Spanish 4H Grammar Book

Alejandra CookePeriod 1

Table of Contents3: El Presente4: Irregular Yo Forms5: Irregular Verbs (present tense)6: Ser y Estar8: Verbos Como Gustar10: Nouns & Articles11: Adjetivos12: Preterite v. Imperfect 15: Present Subjunctive19: Subjunctive in Noun Clauses20: Subjunctive in Adjective Clauses21: DOP & IOP with commands22: Formal Commands

23: Negative Formal Commands 24: Informal Commands25: Nosotros Commands27: Object Pronouns29: Prepositional Pronouns30: Double Object Pronouns31: Possessive Adjectives32: Possessive Pronouns33: Demonstrative Adjectives34: Demonstrative Pronouns37: Reflexive Pronouns38: Por y Para39: To Become40: Reflexive Verbs

Table of Contents contd.42: Future43: Conditional 45: Relative Pronouns46: Qué vs. Cuál47: The Neuter Lo48: Subjunctive in Adverbial Clauses50: Past Subjunctive51: Comparisons and Superlatives 52: Adverbs53: Diminutives54: Augmentatives 55: Present Perfect 56: Present Perfect Subjunctive 57: Uses of Se58: Past Participles as Adjectives 59: Time Expressions with Hacer

60: Future Perfect61: Conditional Perfect62: Si Clauses63: Transitional Expressions64: Pero vs. Sino65: Passive Voice66: Negative & Indefinite Expressions67: Past Perfect 68: Past Perfect Subjunctive69: Uses of the Infinitive 70: Prepositions

El Presente• present tense of regular verbs is formed by dropping the infinitive

ending “-ar, -er, -ir” • used to express habitual actions or actions that will take place in

the near future Stem-changing verbs

>-ar/-er: e to ie and o to ue>-ir: e to i

**no stem-changing in the nosotros and vosotros forms >JUGAR: u to ueconstruir, destruir, incluir, influir (add y before personal endings)

Ejemplos1) Yo como una hamburguesa para mi almuerzo. 2) Ella juega fútbol con sus amigas.3) Escribimos con un lapiz en mi cuaderno.

Irregular Yo Forms

• -er/-ir have irregular yo forms in the present tense • -cer/-cir change to -zco in the yo form• -ger/-gir change to –jo• many verbs have irregular -go endings

>caer, to fall: yo caigo>conducir, to drive: yo conduzco>dirigir, to direct/manage: yo dirijo>caber, to fit: yo quepo>saber, to know: yo sé>ver, to see: yo veo

Irregular Verbs, Present Tense

>dar: doy, das, da, damos, dais, dan>decir>estar>ir>ser>tener>venir

Ejemplos1) Yo hago mucha comida durante los

vacaciones de diciembre. 2) Yo pongo mis libros en mi escritorio. 3) Yo salgo mi casa para ir al aeropuerto.4) Yo conduzco con mi madre para recibir mi

licencia.

Ser y Estar“to be”

not interchangeable SER

• nationality and place of origin

• profession or occupation• characteristics of people,

animals, and things• generalizations• possession• material of composition• time, date, or season• where or when an event

takes place

ESTAR• express things temporarily

(qualities or conditions that change with time)

• location or spatial relationships

• health• emotional states• certain weather expressions• ongoing actions (progressive

tenses)• results of actions (past

participles)• death: “muerto/a”

Ser y Estar contd.

SER Ejemplos1) Soy de Woodstock, GA.2) Ella es colombiana.3) Mi madre es una

doctora.4) Los gemelos, Ana y

Nico, son morenos con ojos verdes.

5) El libro Twilight es de Selena.

6) El concierto de Jingle Ball es en diciembre.

ESTAR Ejemplos

1) Estoy en Nueva York para esta semana.

2) Ellos están aburridos en la clase de ciencias.

3) Porque es octubre, estamos en el otoño.

4) Mi amiga Marisol está enferma con la gripe.

Verbos Como Gustar

• gustar: “to please”>the thing/person that

pleases is the subject; gustar agrees in person and number

>singular or plural• when gustar is followed by

one or more verbs in infinitive, singular form of gustar is always used

• used in conditional to soften a request

• a+[prep. pronoun] or a+[noun] emphasizes who is pleased

• Aburrir: to bore• Caer bien/mal: to get along• Disgustar: to upset • Doler: to hurt• Encantar: to enjoy• Faltar: to lack• Fascinar: to fascinate• Hacer falta• Importar• Interesar: to interest• Molestar: to bother• Preocupar: to worry• Quedar: to leave; to fit

(clothing)• Sorprender: to surprise

Verbos Como Gustar contd.

1) Me gusta la revista de InStyle. 2) Nos gustan las vacaciones en

Florida.3) Me fascina Central Park en Nueva

York.4) Te duelen piernas.

Nouns & Articles

• nouns in Spanish are either masculine or feminine (masculine usually ends in –o, feminine usually ends in –a) Definite Articles

ellaloslas

Indefinite Articlesununa

unos unas

Feminine: -a, -dad/-tad/-tud, -ción/-sión/-gión, -ez, -triz, -umbre, and nouns referring to women

Masculine: -o, -ma/-ta/-pa

Examples: feminine--la fruta, la ciudad, la canción, la validez, la actriz, la costumbre, la madre; masculine--el programa, el día

Adjetivos

• adjectives are used to describe nouns• they take the form of either masculine or

feminine, depending on the gender of the word they are describing (la fresa roja, el libro aburrido)

• either singular or plural, again depending on the noun it’s describing (EX: el chico alto, los chicos altos)

• adjectives that end in -e for the singular also end in –es for the plural

Preterite v. ImperfectPRETERITE

“Snapshot” of the past>actions viewed as single events>actions repeated a specific number of times>actions that occurred during a specific time period>part of a chain of events>state the beginning/end of an action

IMPERFECT“Video” of the past without a specific beginning or stopping point>habitual actions>actions that “set the stage” for other past actions>time>date>weather>age>mental states>describing characteristics of people, things, or conditions

Preterite é íaste iste ó ióamos imosasteis isteisaron ieron

Imperfect aba ábamos ía íamos abas abais ías íais aba aban ía ían

Preterite v. Imperfect contd.

PRETERITETrigger Words: ayer, anoche, el otro día, entonces, esta mañana/tarde, la semana pasada, el año pasado

ExampleJuan habló con la estudiante.Juan spoke with the student.

IMPERFECTTrigger Words: a veces, cada día, cada semana/mes/año, muchas veces, nunca, mientras, siempre, todos los días>would, used to, were/was…

ExampleLas chicas hablaban en inglés.The girls used to speak in English.

Preterite v. Imperfect contd.

• -gar changes g to gu• -car changes c to qu• -zar changes z to c • verbs that end in -aer, -eer, -oír, -oer,

& uir change ió to yó & ieron to yeron

Present Subjunctive Subjunctive

Mood*attitudes*uncertainty*hypothetical

Main clause+

connector+

subordinate clause

-ar: e, es, e, emos, en

-er/-ir: a, as, a, amos, an

Irregularsdar (dé)

estar (esté)ir (vaya)

saber (sepa)haber (haya)

ser (sea)

Wishing/WantingEmotionDoubtDisbeliefImpersonal ExpressionsNegationGod/Grief

**Subjunctive is SUBJECTIVE*iffy*indicative

TengaVenga

Dé/DigaI vayaSeaHaga/HayaEstéSepa

Present Subjunctive contd.

Impersonal Expressions*Es bueno que*Es mejor que*Es malo que*Es necesario que*Es importante que*Es urgente que

Present Subjunctive contd.

Expressions of Emotion*alegrarse (de): to be happy*esperar: to hope, to wish*sentir (e-ie): to be sorry, to regret*sorprender: to surprise*temer: to be afraid, to fear*Es triste: It’s sad*Ojalá (que): I hope (that), I wish (that)

Present Subjunctive contd.

Expressions of Doubt, Disbelief, & Denial*dudar: to doubt*negar (e-ie): to deny*Es imposible: It’s impossible*Es improbable: It’s improbable *No es cierto: It’s not true, It’s not certain*No es seguro: It’s not certain*No es verdad: It’s not true

Subjunctive in Noun Clauses

• noun clause: dependent clauses that serve as a direct object or complement of a verb

• the subjunctive mood is used with noun clauses when:

*subj. of the verb is different than that of the dependent clause

*the verb is influence/willing (want, prefer, desire), emotion (fear, happy), doubt/negation (uncertain, deny), and impersonal expression (es posible, es importante)EX: Dudo que vaya al Inglaterra en el verano. Creo que tengamos una prueba en ciencias.

Subjunctive in Adjective Clauses

• adjective clause: an entire clause that describes a noun or pronoun

• the subjunctive mood is used with adjective clauses when the antecedent is indefinite, unknown, nonexistent, or negated

EX: Necesito un libro que me explique esto. Busco una doctora que sepa español.

DOP & IOP with CommandsTú: drop the ‘s’Irregulars: di, haz, ve, pon, sal, sé, ten, ven

Ud./Uds.: put it in ‘yo’ form, change to opposite vowelIrregulars: TVDISHES

Tú: put it in ‘yo’ form and change to the opposite vowel, add ‘s’Irregulars: TVDISHES

Ud./Uds.: same as aboveIrregulars: TVDISHES

*DOP + IOP + ‘se’ can attach to affirmative*DOP + IOP + ‘se’ must go before the negative command

AFFIRMATIVE

NEGATIVE

NOSOTROS

NOSOTROS

Formal Commands

• use when addressing someone you don’t know well or someone you show respect to

• all usted and ustedes commands are formed the same as the present subjunctive

1. start with the yo form of the present tense2. drop the –o ending3. add the following endings:

*-ar: -e (usted), -en (ustedes)*-er/-ir: -a (usted), -an (ustedes)

*hable, hablen*coma, coman*escriba, escriban

**irregularity carries over from the yo form to command form >tenga, tengan >traiga, traigan >venga, vengan

**stem-changing verbs transition the same as irregulars >cuente, cuenten >vuelva, vuelvan >pida, pidan

*Affirmative & Negative

commands use the same verb

forms*

Negative Formal Commands

• add “no” in front of the formal command

EX: No saquen sus libros.No ponga su mochila aquí.No lleguen tarde.

Informal Commands

• use when addressing family or friends• affirmative tú commands are formed the same as the

present tense usted form*hablar –ar + a= habla*comer –er + e= come*escribir –ir + e= escribe*EX: Compra la camisa.*pronoun attached to the end of aff. commands*IRREGULARS: decir-di, salir-sal, hacer-haz, ser-sé, ver-

ve, tener-ten, poner-pon, venir-ven• negative informal commands use the tú form of the

present subjunctive (EX: no hables, no escribas)*pronoun precedes the verb

Nosotros Commands• used when the speaker suggests an action to be done by a

group, including the speaker• two ways to form these commands: ir form and subjunctive

form*IR: use present nosotros form of irEX: Vamos a nadar.Vamos al restaurante.*pronoun attached to the end*SUBJUNCTIVE: use nosotros in the present subjunctive formEX: Tomemos un taxi.Comamos aquí. *pronouns nos & se-drop the final –s of the verb and add to

the end

Nosotros Commands contd.

Negative• place “no” in front of the present subjunctive of

nosotrosEX: No nademos.No salgamos.*reflexive, direct object, & indirect object pronouns precede negative pronounsEX: No los comamos.

Reflexive: Peinémonos el cabello. Cepillémonos los dientes.DO: Comámoslas. Pongámoslo.IOP: Contestémosles.

**when attaching reflexive pronouns to the end of a nosotros command, drop the final s of the command form before the reflexive pronoun**

Object Pronouns

*direct object pronouns receive the action of the verb**indirect object pronouns identify to whom or for whom an action is done*direct/indirect object pronouns precede the conjugated verb*obj. pronouns may be attached to the infinitive, gerund, affirmative command, or placed before the conjugated verb

Object Pronouns contd.

**Le and Les change to se when they are used with lo, la, los, or las *when obj. pronouns are attached to infinitives, participles, or commands, a written accent is often required to maintain proper word stress

Prepositional PronounsMí: me, myself

Él: him, it Nosotros/as: us, ourselves

Ellos: them

Ti: you, yourself Ella: her, it Vosotros/as: you, yourselves

Ellas: them

Ud.: you, yourself

Sí: himself, herself, itself

Uds.: you, yourselves

Sí: themselves

*prepositional pronouns function as the objects of prepositions >except for mí, ti, & sí, they are identical to their corresponding subj. pronouns *pronoun sí is used to refer back to the same third-person subject (mismo/a(s) added for clarification)*when mí, ti, & sí are used with con, they become conmigo, contigo, & consigo*these are used with tú and yo instead of ti and mí: entre, excepto, incluso, menos, salvo, según

Double Object Pronouns

*indirect object pronouns precede the direct object pronoun when they are used together in a sentence

Possessive Adjectives

5 Possessive Adjectives: mi (my), tu (your informal), su (his, her, their, your formal), nuestro (our), & vuestro (your familiar or plural)

*mi, tu, and su have both singular and plural forms: mi, mis, tu, tus, su, sus• agree with the nouns they modify • mi, tu, and su do not have feminine or masculine

forms (stay the same regardless of gender)• nuestro and vuestro: nuestro, nuestra, nuestros,

nuestras & vuestro, vuestra, vuestros, vuestras EX: mi libro, tus libros, su revista, nuestros carros, vuestro cuaderno

Possessive Pronouns

• mine: el mío, la mía, los míos, las mías • yours (familiars): el tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las

tuyas• yours (formal), his, hers: el suyo, la suya, los

suyos, las suyas• ours: el nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las

nuestras• yours (familiar): el vuestro, la vuestra, los

vuestros, las vuestras• yours (formal), theirs: el suyo, la suya, los suyos,

las suyasEX: Mi libro es grande pero el tuyo es pequeño. Su carro es negro pero el mío es rojo.

Demonstrative AdjectivesEste Ese Aquel

este ese aquel

estos esos aquellos

esta esa aquella

estas esas aquellas

Neuter Forms (refer to abstract ideas)*esto: this matter, this thing*eso: that matter, that thing*aquello: that matter/thing over there

Demonstrative Pronouns

• replace a noun in a phrase instead of modifying it like an adjective would

1) replace noun(s) close to the speaker (this one)

EX: Yo quiero ésta aquí.Singular Plural

éste (this one here) éstos (this one here)

ésta (this one here) éstas (this one here)

Demonstrative Pronouns contd.

2) replace noun(s) that are not close to the speaker (that one)EX: Ésas son las más bonitas.

Singular Plural

ése (that one there) ésos (those there)

ésa (that one there) ésas (those there)

Demonstrative Pronouns contd.

3) replace noun(s) far from the speaker and listener (that over there)EX: Aquél allá es peligroso.

Singular Plural

aquél (that over there) aquéllos (those over there)

aquélla (that over there) aquéllas (those over there)

Reflexive Pronouns

• reflexive pronouns work with reflexive verbs to show that a person is performing the action to him/herself (personal care & daily routines)

• used to indicate an emotional responseEX: Me ducho cada mañana.I shower (myself) every morning.• placed immediately before simple conjugated verbs &

negative commands; attached to affirmative commandsReflexive Verb Examplescepillarse (to brush)ducharse (to shower)secarse (to dry off)

Singular Plural

1st person me (to, for, from, or off myself)

nos (to, for, from, or off ourselves)

2nd person te (to, for, from, or off yourself)

os (to, for, from, or off yourselves)

3rd person se (to, for, from, or off himself, herself, itself, yourself)

se (to, for, from, or off themselves, yourselves)

Por y Para POR

*express gratitude or apology: Gracias por la ayuda*“through”, “along”, “by”, “in the area of”: Andamos por el parque*exchange, including sales*“on behalf of”, “in favor of”*express length of time: Estudié por dos horas*“during”*communication, transportation: Viajo por tren y hablo por teléfono*express cause or reason*idiomatic expression: por ahora, por aquí, por ejemplo, por favor, por fin, por último

PARA

*destination: Ella salió para Madrid*use or purpose: El vaso es para agua*“in order to”, “for the purpose of”*recipient: Este regalo es para ti*deadline or specific time

To Become

• Hacerse: reflexive verb; to become, to pretend; conjugated the same as hacer (add the proper reflexive pronoun-EX: me hago)

• Ponerse: me pongo, se ponen, reflexive form of poner

• Volverse: me vuelvo, te vuelves• Llegar a ser: Spanish phrasal verb

that means “to become”

Reflexive Verbs*transitive verbs have an object, while intransitive does not have an object

-aburrirse: to become bored-acordarse: to remember-comerse: to eat up-dormirse: to fall asleep-irse (de): to go away (from)-llevarse: to carry away-mudarse: to move-parecerse (a): to resemble, to look like-ponerse: to put on (clothing)-quitarse: to take off (clothing)

*prepositions: a, de, & en-acercarse (a): to approach-enterarse (de): to find out (about)-morirse (de): to die (of)

Ponerse“to get”

“to become”*used with adj.

Future

• tells what will happen or what shall happen• expresses wonder or probability in the

present state

Regular Verbs**add these endings to the infinitive form

-é-ás-á

-emos-éis-án

Irregular Verbs• caber: cabr-• poner: pondr-• decir: dir-• haber: habr-• salir: saldr-• hacer: har-• poder: podr-• tener: tendr-• querer: querr-• valer: valdr-• saber: sabr-• venir: vendr-

Conditional

• expresses probability, possibility, wonder, or conjecture would, could, must have, or probably

Regular Verbs**add these endings to the infinitve form

-ía-ías-ía

-íamos-íais-ían

Irregular Verbs• caber: cabr-• poner: pondr-• decir: dir-• haber: habr-• salir: saldr-• hacer: har-• poder: podr-• tener: tendr-• querer: querr-• valer: valdr-• saber: sabr-• venir: vendr-

Conditional contd.

Uses• express speculation about the past• express the future from the perspective of the

past• express hypothetical actions/events that may or

may not occur• polite use to soften requests• ask for advice• reported speech• express what would be done in a particular

situation

Relative Pronouns

• combine two sentences that share a common noun

• “related” to a noun that has been previously stated

• introduce a clause that modifies a noun

Examples*que: refers to both people and things, in either subject or object position

*quien: only refers to people*el/la/los/las/lo que: refers to both people and things

*cuyo/cuya/cuyos/cuyas: relates the owner to that which is owned “whose”

Qué vs. Cuál

Qué• “what”• asking for definitions • most often used

before nouns Examples¿Qué es una ciudad?What is a city?¿De qué color es la camisa?What color is the shirt?

Cuál• “which”• used before es and

other forms of ser when not seeking a definition

• suggest a selection or choice from among a group

Examples¿Cuál es tu número de teléfono?What is your phone number?

The Neuter Lo

• used before singular adjectives when they function as nouns, usually referring to a concept or category

• lo has a difficult time translating to English, but sometimes it serves as “what is”

Example: Lo importante es amar. The important aspect is to love. What’s important is to love.

• represents an idea/concept when it is the DO of the verb translated as “it”

Subjunctive in Adverbial Clauses

Conjunctions that ALWAYS take the subjunctive

• antes (de) que: before• para que & a fin de

que: in order that• sin que: without• con tal (de) que:

provided that• en caso de que: in

case• a no ser que & a

menos que: unless

Conjunctions that SOMETIMES take the subjunctive

• aunque: although, even though, even if expresses uncertainty

• de modo que/de manera que: so that, in such a way that expresses intent or purpose

Subjunctive in Adverbial Clauses contd.

Time Expressions• cuando: when• hasta que: until• en cuanto: as soon as• luego que: as soon as• después (de) que: after• mientras (que): while

Past Subjunctive Subject Ending Subject Ending

yo -ra nosotros/nosotras

(accented vowel) + -ramos

tú -ras vosotros/vosotras

-rais

él -ra ellos -ran

ella -ra ellas -ran

usted -ra ustedes -ranForming the Past Subjunctive

**take third person plural in the preterit and add the endings seen in the chart above

***the ending “-se” may be seen replacing “-ra”

Comparisons and Superlatives

• comparisons: indicate that something has more or less of a particular quality (like the English suffix –er)

Ex: Roberto es menos guapo. Roberto is less handsome.

• superlatives: indicate that something has the most of a particular quality (like the English suffix –est)

Ex: Ana es la más inteligente. Ana is the most intelligent.

Irregulars

• bueno (good)• malo (bad)• mayor (older)• menor (younger)• mejor (better)• peor (worse)• viejo (old)• joven (young)

Adverbs

• most Spanish adverbs are formed by adding –mente to the feminine singular form of the adjective (“-ly” in English)

Ex: perfectamente – perfectly cariñosamente – affectionately

Diminutives

• diminutives: indicate smallness or show affection

**drop “–o” or “–a” from almost any noun and add “-ito” or “-ita” **add “-cito” or “-cita” to words not ending in “-o” or “-a”

Ex: la chica la chiquita el niño el niñito

Augmentatives

• indicates that something is large or undesirable

Endings*-azo/-aza*-ón/-ona*-ote/-ota*-ucho/-ucha*-acho/-acha*-udo/-uda

Present Perfect

• refers to events that happened in the past• formed by the present tense of haber followed

by the past participle• participles are formed by adding –ado to “-ar” verbs and –ido to “-er/-ir” verbs

Conjugation

he + past participle

has + past participle

ha + past participle

hemos + past participle

habéis + past participle

han + past participle

Present Perfect Subjunctive

• formed by the present subjunctive conjugation of haber + the past participle

Conjugation

haya + past participle

hayas + past participle

haya + past participle

hayamos + past participle

hayáis + past participle

hayan + past participle

Uses of Se

• reflexive pronoun: subject of the verb is also the object; reflexive pronoun for 3rd-person uses (Ex: himself, themselves in English)

• equivalent of English passive voice: indicates action without indicating who performed the action

• substitute for le or les: avoids having two pronouns in a row beginning with l sound (Ex: to her, to them)

Past Participles as Adjectives

• as adjectives, they agree with the nouns they describe in both gender and number (plurals have an s added)

• add –ado to –ar verbs; add –ido to –er/-ir verbs

Time Expressions with Hacer

• hace + time + que + present tense of verbEx: Hace un año que estudio español. I have been studying Spanish for one year. **to make the expression negative, add “no” before the verb

• present tense of verb + desde hace + timeEx: Estudio español desde hace un año. I have been studying Spanish for one year. **to make it negative, add “no” before the

verb

Future Perfect

• refers to an event or action that hasn’t happened yet but is expected or predicted to before another occurrence “will have” or “shall have”

• formed by the future indicative form of haber followed by the past participle

Singular Plural

habré + past participle habremos + past participle

habrás + past participle habréis + past participle

habrá + past participle habrán +past participle

**can be translated as “must have”, “may have”, or “might have”

Conditional Perfect

• expresses something that would have happened; probability or supposition in the past

• formed by the conditional conjugation of haber + the past participle “would have”

Singular Plural

habría habríamos

habrías habríais

habría habrían

Si Clauses

• two types that become part of a sentence:1) sentences in which the condition is likely or reasonably likely si followed by present indicative tense of a verb 2) sentences in which the condition is contrary to fact or is unlikely past subjunctive is used

• si clauses can either precede or follow the rest of the sentence

Transitional Expressions

• different uses: cause & effect, clarification & explanation, contrast & similarity, general & specific, intro & conclusion

Examples1) cause & effect: por, porque, como, ya que 2) clarification & explanation: además (de), en

otras palabras3) contrast & similarity: sin embargo, aunque,

igualmente4) general & specific: en general, específicamente 5) intro & conclusion: en primer lugar, para concluir

Pero vs. Sino

• pero & sino are both coordinating conjunctions meaning “but”

• “pero” indicates contrast• “sino”: when the part of the sentence

coming before the conjunction is in the negative; when the part after the conjunction directly contradicts what is negated in the first part (“rather”, “but rather”, “instead”)

Passive Voice • used when the subject is unimportant, unknown, or refers to a generalized

subject • the thing that receives the action of the verb comes first, followed by the

verb “to be” and the past participle of the main verb*ser is conjugated to agree with the subject preceding it

• the subject of a sentence written in passive voice would be the direct object in a sentence written in active voice

• another method: use se followed by a verb to express ideas like “one does it”, “they do it”, or “you (in general) do it”

Active Passive

El terremoto destruyó el pueblo.The earthquake destroyed the town.

El pueblo fue destruido por el terremoto.The town was destroyed by the earthquake.

Negative & Indefinite Expressions

Negative Indefinite

*used when talking about nobody or nothing -nada: nothing -nadie: nobody, nothing -ningún: not any -ninguno/a: neither one -ni: neither, nor -nunca, jamás: never -tampoco: neither, not either *also formed by adding “no” before the verb *you have to form double negatives in Spanish because it’s the proper grammatical way

*used when you don’t know what or who you’re referring to -algo: something, anything -alguien: someone, somebody -alguna vez: once, sometime -alguno/a: some, any -cualquier/a: which- / whatever*alguno & cualquier change according to genderEX: Algo pasó en el banco.Something happened in the bank.

Past Perfect

• formed by combining the auxiliary verb “had” with the past participle

*imperfect tense of “haber” + pastparticiple

• to make the sentence negative, add “no” before the conjugated form of haber

Past Perfect Tense

había + past participle

habías + past participle

había + past participle

habíamos + past participle

habíais + past participle

habían + past participle

Past Perfect Subjunctive

• imperfect subjunctive of haber + past participle

Uses1) completed actions that had happened

before another past action 2) conditional constructions 3) hypothetical situations that could’ve

happened, but didn’t

Uses of the Infinitive

• has one of the three endings: -ar, -er, or -ir ~translated as “to + verb”

Uses1) subject (gerund form: -ing) 2) predicate nominative (noun that

follows the verb)3) object of a verb4) object of the preposition

Prepositions • used to form a phrase, which then functions as an adjective or adverb • preposition followed by an object (usually noun but sometimes a

pronoun or verb that functions as a noun) Examples-a: to, at, by means of-antes de: before-con: with-contra: against-de: of, from, indicating possession-desde: since, from-durante: during-en: in, on-entre: between, among-hasta: until-para: for, in order to-por: for, by-sin: without-sobre: over, about