship between hearing a presence with AP,

as a.non-visual auditory form of illusory self reduplification, although the per-

son in the backspace was not identified as one’s double but rather as another per-

son. A third variant is reported by Nathan Har’ar (M2) and by Brugger et al.’s

subject 1 who heard another person’s voice emanating from their own body

(Brugger et al., 1999; see results).

With respect to the speaking double as described in the group of mystics and

previous patients, the experience of a speaking double might result from an addi-

tional implication of brain functions related to audition and speech, whereas

non-auditory AP do not interfere with these latter brain functions. Importantly,


both auditory and language cortex are localized in close proximity to the anatom-

ical site which was proposed to be involved in AP (Blanke et al., 2004; Blanke &

Arzy, 2005; see below). Alternatively, these phenomenological differences

might be related to the fact that the mystics artificially induced their experiences,

as Blackmore (1982) argued that AP which do not occur spontaneously, as most

do, might differ in their phenomenology. The language-based induction method

utilized by the mystics might also have led to a higher frequency of speaking

doubles. As audition, like vision, balance, and somatosensation, is involved in

the construction of the body image (Blanke et al., 2003), we propose that the

experience of a speaking double is due to additional interference with auditory

mechanisms of own body perception (see Frith, 1996).

Emotions, evoked by the appearance of the double, were common. The sensa-

tion of fear was described by three mystics (M1; M2; M3). Happiness was expe-

rienced by three mystics (M1; M4; M6). Emotional association with dominance

of fear is described in the neurological literature (Lukianowicz, 1958;

Blackmore, 1982; Irwin, 1985; Blanke et al., 2004). Concerning a surprise by the

appearance of the double, three mystics (M2; M3; M4) described such a feeling,

as is also described in neurological literature (Lukianowicz, 1958; Blackmore,

1982; Irwin, 1985).

Abulafia’s technique with respect to other induction techniques

Most mystical and scientific techniques that have been applied to induce AP

tried to induce OBEs (Blackmore, 1982). Yet, mystics that have used Abulafia’s

method experienced HAS/AH which might be due to several characteristics of

Abulafia’s technique. Many aspects of the method such as respiration, concen-

tration and sleep deprivation (Blackmore, 1982) and even the use of letters and

words, rotating and reciting them (Gyatso, 1996), were not unique to Abulafia.

However, he makes an important use of a vast number of combinations as well as

own body mental imagery as ‘in a mirror’. With regard to letter combinations,

Abulafia’s method combines two aspects, a verbal one and an imagery one. With

respect to the verbal aspect, the mystic performs reverberations involving read-

ing and speaking, mainly a left hemispheric process. With regard to mental imag-

ery, Nathan ben Saàdya Har’ar describes:

If he is able to compel and to further draw [from his thought] it will emerge from

within to without, and it will be imagined for him by the power of his purified imagi-

nation in the form of a pure mirror, […] back side is transformed and becomes the

front, and he recognizes the nature of its inner side from the outside (Shaàrei

Tzedeq, p. 27, translated by Scholem, 1995, p. 155 in a different manner).

Later phases move from the mental image of letters to the human form. As

ibn-Malka describes the mystic ‘sees himself from the front and the back, as one

who sees himself in a mirror’. This is similar to methods applied by contempo-

rary authors (Ratcliff, 1979; Zacks et al., 1999; Blanke et al., 2005) using

own-body mental imagery tasks. Another factor, contributing to the appearance

of AH/HAS in Abulafia’s method rather than OBEs, may be due to the mystic’s


position during the experience. Blanke et al. (2004) observed that HAS/AH were

associated with a standing or sitting position, whereas OBE occurred in a supine

position. As the mystics were generally sitting or standing their position might

have led to the induction of HAS and AH.

Anatomical and functional considerations

The brain region that has been shown to be associated with AP is the

temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) as interference with this area has been found to

be associated with AP in lesion and electrophysiological studies (Fig. 3; for fur-

ther details see Blanke et al., 2002; 2004). In addition, neuroimaging studies

implicate the TPJ in cognitive processing with respect to self processing (for

review see Decety and Sommerville, 2003; Blanke & Arzy, 2005). The associ-

ated auditory sensations, described by all mystics may also be linked to the TPJ

because the primary and secondary auditory cortex is just anterior to the TPJ

(Firth & Bolay, 2004; see there for discussion on AP and HP in high altitude and

the TPJ). In addition, electrophysiological, neuropsychological and

neuroimaging studies suggest that the TPJ and adjacent cortical areas such as the

inferior parietal lobule combine auditory information and other sensory informa-

tion, such as vision and touch, in a coordinated reference frame for personal and

peripersonal space (Guldin & Grüsser, 1998; Duhamel et al., 1998; Bremmer et

al., 2001; Làdavas, 2002; Foxe, 2002).

Further characteristics of Abulafia’s method may be linked to the TPJ. It relies

on mental imagery, a function that involves the TPJ (Zacks et al., 1999; Zacks et

al., 2002; Blanke et al., 2004; Blanke et al., 2005). Moreover, given the central


Figure 3. The temporo-parietal junction (TPJ)

This brain region is supposed to be responsible to the integration of multisensory inputs and toself-processing; thus creating fundamental mental contents as agency (being author of one’s ownthoughts and actions), self-other distinction and self-location. Disturbance of the activity in thisregion may lead to AP (for further details see Blanke & Arzy, 2005).

role of language and letters in Abulafia’s method and the prime importance of

the left TPJ in language function (i.e. Wernicke’s area; Hustler & Galuske, 2003;

Cohen & Dehaene, 2004), Abulafia’s method may modulate activity at the left

TPJ or adjacent regions by reading and rehearsal of letters. Accordingly,

neuroimaging studies suggest that mental imagery with respect to letters (like in

a letter matching task or letter-case judgement task) or phonemes reading and/or

expressing (like in rhyming tasks) as in Abulafia’s method lead to an activation

of the left TPJ and near areas (Pugh et al., 1996; Shaywitz et al., 1998; Temple et

al., 2001; Xu et al., 2001). Finally, damage to the left TPJ may lead to aphasia or

alexia (Iragui & Kritchevsky, 1991; Shaywitz et al., 1998; Temple et al., 2001;

Cohen et al., 2003). Moreover, with respect to mental own body imagery, several

recent studies suggest methods to induce OBEs that are quite similar to

Abulafia’s method. Thus, Palmer (1978) used similar steps as Abulafia relying

on successive steps of relaxation, a visual trigger (a turning spiral) and mental

imagery of an OBE-like situation (the subjects were instructed to imagine a fig-

ure they had seen before). In neuroimaging studies using a mental own body

imagery task (that were mentioned above), authors asked healthy subjects to

imagine themselves in the position that is characteristically reported by OBE and

HAS patients and found this to activate the TPJ (Zacks et al., 1999; Blanke et al.,

2005).

The importance of neuro-phenomenology in the study of mysticism

Important as they indeed are in normal life and in its religious moments, mystical

experiences are almost never accessible to the scholars interested in examining

them. One problem is that the descriptions reflect unique terminologies, theolo-

gies and realia, which are different from those known to the scholar (Idel, 1990).

Therefore, some modern scholars of religious experience focused their inquiry

on subjective experience, rather than theological data (Moore, 1978; Idel, 1990).

Yet, highly subjective experience is not easily approachable either. The compar-

ison we suggest here between mediaeval mystics and contemporary findings in

healthy and neurological subjects arms the scholar with a new access to these

experiences. The tools of cognitive neuroscience make it possible to approach

mystical experiences not only by semantical analysis of the mystics’ writings,

but also by approaching similar mystical experiences in healthy and neurological

patients in conjunction with analysis by neuropsychological methods, experi-

mental paradigms, lesion studies, and brain imaging studies. AP exemplify such

a comprehensive approach: on the one hand, AP are important parts of the mysti-

cal experience and essential to many forms of ecstasy like soul-traveling,

unio-mystica, and OBE (Couliano, 1983; 1991; Idel, 1990; Hollenback, 1996).

On the other hand, AP are also present in the normal population and in neurologi-

cal patients with no mystical interest at all (Blackmore, 1982; Blanke et al.,

2004).

The above discussion points to a more general phenomenon in visions of reve-

lation that might be described as the shifting of the centre of gravitation from the


outer, common and public revelation, to the more individual and intimate aspects

of the experience. Thus, in contrast to the assumption that religion is a special

type of human experience to be analysed by tools specific to this field, cognitive

approaches assume that religion is one of many other human functions, and as

such it should be incorporated into the study of human creativity, i.e. understand-

ing how the human mind operates the systemic nature of creativity. On the other

hand, cognition may be considered as integral part of the religious system, as

religions include important cognitive aspects (beliefs, mental images, symbol-

isms). This is especially true for those religions that place greater emphasis on

rituals, magical practices and mystical techniques. Therefore, religious experi-

ence may be induced by resorting to the bodily exercises prescribed to attain

changes in one’s internal mental states (Idel, 2005).

We presented here a group of mystics who achieved their mystical experience

of revelation and prophecy by using a practical technique which changed their

internal mental state. This consonance may be of importance not only in the

cases discussed above, but also in an improved understanding of religious expe-

rience in general. Thus, a central role in the understanding of the mystical experi-

ence may belong to the techniques and practices performed by the mystic, and to

their realization through physiological and psychological mechanisms. Interest-

ingly, some of the ‘mystical’ techniques are used today in laboratory settings to

investigate central processes of mental imagery. Therefore, in the study of mysti-

cism, interdisciplinary approaches might be as valuable to scholars (Idel, 2004)

as to contemporary philosophers who use these experiences for understanding

the concept of mind (Metzinger, 2003; 2005). Cognitive Neurosciences, in turn,

might profit from the research of mysticism in their endeavour to further our

understanding of mechanisms of own body perception and self consciousness

(Forman, 1998).

Conclusion

Abundant in folklore, mythology, and the spiritual experiences of ancient and

modern societies, AP have fascinated mankind from time immemorial (see

Blackmore, 1982; Irwin, 1985). Thomas Metzinger states that ‘our traditional,

folk-phenomenological concept of a ‘soul’ may have its origins in accurate and

truthful first-person reports about the experiential content of a specific

neurophenomenological state-class’, i.e. AP (Metzinger, 2005, p.1). He claims

that our contemporary folk-psychology about mind might have emerged from

the older notion of ‘soul’, which in turn may be related to autoscopic mystical,

mythical and historical descriptions. The soul, or ‘proto-concept of mind’, as

Metzinger names it, may be a direct derivate of the experience of AP, which led

men ‘to first start developing a theory of mind’ (p. 2). The ecstatic Kabbalah

mystics perceived the AP as if the self would be separated not only from the

human body but also from the ‘original’ self, and is reified in an entity standing

before them. The ecstatic Kabbalists interpreted it by a model of different levels

of self (Idel, 2001). Regarding the mutual influence between the ecstatic

Kabbalah, Moslem Sufi and astro-magical traditions as well as Christian


mysticism,14 the above observations might have relevance for the understanding

of the proto-concept of mind and the roots of western culture (Scholem, 1969;

Wirszubski, 1969; Idel, 2001; Shoham, 2003). Finally, for cognitive science, AP

present a valuable advantage to consciousness studies as well as neuropsycho-

logical understanding of the ‘self’, since during AP fundamental components of

the self are isolated. In this manner, the technical and phenomenological work of

Abulafia’s school may be considered as an important exploration of the human

‘self’.

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Dr. Sara Mordzynski for helpful comments on the manuscript.

Appendix A: Kataphatic Mysticism and Apophatic Mysticism

Forman (1998) discusses mysticism as a subject for consciousness studies and as

an opportunity to search for neurocognitive phenomena in healthy subjects. He

proposes to divide the mystical experience to two main faculties: The first is a

faculty that conquers full attention of the subject, by filling the subject’s aware-

ness with different perceptions or hallucinations (kataphatic mysticism). The

second is an emptying of the awareness of all stimuli (apophatic mysticism).

Forman suggests that in particular the second type might provide useful insights

into the mechanisms of consciousness and calls it pure consciousness events.

Forman does not discuss potential contributions through investigation of the

kataphatic mysticism, which he claims to consist mainly of hallucinations of all

types and related to schizophrenia — not the healthy position that drove him to

explore mystical experience. We also believe that ecstatic mystical experience,

like the experience described here, provides useful insights into the mechanisms

of consciousness, though it belongs to the full attention route. We emphasized

the scientific-like basis of such a technique, which is very close to current labora-

tory experimental tasks (Zacks et al., 1999; Blanke et al., 2005). Thus, a techni-

cal approach leads the practitioner to a unique consciousness state. A detailed

and precise phenomenology of ecstatic mystic experience may serve

neurocognitive science and consciousness studies with rich sources of data about

the mind, brain and the inner world.

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the Body, ed. D.S. Rogo, (Harmondsworth: Penguin), pp. 193–217.Pangborn, C.R. (1983), Zoroastrianism: a Beleaguered Faith (New York : Advent Books).Pines, S. (1988), Introduction to M. Idel, The Mystical Experience in Abraham Abulafia (Jerusa-

lem: Magnes/Albany: State University of New York Press).Pugh, K.R., Shaywitz, B.A., Shaywitz, S.E., Constable, R.T., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R.K.,.

Bronen, R.A, Shankweiler, D.P., Katz, L., Fletcher, J.M. & Gore, J.C. (1996), ‘Cerebral organi-

zation of component processes in reading’, Brain, 119, pp. 1221–38.Pylyshyn, Z.W. (1979), ‘The rate of ‘mental rotation’ of images. a test of a holistic analogue

hypothesis’, Memory and Cognition, 7, pp. 19–28.Rank, O. (1925), Der Doppelganger. Eine Psychoanalytische Studie (Leipzig: Internationaler

Psychoanalytischer Verlag).Ratcliff, G. (1979), ‘Spatial thought, mental rotation and the right cerebral hemisphere’,

Neuropsychologia, 17, pp. 49–54.Reitzenstein, R. (1927), Die Hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen, 3

rded. (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs).

Scholem, G. (1934), ‘R. Moshe of Burgos, a student of R. Yitzhak’, Tarbiz, 5.Scholem, G. (1969), The Kabbalah of Sefer Hatmuna and Abraham Abulafia, ed. J. Ben-Shlomo,

(Jerusalem: The Hebrew University).Scholem, G. (1971), ‘Golem’, Encyclopedia Judaica.Scholem, G (1991), On the Mystical Shape of the Godhead, (New York: Schoken Books).

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Shankweiler, D.P., Liberman, A.M., Skudlarski, P., Fletcher, J.M., Katz, L., Marchione, K.E.,Lacadie, C., Gatenby, C. & Gore, J.C. (1998) ‘Functional disruption in the organization of the

brain for reading in dyslexia’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science U.S.A., 95,pp. 2636–41.

Sheils, D. (1978), ‘A cross-cultural study of beliefs in out-of-the-body experiences, waking and

sleeping’, Journal of Sociological & Psychological Research, 49, pp. 697–741.Shoham, G. (2003), The Mytho-Empiricism of Gnosticism. Triumph of the Vanquished (Brighton:

Sussex Academic Press).Sollier, P.A., (1903) Les Phénomènes D’autoscopie (Paris: Félix Alcan).Sparks, D.L. (1986), ‘Translation of sensory signals into commands for control of saccadic eye

movements. Role of primate superior colliculus’, Physiological Reviews, 66, pp. 118–71.Steffens, M. & Grube, M. (2001), ’Phenomenology of heautoscopy. Case report of atypical mirror

hallucination’, Psychiatrische Praxis, 28, pp. 189–92.Temple, E., Poldrack, R.A., Salidis, J., Deutsch, G.K., Tallal, P., Gabrieli, M.M. & Gabrieli, J.D.

(2001), ‘Disrupted neural responses to phonological and orthographic processing in dyslexic

children. An fMRI study’, NeuroReport, 12, pp. 299–307.Vida, Y.A. (1974), R. Yehuda ben-Nissim ibn-Malka, Ktab Anas Uetafsir (Ramat Gan).

Williams, D. (1956), ‘The structure of emotions reflected in epileptic experience’, Brain, 79,pp. 29–67.

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Annals of Israeli National Academy of Science, 3, pp. 135–49.Xu, B., Grafman, J., Gaillard,W.D., Ishii, K.,Vega-Bermudez, F., Pietrini, P., et al., (2001), ‘Con-

joint and extended neural networks for the computation of speech codes. The neural basis of

selective impairment in reading words and pseudowords’, Cerebral Cortex, 11, pp. 267–77.Zacks, J. M., Rypma, B., Gabrieli, J., Tversky, B. & Glover, G. (1999), ‘Imagined transformations

of bodies. An fMRI study’, Neuropsychologia, 37, 1029–40.Zacks, J.M., Ollinger, J.M., Sheridan, M.A. & Tversky, B. (2002), ‘A parametric study of mental

spatial transformations of bodies’, Neuroimage, 16, 857–72.Zimmer, H. (1960), ‘On the significance of the Indian tantric Yoga’, in Spiritual Disciplines, ed. J.

Campbell (NJ: Princeton University press).


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