The Spanish Civil WarPart of Interwar period

Republican International Brigadiers at the Battle ofBelchite ride on a T-26 tank

Date 17 July 1936 1 April 1939(2 years, 8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)

Location Peninsular Spain, ExtrapeninsularSpain, Spanish Morocco,Mediterranean, Spanish Guinea, NorthSea

ResultDecisive Nationalist victory

End of the Second SpanishRepublicBeginning of Franco's rule

Belligerents

Republicans

Popular Front CNT/FAI UGT ERC / EC EG (193637) PG

Nationalists

Falange Carlists

(193637) CEDA (1936

37) Alfonsists

Spanish Civil WarFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra civilespaola),[nb 2] widely known in Spain simply as the CivilWar or The War, was a civil war fought from 1936 to 1939between the Republicans, who were loyal to the democraticSpanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a rebel group led byGeneral Francisco Franco. The Nationalists won, andFranco ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 untilhis death in 1975. The war is often called the "dressrehearsal" for World War II.

The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration ofopposition) by a group of generals of the SpanishRepublican Armed Forces, under the leadership of JosSanjurjo, against the elected, leftist government of theSecond Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadershipof President Manuel Azaa. The rebel coup was supportedby a number of conservative groups, including the SpanishConfederation of the Autonomous Right,[nb 3] monarchistssuch as the religious conservative (Catholic) Carlists, andthe Fascist Falange.[nb 4][5]

The coup was supported by military units in Morocco,Pamplona, Burgos, Valladolid, Cdiz, Crdoba, and Seville.However, rebelling units in important citiessuch asMadrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Mlagawereunable to capture their objectives, and those cities remainedunder the control of the government. Spain was thus leftmilitarily and politically divided. The Nationalists, now ledby General Francisco Franco, and the Republicangovernment fought for control of the country. TheNationalist forces received munitions and soldiers fromNazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Soviet Union andMexico offered lesser support to the "Loyalist" or"Republican" side. Other countries, such as Britain andFrance, operated an official policy of non-intervention,although France did send in some munitions.

The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in thesouth and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastlinein 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the area to its southand west for much of the war. Capturing large parts ofCatalonia in 1938 and 1939, the war ended with the victory

Supported by

Soviet Union Mexico Foreign

volunteers

(193637)

Supported by

Italy Germany Portugal

Foreign volunteers

Commanders and leadersRepublican leaders

Manuel Azaa Julin Besteiro Francisco Largo

Caballero Juan Negrn Indalecio Prieto

Vicente Rojo Lluch Jos Miaja

Juan Modesto Juan Hernndez

Saravia Carlos Romero

Gimnez Buenaventura

Durruti Llus Companys Jos Antonio

Aguirre Alfonso Castelao

Nationalist leaders Jos Sanjurjo Emilio Mola

Francisco Franco Juan Yage

Miguel Cabanellas Manuel Goded

Llopis Manuel Hedilla Manuel Fal

Cond Gonzalo Queipo de

Llano Mohamed

Meziane

Strength450,000 infantry350 aircraft200 batteries(1938)[1]

600,000 infantry600 aircraft290 batteries(1938)[2]

Casualties and lossesestimated 500,000 killed[3][nb 1]

450,000 fled[4]

Events leading to World War II

Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931Franco-Soviet-Czech Pact 1935

of the Nationalists and the exile of thousands of leftistSpaniards, many of whom fled to refugee camps in southernFrance. Those associated with the losing Republicans werepersecuted by the victorious Nationalists. With theestablishment of a dictatorship led by General FranciscoFranco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing partieswere fused into the structure of the Franco regime.[5]

The war became notable for the passion and politicaldivision it inspired, and for the atrocities committed by bothsides. Organized purges occurred in territory captured byFranco's forces to consolidate the future regime.[6] Asmaller but significant number of killings took place in areascontrolled by the Republicans, normally associated with abreakdown in law and order.[7] The extent to whichRepublican authorities connived in Republican territorykillings varied.[8][9]

Contents1 Background2 Military coup

2.1 Preparations2.2 Beginning of the coup2.3 Outcome

3 Combatants3.1 Republicans3.2 Nationalists3.3 Other factions

4 Foreign involvement4.1 Support for the Nationalists

4.1.1 Germany4.1.2 Italy4.1.3 Portugal4.1.4 Others

4.2 Support for the Republicans4.2.1 International Brigades4.2.2 Soviet Union4.2.3 Mexico

Second Italo-Ethiopian War 193536

Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936Spanish Civil War 193639Anti-Comintern Pact 1936Marco Polo Bridge Incident 1937Anschluss 1938Munich crisis 1938German occupation ofCzechoslovakia

March 1939

British guarantee to Poland March 1939Pact of Steel May 1939MolotovRibbentrop Pact August 1939Invasion of Poland September

1939

4.2.4 France5 Course of the war

5.1 19365.2 19375.3 19385.4 1939

6 Evacuation of children7 Atrocities

7.1 Nationalists7.2 Republicans

8 Social revolution9 Art and propaganda10 Timeline11 People12 Political parties and organizations13 See also14 References

14.1 Notes14.2 Citations14.3 Bibliography and books by notedauthors

15 Further reading16 External links

16.1 Images and films16.2 Academics and governments16.3 Other16.4 Archives

BackgroundAt the end of the 19th century, the owners of large estates, called latifundia, held most of the power in a land-based oligarchy. The landowners' power was unsuccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchantsectors.[10] In 1868, popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon. In1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated due to increasing politicalpressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.[11][12] After the restoration of theBourbons in December 1874,[13] Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.[14][15]

Niceto Alcal-Zamora in1931

Alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanismto the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute.[16] Growing resentment of conscription and ofthe military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.[17]

Spain was neutral in the First World War. Afterwards the working class, the industrial class, and the militaryunited in hopes of removing the corrupt central government, but were unsuccessful.[18] Fears of communism

grew.[19] A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923,and he ran Spain as a military dictatorship.[20] Support for his regime graduallyfaded, and he resigned in January 1930. He was replaced by General DmasoBerenguer and then Admiral Aznar, who both continued to rule by decree. Therewas little support for the monarchy in the major cities, and King Alfonso XIIIgave in to popular pressure for the establishment of a republic and calledmunicipal elections for 12 April 1931. The socialist and liberal republicans wonalmost all the provincial capitals and with the resignation of Aznar'sgovernment, King Alfonso XIII fled the country.[21] The Second SpanishRepublic was formed and would remain in power until the culmination of theSpanish Civil War.[22]

The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal-Zamora became theprovisional government, with Alcal-Zamora as the President and Head ofState.[23] The republic had broad support from all segments of society.[24] InMay, an incident where a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist clubsparked anti-clerical violence throughout Madrid and south-west Spain; the

government's slow response disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determinedto persecute the church. In June and July the Confederacin Nacional del Trabajo called several strikes, whichled to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guardand the army against the CNT in Seville; this led many workers to believe the Second Spanish Republic wasjust as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced their intention of overthrowing it via revolution.[25]Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists.[26] With the onset of the GreatDepression, the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and giving landtenure to farm workers.[27][28]

Fascism remained a reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the military.[29] In December, a newreformist, liberal, and democratic constitution was declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broadsecularization of the Catholic country, which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.[30] In October1931, Republican Manuel Azaa became prime minister of a minority government.[31][32] In 1933, the rightwon the general elections, largely due to the anarchists' abstention from the vote, increased right wingresentment of the incumbent government caused by an illegal decree confiscating the land of the aristocracy, theCasas Viejas incident, the socialists' (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) dissatisfaction with the caution ofRepublicans and perceived brutality of Manuel Azaa and the formation of a right-wing alliance, SpanishConfederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups; women's newfound right to vote also contributed to this(most women voted for centre-right parties).

Foreshadowing the conflict: SalvadorDal's Soft Construction with BoiledBeans (Premonition of Civil War)(1936)

Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black twoyears," seemed to make a civil war more likely.[33] Alejandro Lerroux ofthe Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government and rolledback changes made under the previous administration[34] and alsogranted amnesty to the collaborators of the unsuccessful uprising byGeneral Jos Sanjurjo in August 1932.[35][36] Some monarchists joinedwith the Fascist Falange Espaola to help achieve their aims.[37] Openviolence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities, and militancycontinued to increase,[38] reflecting a movement towards radicalupheaval, rather than peaceful democratic means as solutions.[39]

In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought membersof the right-wing Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA) intothe government.[40][41] Farm workers' wages were cut in half, and themilitary was purged of Republican members.[41] A Popular Frontalliance was organized,[41] which narrowly won the 1936 elections.[42]

Azaa led a weak minority government, but soon replaced Zamora as president in April.[43] Prime MinisterSantiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals, who decidedthat the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain.[44]

Military coupPreparationsIn an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts, the Republican government sacked Franco as chief ofstaff and transferred him to command of the Canary Islands.[45] Manuel Goded Llopis was removed asInspector General and was made general of the Balearic islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head of theArmy of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[45] This, however, allowed Mola to direct themainland uprising. General Jos Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reach an agreementwith the Carlists.[45] Mola was chief planner and second in command.[46] Jos Antonio Primo de Rivera wasput in prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[45] However, government actions were not asthorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not actedupon.[47]

On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yage, who managed to falsely convinceCasares of his loyalty to the republic.[48] Mola began serious planning in the spring.[46] Franco was a key playerbecause of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socialistuprising of 1934.[46] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Spanish Republican Army's toughestmilitary force.[49] He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting that the military was disloyal, butcould be restrained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy off Franco.[49] On 5July, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco.[50] It arrived on 14 July.[50]

General map of the Spanish Civil War (19361939). Initial Nationalist zone Jul

1936 Nationalist advance to Sep

1936 Nationalist advance to Oct

1937 Nationalist advance to Nov

1938 Nationalist advance to Feb

1939 Last area under Republican

control Main Nationalist centres Main Republican centres

Land battles Naval battles Bombed cities Concentration

camps Massacres

Refugee camps

On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant Jos Castilloa Socialist partymemberof the Assault Guards police force.[50] The next day, members of the Assault Guards arrested JosCalvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative.[51] Calvo Sotelo wasshot by the Guards without trial.[51] The killing of Sotelo, with involvement of the police, aroused suspicionsand strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.[52][nb 5] Massive reprisals followed.[51]Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in the advanced stages of a planned uprising, theevent provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup.[51] The Socialists and Communists(led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the military took over. The primeminister was hesitant.[51]

Beginning of the coupThe uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 17:01,agreed to by the leader of the Carlists, Manuel FalCond.[53] However, the timing was changedthe menin Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 05:00, and thosein Spain itself starting exactly a day later, so thatcontrol of Spanish Morocco could be achieved andforces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with therisings there.[54] The rising was intended to be a swiftcoup d'tat, but the government retained control ofmost of the country.[55]

Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain.[56]The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July, whichprompted the conspirators to enact it immediately.Little resistance was encountered. In total, the rebelsshot 189 people.[57] Goded and Franco immediatelytook control of the islands to which they wereassigned.[46] On 18 July, Casares Quiroga refused anoffer of help from the Confederacin Nacional delTrabajo (CNT) and Unin General de Trabajadores(UGT), leading the groups to proclaim a general strikein effect, mobilizing. They opened weapons caches,some buried since the 1934 risings.[56] Theparamilitary security forces often waited to see theoutcome of militia action before either joining orsuppressing the rebellion. Quick action by either therebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decidethe fate of a town.[58] General Queipo de Llanomanaged to secure Seville for the rebels, arresting anumber of other officers.[59]

OutcomeThe rebels failed to take any major cities, with the critical exception of Seville, which provided a landing pointfor Franco's African troops, and the primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and Len, whichfell quickly.[55] Cdiz was taken for the rebels, with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa.[60]

The government retained control of Mlaga, Jan, and Almera. In Madrid, the rebels were hemmed into theMontaa barracks, which fell with considerable bloodshed. Republican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced byJos Giral, who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population.[61] This facilitated the defeatof the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, but itallowed the anarchists to take control of Barcelona, along with large swathes of Aragn and Catalonia.[62]General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death.[63] The Republican governmentended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid, as well as Asturias, Cantabriaand part of the Basque Country in the north.

The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated as Nationalists, though the former implies "trueSpaniards" rather than a pure nationalistic cause.[64] The result of the coup was a nationalist area of controlcontaining 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million.[65] The Nationalists had secured the support ofaround half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the Army of Africa, made up of 35,000men,[66] and a little under half of Spain's militaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil Guards, and theCarabineers.[67] Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of both machine guns andartillery pieces.[66][68]

The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, and the Republicans tookcontrol of 10.[69] Naval capacity was uneven, with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage, but withthe Navy's top commanders and two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias captured at the Ferrolshipyard and Baleares, in Nationalist hands.[70] The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the sameproblems as the armymany officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so.[69] Two-thirds of aircapability was retained by the government however, the whole of the Republican Air Force was veryoutdated.[71]

CombatantsThe war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and freedom, and by Nationalistsupporters as between communist and anarchist "red hordes" and "Christian civilization".[72] Nationalists alsoclaimed they were bringing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country.[72]

Spanish politics, especially on the left, were quite fragmented, since socialists and communists supported therepublic. During the republic, anarchists had had mixed opinions, but major groups opposed the Nationalistsduring the Civil War. The Conservatives, in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the Republicangovernment and presented a more unified front.[73]

Flags of the Popular Front (left) and CNT/FAI (right)

Republican volunteers at Teruel,1936.

RepublicansOnly two countries openly and fully supported theRepublic: Mexico and the USSR. From them,especially the USSR, the Republic receiveddiplomatic support, volunteers, and the ability topurchase weapons. Other countries remainedneutral, said neutrality being a great source ofdistress to the intelligentsia in the United States andUnited Kingdom, and to a lesser extent in otherEuropean countries and to Marxists worldwide.This distress led to the International Brigades,thousands of foreigners of all nationalities who went to Spain to aid the Republic in the fight; they meant a greatdeal to morale but militarily were not very significant.

The Republic's supporters within Spain ranged from centrists who supported a moderately capitalist liberaldemocracy to revolutionary anarchists who opposed the republic, but sided with it. Their base was primarilysecular and urban, but also included landless peasants, and was particularly strong in industrial regions likeAsturias, the Basque country, and Catalonia.[74]

This faction was called variously leales ("loyalists") by supporters; Republicans, the Popular Front, or thegovernment by all parties; and/or los rojos ("the reds") by their opponents.[75] Republicans were supported byurban workers, agricultural labourers, and parts of the middle class.[76]

The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Galiciaand the more left-leaning Catalonia, sought autonomy, or independence,from the central government of Madrid. The Republican governmentallowed for the possibility of self-government for the two regions,[77]whose forces were gathered under the People's Republican Army(Ejrcito Popular Republicano, or EPR), which was reorganized intomixed brigades after October 1936.[78]

A few well-known people fought on the Republican side, such asEnglish novelist George Orwell (who wrote Homage to Catalonia(1938), an account of his experiences in the war)[79] and Canadian

thoracic surgeon Norman Bethune, who developed a mobile blood-transfusion service for frontlineoperations.[80]

NationalistsThe Nationalists (nacionales)also called "insurgents", "rebels", or, by opponents, "Franquists" or "fascists"feared national fragmentation and opposed the separatist movements. They were chiefly defined by their anti-communism, which galvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists and monarchists. Their leadershad a generally wealthier, more conservative, monarchist, landowning background.[81]

Flags of the Falange (left) and Carlist Traditionalist Requets(right)

Republican troops at Guadalajara,1937

The Nationalist side included the Carlists andAlfonsist monarchists, Spanish nationalists, thefascist Falange, and most conservatives andmonarchist liberals. Virtually all Nationalistgroups had strong Catholic convictions andsupported the native Spanish clergy.[81] TheNationals included the majority of the Catholicclergy and practitioners (outside of the Basqueregion), important elements of the army, mostlarge landowners, and many businessmen.[72]

One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Church,[81]which had been targeted by opponents, including Republicans, whoblamed the institution for the country's ills. On the other hand, theChurch was against the Republicans' liberal principles, which werefortified by the Spanish Constitution of 1931.[82] Prior to the war, in theAsturias uprising of 1934, religious buildings were burnt and at least 100clergy, religious civilians, and police were killed byrevolutionaries.[83][84]

Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain's colonial Army ofAfrica and reduced the miners to submission by heavy artillery attacksand bombing raids. The Spanish Foreign Legion committed atrocitiesmany women and children were killed,and the army carried out summary execution of leftists. The repression in the aftermath was brutal. In Asturias,prisoners were tortured.[85] Franco believed that he was justified in the brutal use of troops against Spanishcivilians. Historian Paul Preston said, "Unmoved by the fact that the central symbol of rightist values was thereconquest of Spain from the Moors, Franco did not hesitate to ship Moorish mercenaries to fight in Asturias,the only part of Spain where the crescent had never flown. He saw no contradiction about using the Moors,because he regarded left-wing workers with the same racialist contempt he possessed towards the tribesmen ofthe Rif".[86]

Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Jesuits. This proscription deeply offended manywithin the conservative fold. The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war, in which 7,000clergy and thousands of lay people were killed, deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists.[87][88]

The Moroccan regulares joined the rebellion and played a significant role in the civil war. In a 2009 news story,Reuters reported, "About 136,000 Moroccan fighters fought for the Generalissimo's Army of Africa, the fearedvanguard of a force that, ironically, Franco portrayed as a Christian crusade against godless communists".[89]

Other factionsCatalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists sided with the Republicans,while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government due to anti-clericalismand confiscations occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded by the conservative Basque

Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican government, although some in Navarre sided withthe uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans. Notwithstanding religious matters, Basquenationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided with the Republicans.[90]

Foreign involvementThe Spanish Civil War seized the fears and hopes of the world, including not just diplomats and politicians, butintellectuals, religious leaders, and labor unions, as well. Opinion divided three ways. The right and theCatholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, including laborunions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Antiwarand pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential ofescalating into a second world war.[91] In retrospect, however, the Spanish Civil War was not a prelude to theSecond World War, but rather an indicator of the growing instability encompassing the whole of Europe.[92]

The Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisorypositions. Germany sent a Luftwaffe unit and modern warplanes. Italy sent 100,000 men. Britain and France leda bloc of 27 nations that promised an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofficially went along.Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union also signed on officially, but blatantly ignored the embargo. The attemptedsuppression of imported materials was largely ineffective, however, and France especially was accused ofallowing large shipments to Republican troops.[93] The clandestine actions of the various European powerswere, at the time, considered to be risking another "Great War", alarming antiwar elements across the world.[94]

The League of Nations' reaction to the war was slightly biased against communism,[95] and insufficient tocontain the massive importation by fighting factions of arms and other war resources. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was formed, its policies accomplished little, and its directives were ineffective.[96] Theofficial Spanish Government of Juan Negrn was gradually abandoned within the organization during thisperiod.[97]

Support for the NationalistsGermany

German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936. Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful airand armored units to assist the Nationalists. The war provided combat experience with the latest technology forthe German military. However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for whichHitler was not ready. He therefore limited his aid, and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send in largeItalian units.[98]

Nazi actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion, a unit composed of volunteers from theGerman Air Force (Luftwaffe) and from the German Army (Heer) from July 1936 to March 1939. Germanefforts to move the Army of Africa to mainland Spain proved successful in the war's early stages.[99] Germanoperations slowly expanded to include strike targets, most notably and controversially the bombing ofGuernica which, on 26 April 1937, killed 200 to 300 civilians.[100]

Members of the Condor Legion, a unitcomposed of volunteers from theGerman Air Force (Luftwaffe) andfrom the German Army (Heer).

German involvement was further manifested through undertakings suchas Operation Ursula, a U-boat undertaking, and contributions from theKriegsmarine. The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories,particularly in aerial combat,[101] while Spain further provided a provingground for German tank tactics. The training German units provided toNationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War's end, perhaps56,000 Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial andnaval forces, had been trained by German detachments.[99]

A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the war,including approximately 300 killed,[102] though no more than 10,000participated at any one time. German aid to the Nationalists amounted toapproximately 43,000,000 ($215,000,000) in 1939 prices,[102][nb 6]15.5 percent of which was used for salaries and expenses and 21.9 percent for direct delivery of supplies toSpain, while 62.6 percent was expended on the Condor Legion.[102] In total, Germany provided the Nationalistswith 600 planes and 200 tanks.[103]

Italy

After Francisco Franco's request and encouragement by Hitler, Benito Mussolini joined the war. While theconquest of Ethiopia made Italy confident in its power, a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italiancontrol of the Mediterranean.[104] The Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) played a substantial role in theMediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, the LegionaryAir Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria), and the Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: Corpo Truppe Volontarie,or CTV) to the Nationalist cause.[105] The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply the Nationalists with 50,000men.[105] Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade of Nationalist-held SpanishMorocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Mlaga, Valencia, and Barcelona.[106] Intotal, Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800 artillery pieces, 10,000 machine guns, and240,000 rifles.[107]

Portugal

The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister Antnio de Oliveira Salazar played an important role insupplying Franco's forces with ammunition and logistical help.[108] Despite its discreet direct militaryinvolvement restrained to a somewhat "semi-official" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime, of a volunteerforce of up to 20,000,[109][110] so-called "Viriatos" for the whole duration of the conflict, Portugal wasinstrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbourto Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to the Nationalist cause.[111]

Others

The Etkar Andr battalion of theInternational Brigades.

Polish volunteers in the InternationalBrigades

The Conservative government of Great Britain maintained a position of strong neutrality and was supported byelites and the mainstream media, while the far left mobilized aid to the Republic.[112] The government refusedto allow arms shipments and sent warships to try to stop shipments. It became a crime to volunteer to fight inSpain, but about 4,000 went anyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans. Many visited Spain,hoping to find authentic anti-fascism. They had little impact on the government, and could not shake the strongpublic mood for peace.[113] The Labour Party was split, with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists. Itofficially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that demanded support for the Republican cause; but itfinally voiced some support to Loyalists.[114]

Romanian volunteers were led by Ion I Moa, deputy-leader of the Legion of the Archangel Michael (or IronGuard), whose group of seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with theNationalists.[115]

Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, around 600 Irishmen, followers ofIrish political activist and Irish Republican Army leader Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade", went toSpain to fight alongside Franco.[109] The majority of the volunteers were Catholics, and according to O'Duffyhad volunteered to help the Nationalists fight against communism.[116][117]

Support for the RepublicansInternational Brigades

Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist or socialistentities, joined the International Brigades, believing that the SpanishRepublic was a front line in the war against fascism. The unitsrepresented the largest foreign contingent of those fighting for theRepublicans. Roughly 40,000 foreign nationals fought with theBrigades, though no more than 18,000 were entered into the conflict atany given time. They claimed to represent 53 nations.[118]

Significant numbers of volunteers originated in France (10,000),Germany and Austria (5,000), and Italy (3,350). More than 1,000 eachcame from the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom,Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Canada.[118] The Thlmann Battalion,a group of Germans, and the Garibaldi Battalion, a group of Italians,distinguished their units during the Siege of Madrid. Americans foughtin units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, while Canadians joinedthe Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion.[119]

Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side, includingRomanian Communist Party members Petre Boril and ValterRoman.[120] About 145 men[121] from Ireland formed the ConnollyColumn, which was immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song "Viva la Quinta Brigada."Some Chinese joined the Brigades, and the majority of them eventually returned to China, while some went toprison or French refugee camps, and a handful remained in Spain.[122]

British Battalion banner

Soviet Union

Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement, the Union of SovietSocialist Republics contravened the League of Nations embargo byproviding material assistance to the Republican forces, becoming theironly source of major weapons. Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin triedto do this covertly.[123] In total, estimates of material provided by theUSSR to the Republicans vary between 634 and 806 planes, 331 and362 tanks, and 1,034 and 1,895 artillery pieces.[124]

Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head theweapons shipment operation, called Operation X. Despite Stalin'sinterest in aiding the Republicans, the quality of arms wasinconsistent.[125][126] On one hand, many of the rifles and field gunsprovided were old, obsolete or otherwise of limited use. On the other hand, the T-26 and BT-5 tanks weremodern and effective in combat.[125] The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in current service with theirown forces, but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior by the end of the war.[126]

The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many shipments were lost or arrivedonly partially matching what had been authorized.[127] Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false decks in theoriginal designs of ships and, while at sea, Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paint schemes to evadedetection by the Nationalists.[128]

The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves. This would later be the frequentsubject of Franquist propaganda, under the term "Moscow Gold". The cost of the Soviet Union arms was morethan the value of Spain's gold reserves, the fourth-largest in the world, estimated at US $500 million (1936prices), 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France.[129]

The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000[130]3,000[131]),[132] and, while Soviet troopswere fewer than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made tanks and aircraft, particularlyat the beginning of the war.[118] In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world toorganize and recruit the International Brigades.[133]

Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs(NKVD) inside the Republican rearguard. Communist figures including Vittorio Vidali ("ComandanteContreras"), Iosif Grigulevich, Mikhail Koltsov and, most prominently, Alexander Orlov led operations thatincluded the murders of Catalan anti-stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin[134] and independent left-wingactivist Jos Robles.[135] Also, the shooting down in December 1936 of the French aircraft in which thedelegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Georges Henny, carried to France extensivedocumentation on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD-led operation.[136]

Mexico

See also es:exilio republicano espaol (Mxico).

Serial '' Potez 540 plane of theSpanish Republican Air Force.[145]

Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments, such as the ABC Powers and Peru, theMexican government supported the Republicans.[137][138] Mexico refused to follow the French-British non-intervention proposals,[137] furnishing $2,000,000 in aid and material assistance, which included 20,000 riflesand 20 million cartridges.[137]

Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help, as well as the sanctuarythe nation arranged for Republican refugees, including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children fromRepublican families. Some 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City, accompanied by $300 million invarious treasures still owned by the Left.[139]

France

Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front" government in France did not senddirect support to the Republicans. French Prime Minister Lon Blum was sympathetic to the republic,[140]fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of NaziGermany and Fascist Italy, an alliance that would nearly encircle France.[140] Right-wing politicians opposedany aid and attacked the Blum government.[141] In July 1936, British officials convinced Blum not to send armsto the Republicans and, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military aid,technology or forces to assist the Republican forces.[142] However, Blum made clear that France reserved theright to provide aid should it wish to the Republic:

We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitimategovernment... We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who would be temptedto send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. Blum, 1936.[143]

On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, demanding that he send aircraftto the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic andbeing responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.[143] Germany informed the Frenchambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported "the manoeuvres of Moscow"by supporting the Republicans.[144] On 21 August 1936, France signed the Non-Intervention Agreement.[144]

However, the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicansthrough covert means with Potez 54 bomber aircraft (nicknamed the'Flying Coffin') by Spanish Republican pilots),[146] Dewoitine aircraft,and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to Decemberof that year to Republican forces.[147] The French also sent pilots andengineers to the Republicans.[148] Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraftcould freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in othercountries.[149]

Map showing Spain in September 1936: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Attack on Nationalist position nearMadrid, Somosierra, 1936

Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, the possibility of Frenchintervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war. German intelligencereported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions aboutintervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.[150] In 1938,Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through Frenchoccupation of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.[151]

Course of the war1936A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in SpanishMorocco was organized to the southwest of Spain.[152]Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20July,[153][154] leaving an effective command splitbetween Mola in the North and Franco in the South.[46]This period also saw the worst actions of the so-called"Red" and "White Terrors" in Spain.[155][156] On 21July, the fifth day of the rebellion, the Nationalistscaptured the central Spanish naval base, located inFerrol in northwestern Spain.[157]

A rebel force under Colonel Beorlegui Canet, sent byGeneral Mola and Colonel Esteban Garcia, undertookthe Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September.The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republicanprovinces in the north. On 5 September, after heavyfighting, the force took Irn, closing the French borderto the Republicans.[158] On 15 September, SanSebastin, home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basquenationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.[111] The Nationalists thenadvanced toward their capital, Bilbao, but were halted by Republicanmilitias on the border of Biscay at the end of September.

The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September,unable to cope with the situation, and was replaced by a mostly Socialistorganization under Largo Caballero.[159] The new leadership began tounify central command in the republican zone.[160] On the Nationalistside, Franco was chosen as chief military commander at a meeting ofranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September, now called by the titleGeneralsimo.[46][161]

Map showing Spain in October 1937: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the Alczar in Toledo,[161] which hadbeen held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel Moscardo since the beginning of the rebellion, resistingthousands of Republican troops, who completely surrounded the isolated building. Moroccans and elements ofthe Spanish Foreign Legion came to the rescue.[162] Two days after relieving the siege, Franco proclaimedhimself Caudillo ("chieftain", the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Fhrer), while forciblyunifying the various and diverse falangist, Royalist, and other elements within the Nationalist cause.[159] Thediversion to Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed as a major propaganda victory andpersonal success for Franco.[163] A similar dramatic success for the Nationalists occurred on 17 October, whentroops coming from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo, in Northern Spain.[164][165]

In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[166] reaching it in early Novemberand launching a major assault on the city on 8 November.[167] The Republican government was forced to shiftfrom Madrid to Valencia, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.[168] However, the Nationalists' attack on thecapital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November. A contributory factor in the successfulRepublican defense was the effectiveness of the Fifth Regiment[169] and later the arrival of the InternationalBrigades, though only an approximate 3,000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle.[170] Having failed totake the capital, Franco bombarded it from the air and, in the following two years, mounted several offensives totry to encircle Madrid. The battle of the Corunna Road, a Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushedRepublican forces back, but failed to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into January.[171]

1937With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanishcolonial soldiers from Morocco, Franco made anotherattempt to capture Madrid in January and February1937, but was again unsuccessful. The Battle ofMlaga started in mid-January, and this Nationalistoffensive in Spain's southeast would turn into a disasterfor the Republicans, who were poorly organised andarmed. The city was taken by Franco on 8February.[172] The consolidation of various militias intothe Republican Army had started in December1936.[173] The main Nationalist advance to cross theJarama river and cut the supply of Madrid by theValencia road, termed the Battle of Jarama, led toheavy casualties (6,00020,000) on both sides. Theoperation's main objective was not met, thoughNationalists gained a modest amount of territory.[174]

A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle ofGuadalajara, was a more significant defeat for Francoand his armies. It proved the only publicised Republican victory of the war. Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics

Ruins of Guernica.

were used by Franco, and while many strategists blamed the latter for the rightists' defeat, the Germans believedit was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualties and loss of valuable equipment.[175] The Germanstrategists successfully argued that the Nationalists needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first.[176]

The "War in the North" began in mid-March,[177] with Biscay as a firsttarget.[178] The Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable airforce.[179] On 26 April, the Condor Legion bombed the town ofGuernica, killing 200-300 and causing significant damage. Thedestruction had a significant effect on international opinion.[180] TheBasques retreated.[181]

April and May saw infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia.The dispute was between an ultimately victorious government Communist forces and the anarchist CNT. The disturbance pleasedNationalist command, but little was done to exploit Republicandivisions.[182] After the fall of Guernica, the Republican government began to fight back with increasingeffectiveness. In July, it made a move to recapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbaofront, but for only two weeks. A similar Republican attack on Huesca failed similarly.[183]

Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June.[184] In early July, despite the earlier fall in June ofBilbao, the government launched a strong counter-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on Brunete. TheBattle of Brunete, however, was a significant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its most accomplishedtroops. The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and left 25,000 Republicancasualties.[185]

A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and aerial advantages, theBattle of Belchite resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and the loss of much equipment.[186]Franco invaded Aragn in August and took the city of Santander.[187] With the surrender of the Republicanarmy in the Basque territory came the Santoa Agreement.[188] Gijn finally fell in late October.[189] Francohad effectively won in the north. At November's end, with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, thegovernment had to move again, this time to Barcelona.[190]

1938The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city, which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists,was conquered by Republicans in January. The Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by22 February, but Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.[191]

On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and, by 14 April, they had pushed through to theMediterranean, cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain in two. The Republican government attempted tosue for peace in May,[192] but Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on. In July, the

Map showing Spain in July 1938: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the Republic atValencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ Line, a system of fortifications defendingValencia.[193]

The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of theEbro, from 24 July until 26 November.[194] The campaign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by theFranco-British appeasement of Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republicanmorale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.[195] The retreat from the Ebro all butdetermined the final outcome of the war.[194] Eightdays before the new year, Franco threw massive forcesinto an invasion of Catalonia.[196]

1939Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwindcampaign during the first two months of 1939.Tarragona fell on 15 January,[197] followed byBarcelona on 26 January[198] and Girona on 2February.[199] On 27 February, the United Kingdomand France recognized the Franco regime.[200]

Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained forthe Republican forces. On 5 March 1939, theRepublican army, led by the Colonel SegismundoCasado and the politician Julin Besteiro, rose againstthe prime minister Juan Negrn and formed theNational Defence Council (Consejo Nacional deDefensa or CND) to negotiate a peace deal.[201] Negrn fled to France on 6 March,[202] but the Communisttroops around Madrid rose against the junta, starting a brief civil war within the civil war. Casado defeatedthem, and began peace negotiations with the Nationalists, but Franco refused to accept anything less thanunconditional surrender.[203]

On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid and,by 31 March, they controlled all Spanish territory.[204] Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1April, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.[205]

After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies.[206] Thousands ofRepublicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000 executed.[207] Other calculations of these deaths range from50,000[208] to 200,000, depending on which killings are included. Many others were put to forced labour,building railways, drying out swamps, and digging canals.[208]

Map showing Spain in February 1939: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Franco declares the end of the war.However, small pockets ofRepublicans fight on.

Hundreds ofthousands ofRepublicansfled abroad,with some500,000 fleeingto France.[209]Refugees wereconfined ininternmentcamps of theFrench ThirdRepublic, suchas Camp Gursor CampVernet, where12,000Republicanswere housed insqualid

conditions. In his capacity as consul in Paris, Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda organized theimmigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in France using the ship SS Winnipeg.[210]

Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find relations in France wereencouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Franquist government, to return to Spain. The greatmajority did so and were turned over to the Franquist authorities in Irn.[211] From there, they were transferredto the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of Political Responsibilities. After theproclamation by Marshal Philippe Ptain of the Vichy regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and theFrench police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from the camp. Along with other"undesirable" people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to NaziGermany. About 5,000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration camp.[211]

After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis wellinto the 1950s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944,a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Vald'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.[212]

Evacuation of childrenThe Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,00035,000 children from their zone,[214] starting with Basqueareas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Their destinations included the United Kingdom[215] and the USSR,and many other locations in Europe, along with Mexico.[214] On 21 May 1937, around 4,000 Basque childrenwere taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS Habana from the Spanish port of Santurtzi. This was againstinitial opposition from both the government and charitable groups, who saw the removal of children from theirnative country as potentially harmful. On arrival two days later in Southampton, the children were dispersed all

Children preparing for evacuation,some giving the Republican salute.The Republicans showed a raised fistwhereas the Nationalists gave theRoman salute.[213]

Twenty-six republicans wereassassinated by fascists that belongedto Franco's Nationalists at thebeginning of the Spanish Civil War,between August and September of1936. This mass grave is placed at thesmall town named as Estpar, inNorthern Spain. The excavationoccurred in JulyAugust of 2014.

over England, with over 200 children accommodated in Wales.[216] The upper age limit was initially set at 12,but raised to 15.[217] By mid-September, all of los nios, as they became known, had found homes withfamilies. Most were repatriated to Spain after the war, but some 250 still remained in Britain by the end of theSecond World War in 1945.[218]

AtrocitiesDeath totals remain debated.British historian Antony Beevorwrote in his history of the CivilWar that Franco's ensuing "whiteterror" resulted in the deaths of200,000 people and that the "redterror" killed 38,000.[219] JuliusRuiz contends that, "Althoughthe figures remain disputed, aminimum of 37,843 executionswere carried out in theRepublican zone, with amaximum of 150,000 executions(including 50,000 after the war)in Nationalist Spain".[220]

In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzn, opened an investigation intothe executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July1936 and December 1951. (Garzn has since been indicted for violating

a 1977 amnesty law through his actions.) Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatistFederico Garca Lorca.[3] Mention of his death was forbidden during Franco's regime.[221]

The view of historians, including Helen Graham,[222] Paul Preston,[223] Antony Beevor,[224] GabrielJackson[225] and Hugh Thomas,[226] is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organizedand approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines were theresult of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:

Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, the "cleaning up",of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a disciplined policy of the new authoritiesand a part of their programme of regeneration. In republican Spain, most of the killing was theconsequence of anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work of the state,although some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and some of those responsibleultimately rose to positions of authority. Hugh Thomas[226]

Nationalists

Spanish Civil War grave sites.Location of known burial places.Colors refer to the type ofintervention that has been carried out.Green: No Interventions Undertakenso far. White: Missing grave. Yellow:Transferred to the Valle de los Cados.Red: Fully or Partially Exhumed.Blue star: Valle de los Cados.Source: Ministry of Justice of Spain(http://mapadefosas.mjusticia.es)

Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bombMadrid in late November 1936.

Bombing in Barcelona, 1938.

Nationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered to eradicateany trace of "leftism" in Spain, were common. The notion of a limpieza(cleansing) formed an essential part of the rebel strategy, and the processbegan immediately after an area had been captured.[227] According tohistorian Paul Preston, the minimum number of those executed by therebels is 130,000,[228] and is likely to have been far higher, with otherhistorians placing the figure at 200,000 dead.[229] The violence wascarried out in the rebel zone by the military, the Civil Guard and theFalange in the name of the regime.[230]

Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the firstweeks of the war.[230] This included the execution ofschoolteachers,[231] because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republicto promote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closingreligious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalists asan attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings of civilianswere carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists,[232] alongwith the execution of unwanted individuals. These included non-combatants such as trade-unionists, Popular Front politicians, suspectedFreemasons, Basque, Catalan, Andalusian, and Galician Nationalists,Republican intellectuals, relatives of known Republicans, and thosesuspected of voting for the Popular Front.[230][233][234][235][236]

Nationalist forces massacredcivilians in Seville, where some8,000 people were shot; 10,000were killed in Cordoba; 6,00012,000 were killed inBadajoz.[237] In Granada, whereworking-class neighborhoodswere hit with artillery and right-wing squads were given free reinto kill governmentsympathizers,[238] at least 2,000

people were murdered.[231] In February 1937, over 7,000 were killed after the capture of Mlaga.[239] WhenBilbao was conquered, thousands of people were sent to prison. There were fewer executions than usual,however, because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists' reputations internationally.[240] The numbers killedas the columns of the Army of Africa devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid areparticularly difficult to calculate.[241]

Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, following the capture of Bilbao, theytook hundreds of people, including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the Republican forces, to thecountryside or graveyards and murdered them.[242][243]

"Execution" of the Sacred Heart ofJesus by Communist militiamen. Thephotograph in the London Daily Mailhad the caption "Spanish Reds' war onreligion".[248]

Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering 20 Protestant ministers.[244] Franco's forceswere determined to remove the "Protestant heresy" from Spain.[245] The Nationalists also persecuted Basques,as they strove to eradicate Basque culture.[187] According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basques weremurdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War.[246]

The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by theLuftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie:Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombing of Guernica wasthe most controversial.[247]

RepublicansAccording to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died inRepublican-held territories. This is considered excessive by AntonyBeevor. However, it was much less than the half a million claimedduring the war.[249] The deaths would form the prevailing outsideopinion of the republic up until the bombing of Guernica.[249]

The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attackedand murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of militaryrevolt.[243] In his 1961 book, Spanish archbishop Antonio MonteroMoreno, who at the time was director of the journal Ecclesia, wrote that6,832 were killed during the war, including 4,184 priests, 2,365 monksand friars, and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a figure accepted byhistorians, including Beevor.[244][250][251] Some sources claim that bythe conflict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy had beenkilled,[252][nb 7] The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus byCommunist militiamen at Cerro de los ngeles near Madrid, on 7August 1936, was the most infamous of widespread desecration ofreligious property.[253] In dioceses where the Republicans had general control, a large proportion often amajority of secular priests were killed.[254]

Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were executed as suspectedFalangists.[255] Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in theNationalist zone.[256] Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.[257]Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they didn't sympathize with the Republicans, and were usuallyspared if they did.[258] Fake justice was sought through a commission, known in Russia as checas.[255]

As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists, many civilians were executed by councilsand tribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchist groups.[255] Some members of the latter wereexecuted by Soviet-advised communist functionaries in Catalonia,[259] as recounted by George Orwell's

The Puente Nuevo bridge, Ronda.Both Nationalists and Republicans areclaimed to have thrown prisonersfrom the bridge to their deaths in thecanyon.[259]

Women at the Siege of the Alczar inToledo, 1936

description of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which followed a period of increasingtension between competing elements of the Catalan political scene. Some individuals fled to friendly embassies,which would house up to 8,500 people during the war.[256]

In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the first month of the war.[259]Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the killing ofNationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos delJarama.[260] Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocitiesagainst fellow Republicans, including other Marxists: Andr Marty,known as the Butcher of Albacete, was responsible for the deaths ofsome 500 members of the International Brigades.[261] Andreu Nin,leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification), and manyother prominent POUM members, were murdered by the Communists,with the help of the USSR's NKVD.[262]

Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone duringthe war, 17,000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within amonth of the coup. Whilst the Communists were forthright in theirsupport of extrajudicial killings, much of the Republican side wasappalled by the murders.[263] Azaa came close to resigning.[256] He,

alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of other local officials, attempted to preventNationalist supporters being lynched. Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop thekillings.[263]

Social revolutionIn the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragn and Catalonia, in addition tothe temporary military success, there was a vast social revolution inwhich the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry and setup councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government.[264] Thisrevolution was opposed by the Soviet-supported communists who,perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of civil propertyrights.[264]

As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able toexploit their access to Soviet arms to restore government control overthe war effort, through diplomacy and force.[262] Anarchists and theWorkers' Party of Marxist Unification (Partido Obrero de UnificacinMarxista, POUM) were integrated into the regular army, albeit withresistance. The POUM was outlawed and falsely denounced as aninstrument of the fascists.[262] In the May Days of 1937, manythousands of anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought forcontrol of strategic points in Barcelona.[182]

The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 30,00040,000 members.[265] It also called for a socialrevolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism.[266] Following theexecution of its leader, Jos Antonio Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size to severalhundred thousand members.[267] The leadership of the Falange suffered 60 percent casualties in the early daysof the civil war, and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders, called camisas nuevas("new shirts"), who were less interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism.[268] Subsequently,Franco united all rightist parties into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the National Syndicalist OffensiveJuntas (Spanish: Falange Espaola Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET y delas JONS).[269]

The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations, including the Fellowship of Reconciliation,the War Resisters League, and the War Resisters' International. Many people including, as they are now called,the "insumisos" ("defiant ones", conscientious objectors) argued and worked for non-violent strategies.Prominent Spanish pacifists, such as Amparo Poch y Gascn and Jos Brocca, supported the Republicans.Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative but to make a stand against fascism. He put this standinto practice by various means, including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies, andthrough humanitarian work with war refugees.[nb 8]

Art and propagandaThroughout the course of the Spanish Civil War, people all over the world were exposed to the goings-on andeffects of it on its people not only through standard art, but also through propaganda. Motion pictures, posters,radio programs, and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential during the war.Produced by both fascists and republicans, propaganda allowed Spaniards a way to spread awareness about theirwar all over the world. In a film co-produced by famous early-twentieth century authors such as ErnestHemingway and Lillian Hellman, video footage was used as a way to advertise Spains need for military andmonetary aid. This film, The Spanish Earth, premiered in dwellings all over America in July 1937. This was aninfluential film during this time period because it was one of few pieces of propaganda that was created from aSpanish Republican point of view. It exposed the hardships of Spanish civilians during the war, capturedfootage of battles from the republicans front, and uncovered the immoralities thrust upon the Spanish people bythe fascists. By promoting this film, as well as other forms of propaganda, to international audiences, Spain wasable to gather more military allies as well as monetary donations to support their battered homeland. After thewar, in the present-day, propaganda of art created during and after the war, serve as reminders of the SpanishCivil War. They allow audiences to recall the horrors of the war, and serve as a reminder of how much Spainhas overcomed and accomplished since this time.

Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Snchez Prez's El pueblo espaol tiene un camino que conduce auna estrella maqueta ("The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to a Star"), a 12.5m monolith constructedout of plaster representing the struggle for a socialist utopia;[270] Julio Gonzlez's La Montserrat, an anti-warwork which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona, is created from a sheet of iron which has beenhammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small child in one arm and a sickle in the other. andAlexander Calder's Fuente de mercurio (Mercury Fountain) a protest work by the American against theNationalist forced control of Almade'n and the mercury mines there.[271]

Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937

As to other works of art, Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937, taking inspiration from the bombing ofGuernica. Guernica, like many importantRepublican masterpieces, was featured at the1937 International Exhibition in Paris. Thework's size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed muchattention and cast the horrors of the mountingSpanish civil unrest into a global spotlight.[272]The painting has since been herald as an anti-warwork and a symbol of peace in the 20thcentury.[273] Joan Mir created El Segador (TheReaper, formally titled El campesino cataln enrebelda (Catalan peasant in revolt), which spanssome 18 feet by 12 feet[274] and depicted apeasant brandishing a sickle in the air, to which Mir commented that "The sickle is not a communist symbol. Itis the reapers symbol, the tool of his work, and, when his freedom is threatened, his weapon."[273] This work,featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris, was shipped back to the Spanish Republic's capital inValencia following the Exhibition, but has since gone missing or has been destroyed.[274]

TimelineSpanish Civil War Timeline

Date Event1868 Overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon1873 Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicates throne ending the short-livedFirst Spanish Republic1874 (December) Restoration of the Bourbons1909 Tragic Week in Barcelona1923 Military coup brings Miguel Primo de Rivera to power1930 (January) Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns1931 Spanish Constitution that included articles 24 and 26 which banned Jesuits1931 (12 April) Municipal elections, King Alfonso XIII abdicates, Second Spanish Republic is formed withNiceto Alcala-Zamora as President and Head of State1931 (June) Elections return large majority of Republicans and Socialists1931 (October) Republican Manuel Azana becomes prime minister of a minority government1931 (December) New reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution is declared1932 (August) Unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo1933 Beginning of the "black two years"1934 Asturias uprising1936 (April) Popular Front alliance wins election and Azana replaces Zamora as president

1936 (12 June) Prime Minister Casares Quiroga meets General Joan Yague1936 (5 July) Aircraft chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco1936 (12 July) Lieutenant Jose Castillo is murdered1936 (13 July) Jose Calvo Sotelo is arrested1936 (14 July) Franco arrives in Morocco1936 (17 July) Military coup gains control over Spanish Morocco1936 (17 July) Official beginning of the war1936 (20 July) Coup leader Sanjurjo is killed in a plane crash1936 (21 July) Nationalists capture the central Spanish naval base1936 (7 August) "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los Angelesin Getafe1936 (4 September) The Republican government under Giral resigns, and are replaced by mostly Socialistorganization under Largo Caballero1936 (5 September) Nationalists take Irun1936 (15 September) Nationalists take San Sebastian1936 (21 September) Franco chosen as chief military commander at Salamanca1936 (27 September) Franco's troops relieve the Alcazar in Toledo1936 (29 September) Franco proclaims himself Caudillo1936 (17 October) Nationalists from Galicia relieve the besieged town of Oviedo1936 (November) Bombing of Madrid1936 (8 November) Franco launches major assault on Madrid that is unsuccessful1936 (6 November) Republican government is forced to move to Valencia from Madrid1937 Nationalists capture most of Spain's northern coastline1937 (6 February) Battle of Jarama begins1937 (8 February) Malaga falls to Franco's forces1937 (March) War in the North begins1937 (8 March) Battle of Guadalajara begins1937 (26 April) Bombing of Guernica1937 (21 May) 4,000 Basque children taken to the UK1937 (3 June) Mola, Franco's second-in-command, is killed1937 (July) Republicans move to recapture Segovia1937 (6 July) Battle of Brunete begins1937 (August) Franco invades Aragon and takes the city of Santander1937 (24 August) Battle of Belchite begins1937 (October) Gijon falls to Franco's troops1937 (November) Republican government forced to move to Barcelona from Valencia1938 Nationalists capture large parts of Catalonia

1938 (January) Battle of Teruel, conquered by Republicans1938 (22 February) Franco recovers Teruel1938 (7 March) Nationalists launch the Aragon Offensive1938 (16 March) Bombing of Barcelona1938 (May) Republican sue for peace, Franco demands unconditional surrender1938 (24 July) Battle of the Ebro begins1938 (24 December) Franco throws massive force into invasion of Catalonia1939 Beginning of General Francisco Franco's rule1939 (15 January) Tarragona falls to Franco1939 (26 January) Barcelona falls to Franco1939 (2 February) Girona falls to Franco1939 (27 February) UK and France recognize the Franco regime1939 (6 March) Prime minister Juan Negrin flees to France1939 (28 March) Nationalists occupy Madrid1939 (31 March) Nationalists control all Spanish territory1939 (1 April) Last Republican forces surrender1939 (1 April) Official ending of the war1975 Ending of General Francisco Franco's rule

People

Figures identified with the Republican side

Politicians or military

Manuel Azaa (Republican)Santiago Carrillo (Communist)Valentin Gonzlez ("El Campesino")(Communist)Dolores Ibarruri ("La Pasionaria") (Communist)Francisco Largo Caballero (Socialist)Diego Martnez Barrio (Republican)Juan Negrn (Socialist)Andrs Nin (Communist)Indalecio Prieto (Socialist)Buenaventura Durruti (Anarchist)

Figures identified with the Nationalist side

Military

Milln Astray (Spain)Francisco Franco (Spain)Miguel Cabanellas (Spain)Jos Sanjurjo (Spain)Emilio Mola (Spain)Gonzalo Queipo de Llano (Spain)Juan Yage (Spain)Hugo Sperrle (Germany)Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma (Germany)Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (Germany)Mario Roatta (Italy)

Others identified with the Republican side(including volunteers)

W. H. Auden (poet)Robert Capa (photojournalist)Dezs Rvai (photojournalist)Pablo Casals (cellist, conductor)Federico Garca Lorca (poet, dramatist -assassinated)Egon Erwin Kisch (writer, journalist)Pablo Picasso (painter, sculptor)Rafael Alberti (poet)Ernest Hemingway (author, journalist)John Dos Passos (novelist)Jose Robles (academic, activist)Laurie Lee (poet, novelist, screenwriter)George Orwell (novelist, journalist)Luis Buuel (filmmaker)Miguel Hernndez (poet)Pablo Neruda (poet)ikica Jovanovi panac (Socialist)

Ettore Bastico (Italy)

Non-military

Pedro Muoz Seca (playwright - assassinated)Ramn Serrano Ser (politician)

Political parties and organizations

The Popular Front (Republican) Supporters of the Popular Front(Republican) Nationalists (Francoist)

The Popular Front was an electoralalliance formed between various left-wing and centrist parties for elections tothe Cortes in 1936, in which thealliance won a majority of seats.

UR (Unin Republicana -Republican Union): Led byDiego Martnez Barrio, formedin 1934 by members of the PRR,who had resigned in objection to

Unin Militar RepublicanaAntifascista (RepublicanAnti-fascist Military Union):Formed by military officers inopposition to the Unin MilitarEspaola.Anarchist groups. Theanarchists boycotted the 1936Cortes election and initiallyopposed the Popular Front

Virtually all Nationalist groups hadvery strong Roman Catholicconvictions and supported the nativeSpanish clergy.

Unin Militar Espaola(Spanish Military Union) - aconservative politicalorganisation of officers in thearmed forces, includingoutspoken critics of the

Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War

Alejandro Lerroux's coalitionwith the CEDA. It drew its mainsupport from skilled workers andprogressive businessmen.IR (Izquierda Republicana -Republican Left): Led byformer Prime Minister ManuelAzaa after his RepublicanAction party merged withSantiago Casares Quiroga'sGalician independence party andthe Radical Socialist RepublicanParty (PRRS). It drew its supportfrom skilled workers, smallbusinessmen, and civil servants.Azaa led the Popular Front andbecame president of Spain. TheIR formed the bulk of the firstgovernment after the PopularFront victory with members ofthe UR and the ERC.

ERC (EsquerraRepublicana deCatalunya - RepublicanLeft of Catalonia): TheCatalan faction of Azaa'sRepublicans, led by LlusCompanys.

PSOE (Partido SocialistaObrero Espaol - SpanishSocialist Workers' Party):Formed in 1879, its alliance withAccin Republicana inmunicipal elections in 1931 sawa landslide victory that led to theKing's abdication and thecreation of the Second Republic.The two parties won the

government, but joined duringthe Civil War when LargoCaballero became PrimeMinister.

CNT (ConfederacinNacional del Trabajo -National Confederationof Labour): Theconfederation ofanarcho-syndicalist tradeunions.FAI (FederacinAnarquista Ibrica -Iberian AnarchistFederation): Thefederation of anarchistgroups, very active in theRepublican militias.Mujeres Libres (FreeWomen): The anarchistfeminist organisation.FIJL (FederacinIbrica de JuventudesLibertarias - IberianFederation ofLibertarian Youth)

Basque separatists.PNV (PartidoNacionalista Vasco -Basque NationalistParty): A CatholicChristian Democrat partyunder Jos AntonioAguirre, whichcampaigned for greaterautonomy orindependence for theBasque region. Held

Republic like Francisco Franco.Formed in 1934, the UMEsecretly courted fascist Italyfrom its inception. After theelectoral victory of the PopularFront, it began plotting a coupwith monarchist and fascistgroups in Spain. In the run-upto the Civil War, it was led byEmilio Mola and Jos Sanjurjo,and latterly Franco.Alfonsist Monarchist -supported the restoration ofAlfonso XIII. Many armyofficers, aristocrats, andlandowners were Alfonsine, butthere was little popular support.

Renovacin Espaola(Spanish Restoration) -the main Alfonsinepolitical party.Accin Espaola(Spanish Action) - anintegral nationalist partyled by Jos CalvoSotelo, formed in 1933around a journal of thesame name edited bypolitical theorist andjournalist Ramiro deMaeztu.

Bloque Nacional(National Block)- the militiamovementfounded by CalvoSotelo.

Carlist Monarchist - supported

subsequent general election, butthe PSOE left the coalition in1933. At the time of the CivilWar, the PSOE was split betweena right wing under IndalecioPrieto and Juan Negrn, and aleft wing under Largo Caballero.Following the Popular Frontvictory, it was the second largestparty in the Cortes, after theCEDA. It supported theministries of Azaa and Quiroga,but did not actively participateuntil the Civil War began. It hadmajority support amongst urbanmanual workers.

UGT (Unin General deTrabajadores - GeneralUnion of Workers): Thesocialist trade union. TheUGT was formally linkedto the PSOE, and the bulkof the union followedCaballero.Federacion deJuventudes Socialistas(Federation of SocialistYouth)

PSUC (Partit SocialistaUnificat de Catalunya - UnifiedSocialist Party of Catalonia):An alliance of various socialistparties in Catalonia, formed inthe summer of 1936, controlledby the PCE.JSU (Juventudes SocialistasUnificadas - Unified SocialistYouth): Militant youth group

seats in the Cortes andsupported the PopularFront government beforeand during the Civil War.Put its religiousdisagreement with thePopular Front aside for apromised Basqueautonomy.ANV (AccinNacionalista Vasca -Basque NationalistAction): A leftistSocialist party, which atthe same timecampaigned forindependence of theBasque region.STV (Solidaridad deTrabajadores Vascos -Basque Workers'Solidarity): A tradeunion in the Basqueregion, with a Catholicclerical traditioncombined with moderatesocialist tendencies.

SRI (Socorro RojoInternacional - InternationalRed Aid): Communistorganization allied with theComintern that providedconsiderable aid to Republicancivilians and soldiers.International Brigades: pro-Republican military units madeup of anti-fascist Socialist,Communist and anarchist

Alfonso Carlos I de Borbn yAustria-Este's claim to theSpanish throne and saw theAlfonsine line as having beenweakened by Liberalism. AfterAlfonso Carlos died withoutissue, the Carlists split - somesupporting Carlos' appointedregent, Francisco-Xavier deBorbn-Parma, otherssupporting Alfonso XIII or theFalange. The Carlists wereclerical hard-liners led by thearistocracy, with a populist baseamongst the farmers and ruralworkers of Navarre providingthe militia.

ComuninTradicionalista(TraditionalistCommunion) - theCarlist political party

Requets(Volunteers) -militia movement.Pelayos - militantyouth movement,named afterPelayo ofAsturias.Margaritas -women'smovement, namedafter Margarita deBorbn-Parma,wife of Carlistpretender CharlesVII (1868-1909).

formed by the merger of theSocialist and the Communistyouth groups. Its leader,Santiago Carrillo, came from theSocialist Youth, but had secretlyjoined the Communist Youthprior to merger, and the groupwas soon dominated by the PCE.PCE (Partido Comunista deEspaa - Communist Party ofSpain): Led by Jos Daz in theCivil War, it had been a minorparty during the early years ofthe Republic, but came todominate the Popular Front afterNegrn became Prime Minister.POUM (Partido Obrero deUnificacin Marxista -Worker's Party of MarxistUnification): An anti-Stalinistrevolutionary communist partyof former Trotskyists formed in1935 by Andreu Nin.

JCI (JuventudComunista Ibrica -Iberian CommunistYouth): the POUM'syouth movement.

PS (Partido Sindicalista -Syndicalist Party): a moderatesplinter group of CNT.

volunteers from differentcountries.

Falange (Phalanx):FE (Falange Espaolade las JONS) - createdby a merger in 1934 oftwo fascist organisations,Primo de Rivera'sFalange (Phalanx),founded in 1933, andRamiro Ledesma'sJuntas de OfensivaNacional-Sindicalista(Assemblies of National-Syndicalist Offensive),founded in 1931. Itbecame a massmovement when it wasjoined by members ofAccin Popular and byAccin Catlica, led byRamn Serrano Ser.

OJE(OrganizacinJuvenilEspaola) -militant youthmovement.SeccinFemenina(FeminineSection) -women'smovement inlabour of SocialAid.

Falange EspaolaTradicionalista y de lasJONS - created by amerger in 1937 of the FE

and the Carlist party,bringing the remainingpolitical and militiacomponents of theNationalist side underFranco's ultimateauthority.

CEDA - coalition partyfounded by Jos Mara Gil-Robles y Quiones whoseideology ranged from Christiandemocracy to conservative.Although they supportedFranco's rebellion, the partywas dissolved in 1937, aftermost members and militantsjoined FE and Gil-Robles wentto exile.

See alsoList of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil WarCatholicism in the Second Spanish RepublicGuernica (painting)The Falling SoldierForeign involvement in the Spanish Civil WarList of war films and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (19361939)List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil WarList of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil WarList of non-participants who died defending their freedom of consciencePolish volunteers in the Spanish Civil WarJewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil WarEuropean Civil WarSpain in World War IISS Cantabria

Pacifism in SpainSpanish Republican Armed ForcesArt and culture in Francoist Spain

ReferencesNotes

1. The number of casualties is disputed; estimates generally suggest that between 500,000 and 1 million people were killed.Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures and modern research concludes that 500,000 deaths is thecorrect figure. Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. xviii & 899901, inclusive.

2. Also known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War among Carlists, and The Rebellion orUprising among Republicans.

3. Known in Spanish as Confederacin Espaola de Derechas Autnomas (CEDA).4. Known in Spanish as the Falange Espaola de las JONS.5. Thomas (2001). pp. 196198, 309: Conds was a close personal friend of Castillo. His squad had originally sought to

arrest Gil Robles as a reprisal for Castillo's murder, but Robles was not at home, so they went to the house of CalvoSotelo. Thomas concludes that Conds intended to arrest Calvo Sotelo, and that Cuenca acted on his own initiative,though he acknowledges other sources that dispute this finding.

6. Westwell (2004) gives a figure of 500 million Reichmarks.7. Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 clergy were killed, the proportion could well be

lower.8. See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America,

19151963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press, 2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: The Storyof War Resisters' International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corpsucles in Europe, Chicago,Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spain: A Challenge to Pacifism, London, The Finsbury Press, 1937.

Citations1. Thomas. p. 628.2. Thomas. p. 619.3. "Spanish judge opens case into Franco's atrocities" (http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/16/europe/spain.php). New

York Times. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 28 July 2009.4. Beevor (2006). pp. 41011. Beevor notes that around 150,000 had returned by 1939.5. Payne (1973). pp. 200203.6. Beevor (2006). p. 88.7. Beevor (2006). pp. 8687.8. Beevor (2006). pp. 260271.9. Julius Ruiz. El Terror Rojo (2011). pp. 200211.

10. Preston (2006). pp. 1819.11. Thomas (1961). p. 13.

12. Preston (2006). p. 21.13. Preston (2006). p. 22.14. Preston (2006). p. 24.15. Fraser (1979). pp. 3839.16. Preston (2006). pp. 2426.17. Thomas (1961). p. 15.18. Preston (2006). pp. 3233.19. Beevor (2006). p. 15.20. Thomas (1961). p. 16.21. Beevor (2006) p. 20-22.22. Beevor (2006). p. 20.23. Beevor (2006) p. 23.24. Preston (2006). pp. 3839.25. Beevor(2006) p.2626. Preston (2006). p. 50.27. Preston (2006). p. 42.28. Beevor (2006). p. 22.29. Preston (2006). pp. 4548.30. Preston (2006). p. 53.31. Thomas (1961). p. 47.32. Preston (2006). p. 61.33. Preston (2006). pp. 6667.34. Preston (2006). pp. 6768.35. Preston (2006). pp. 6365.36. Thomas (1961). p. 62.37. Preston (2006). pp. 6970.38. Preston (2006). p. 70.39. Preston 92006). p. 83.40. Thomas (1961). p. 78.41. Preston (2006). p. 81.42. Preston (2006). pp. 8283.43. Payne (1973). p. 642.44. Preston (2006). p. 93.45. Preston (2006). p. 94.46. Preston (1983). pp. 410.47. Preston (2006). pp. 9495.48. Preston (2006). p. 95.49. Preston (2006). p. 96.50. Preston (2006). p. 98.51. Preston (2006). p. 99.52. Thomas (2001). pp. 196198, 309.53. Thomas (1961). p. 126.

53. Thomas (1961). p. 126.54. Beevor (2006). pp. 5556.55. Preston (2006). p. 102.56. Beevor (2006). p. 56.57. Beevor (2006). pp. 5657.58. Beevor (2006). pp. 5859.59. Beevor (2006). p. 59.60. Beevor (2006). pp. 6061.61. Beevor (2006). p. 62.62. Chomsky (1969).63. Beevor (2006). p. 69.64. Preston (2006). pp. 1023.65. Westwell (2004). p. 9.66. Howson (1998). p. 28.67. Westwell (2004). p. 10.68. Howson (1998). p. 20.69. Howson (1998). p. 21.70. Michael Alpert, La Guerra Civil espaola en el mar, Editorial Critica , ISBN 978-84-8432-975-671. Howson (1998). pp. 2122.72. Beevor (2006). Chapter 21.73. Beevor (1982). pp. 4243.74. Beevor (2006). pp. 3033.75. Howson (1997). p. 2.76. Cohen (2012). pp. 164165.77. Thomas (1987). pp. 8690.78. Orden, circular, creando un Comisariado general de Guerra con la misin que se indica [Order, circular, creating a

general comisariat of war with the indicated mission] (http://www.boe.es/datos/pdfs/BOE/1936/290/B00355-00355.pdf)(PDF) (in Spanish) IV (290). Gaceta de Madrid: diario oficial de la Repblica. 16 October 1936. p. 355.

79. Dawson (2013). p. 85.80. Alpert (2013). p. 167.81. Howson (1998). pp.12.82. Werstein (1969) p. 4483. Payne (1973) p. 637.84. Coverdale (2002). p. 148.85. Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War, Harper 2006,p.7986. Unearthing Franco's Legacy, pp 616287. Payne (2008). p. 13.88. Rooney, Nicola. "The role of the Catholic hierarchy in the rise to power of General Franco"

(http://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/QUEST/FileStore/Issue4PerspectiviesonPowerPapers/Filetoupload,71752,en.pdf) (PDF).Queen's University, Belfast.

89. "Morocco tackles painful role in Spain's past (http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/01/15/us-morocco-spain-war-idUSTRE50E0NT20090115)," Reuters 14 January 2009.

90. Peers, E. Allison; Hogan, James (December 1936). "The Basques and the Spanish Civil War"

90. Peers, E. Allison; Hogan, James (December 1936). "The Basques and the Spanish Civil War"(ht