Southern American Southern American English in AlabamaEnglish in AlabamaAlabama Humanities Foundation Alabama Humanities Foundation

Speakers BureauSpeakers Bureau

Catherine Evans DaviesCatherine Evans DaviesProfessor of LinguisticsProfessor of Linguistics

Dept. of English, The University of AlabamaDept. of English, The University of Alabama

TerminologyTerminology

linguistics = the study of “language”linguistics = the study of “language” a languagea language

– vocabulary (lexicon and semantics)vocabulary (lexicon and semantics)– accent (phonology)accent (phonology)– grammar (morphology and syntax)grammar (morphology and syntax)– discourse conventions (patterns of use)discourse conventions (patterns of use)

a dialect or varietya dialect or variety an idiolectan idiolect

A Dialect “Continuum”A Dialect “Continuum”

Formal edited EnglishFormal edited English

Informal regional standardInformal regional standard

Vernacular (casual speech, defined Vernacular (casual speech, defined as containing stigmatized features)as containing stigmatized features)

A Yankee in the SouthA Yankee in the South

Fascination with Southern SpeechFascination with Southern Speech

Outsider as Observer and AnalystOutsider as Observer and Analyst– Research methodology with native Research methodology with native

speakers ensures accuracyspeakers ensures accuracy

Plan for the LecturePlan for the Lecture

Historical contextHistorical context

Key dimensions of dialect Key dimensions of dialect (vocabulary, accent, grammar, (vocabulary, accent, grammar, discourse patterns)discourse patterns)

Language attitudes and dialect Language attitudes and dialect changes in progresschanges in progress

A Bit of GeographyA Bit of Geography

Indigenous LanguagesIndigenous Languages

Moundville: 800-1200 Moundville: 800-1200 Cherokee, Creek, and ChoctawCherokee, Creek, and Choctaw Chief Tuscaloosa encounters De Soto Chief Tuscaloosa encounters De Soto

15401540 18141814

What influences would we expect to What influences would we expect to find, if any, from indigenous find, if any, from indigenous languages?languages?

Examples of Place NamesExamples of Place Names

AlabamaAlabama(An Upper Creek tribe, known to the French (An Upper Creek tribe, known to the French

in 1702 as “Alibamons”)in 1702 as “Alibamons”)Name derived from: Name derived from:

Choctaw Choctaw albaalba,, “plants,” “weeds,” “plants,” “weeds,” plus plus amoamo, , “to trim,” “to gather”“to trim,” “to gather”

——that is, “those who clear the land,” that is, “those who clear the land,” or “thicket clearers” or “thicket clearers”

(Read 1937/1984)(Read 1937/1984)

Examples of Place NamesExamples of Place Names

TuscaloosaTuscaloosaFrom Choctaw From Choctaw

tashkatashka, “warrior,” and, “warrior,” and

lusalusa, “black”, “black”

(Read 1937/1984)(Read 1937/1984)

Colonial EmpiresColonial Empires

New SpainNew Spain– Gordo (actually named for a famous battle in Gordo (actually named for a famous battle in

the Mexican War of 1846)the Mexican War of 1846)– Chula VistaChula Vista

New FranceNew France– MobileMobile– Dauphin IslandDauphin Island

1763 – Seven Years’ War/French & Indian War1763 – Seven Years’ War/French & Indian War

American Settlement in Northern Alabama:American Settlement in Northern Alabama:

Scots-Irish Small FarmersScots-Irish Small Farmers

Early 17Early 17thth century from Scotland century from Scotland to northern Irelandto northern Ireland

Early 18Early 18thth century into century into Philadelphia and south through Philadelphia and south through Cumberland GapCumberland Gap

American Settlement in Southern Alabama:American Settlement in Southern Alabama: Plantation CulturePlantation Culture

““Alabama Fever” after 1814, Federal RoadAlabama Fever” after 1814, Federal Road

““Black Belt” area with prosperous settlers Black Belt” area with prosperous settlers from Virginia who could afford to buy large from Virginia who could afford to buy large tracts of landtracts of land

Importation of slave labor Importation of slave labor from West Africa through the Caribbeanfrom West Africa through the Caribbean

There is an ongoing debate in the There is an ongoing debate in the field concerning:field concerning:

(1) the relative influence on Southern (1) the relative influence on Southern English of dialects of British English and English of dialects of British English and the varieties of English spoken by the the varieties of English spoken by the slaves and influenced by their native slaves and influenced by their native West African languages, and West African languages, and

(2) the similarities and differences between (2) the similarities and differences between the speech of black and white the speech of black and white SouthernersSoutherners

The Status of European American and The Status of European American and African American VernacularsAfrican American Vernaculars

There is a restricted subset of features There is a restricted subset of features unique to AAVE (all others are shared)unique to AAVE (all others are shared)

Frequency of occurrence of common Frequency of occurrence of common features is important in differentiating features is important in differentiating varietiesvarieties

““The uniqueness of AAVE lies more in the The uniqueness of AAVE lies more in the particular array of structures that comprise particular array of structures that comprise the dialect than it does in the restricted set the dialect than it does in the restricted set of potentially unique structures.” of potentially unique structures.”

Regional variation within AAVE, but Regional variation within AAVE, but common core of features shared across common core of features shared across regions = strong ethnic association of this regions = strong ethnic association of this varietyvariety

New data :New data :

WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. (earlier AAVE not as distinct from (earlier AAVE not as distinct from Anglo varieties as researchers had Anglo varieties as researchers had thought)thought)

Examination of the sociohistorical Examination of the sociohistorical situation and the demographics of situation and the demographics of the antebellum Souththe antebellum South

Early Settlement by Other GroupsEarly Settlement by Other Groups

Germans in CullmanGermans in Cullman Welsh in Cullman and in coalmining Welsh in Cullman and in coalmining

areas near Birmingham: Abernantareas near Birmingham: Abernant French in DemopolisFrench in Demopolis ……....

Dimensions of DialectDimensions of Dialect

VocabularyVocabularyAccentAccentGrammarGrammarDiscourse PatternsDiscourse Patterns

Vocabulary:Vocabulary:

Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (LAGS)(LAGS)

Virginia Foscue’s boundary 1974 (for Virginia Foscue’s boundary 1974 (for speech of white Alabamians)speech of white Alabamians)

Tiny red insect that burrows into Tiny red insect that burrows into skin and causes itching:skin and causes itching:

North AL: chiggerNorth AL: chiggerSouth AL: red bugSouth AL: red bug

Bread that is baked with yeast:Bread that is baked with yeast:

North AL: loaf breadNorth AL: loaf breadSouth AL: light breadSouth AL: light bread

The insect with a long straight tail and long The insect with a long straight tail and long straight double wings that hovers over straight double wings that hovers over

water:water:

North AL: snake doctorNorth AL: snake doctorSouth AL: mosquito hawkSouth AL: mosquito hawk

Words of West African origin:Words of West African origin:

ToteTote Perhaps (via Black West African Perhaps (via Black West African

English) of Bantu origin; akin to English) of Bantu origin; akin to Kongo Kongo -tota-tota, to pick up, , to pick up,

and Swahili and Swahili -tuta-tuta, to pile up, carry , to pile up, carry (Merriam Webster)(Merriam Webster)

OkraOkra From a West African language, From a West African language,

prob. Igbo prob. Igbo óók k ùùr r ùù

Cf. Akan Cf. Akan ŋŋkr umãkr umã, ,

Twi Twi ŋŋkrakrakrakra broth. broth.In U.S. regional form In U.S. regional form okryokry with with ending remodelled ending remodelled

(Oxford English Dictionary)(Oxford English Dictionary)

BanjoBanjo Akin to Jamaican English Akin to Jamaican English banjabanja, ,

fiddle; probably akin to fiddle; probably akin to

Kimbundu and Tshiluba Kimbundu and Tshiluba mbanzambanza, a , a plucked stringed instrument. plucked stringed instrument.

(American Heritage Dict.)(American Heritage Dict.)

AccentAccent

monophthongized [ai] monophthongized [ai] (esp. in (esp. in North AL)North AL)

Example: “tide”Example: “tide” Phrase taught in school: Phrase taught in school: “nice white “nice white

rice”rice”

fronted [u] fronted [u] (found in contemporary (found in contemporary Scottish, and also now in California)Scottish, and also now in California)

Example: Example: How are you? I’m so How are you? I’m so glad to see you!glad to see you!

The Southern Vowel Shift The Southern Vowel Shift (Labov 1997)(Labov 1997)

/i/ (beet)/i/ (beet) /u/ (boot)/u/ (boot)

/I/ (bit)/I/ (bit) //Ʊ/ (put)Ʊ/ (put)

/e/ (bait)/e/ (bait) /o/ (boat)/o/ (boat)

//ɛ/ (bet)ɛ/ (bet) /ʌ/ (but)/ʌ/ (but)

/æ/ (bat)/æ/ (bat) //ɔ/ (bought)ɔ/ (bought)

/a/ (father)/a/ (father)

The “Southern Shift” The “Southern Shift” (Labov 1997)(Labov 1997)

ii “feel“feel”--“They were on the field in Mobile.””--“They were on the field in Mobile.” II “fill” – “fill” – “I asked him to fill it to the top.”“I asked him to fill it to the top.”

e “sale” --- e “sale” --- “There’s a sale at the mall.”“There’s a sale at the mall.” ƐƐ “sell” ---- “sell” ---- “I can sell it to you for less.”“I can sell it to you for less.”

Part of constant shifting of vowel system of Part of constant shifting of vowel system of English, e.g. 1400-1600 “The Great Vowel English, e.g. 1400-1600 “The Great Vowel Shift”Shift”

pronunciation of “r” [pronunciation of “r” [turned into turned into vowel except in word-initial positionvowel except in word-initial position]]– ““red” red” – ““ladder,” “far”ladder,” “far”– ““farm”farm”

(influence partly from contact of (influence partly from contact of plantation elites with London after plantation elites with London after American Revolution, as also upper American Revolution, as also upper classes in Boston, NYC, Philadelphia, classes in Boston, NYC, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah)Charleston, Savannah)

Strong “r” characteristic of Strong “r” characteristic of American EnglishAmerican English

Scots-Irish (North Alabama)Scots-Irish (North Alabama) Other British dialects such as from Other British dialects such as from

the Southwest (e.g. Long John Silver)the Southwest (e.g. Long John Silver) More authentic for ShakespeareMore authentic for Shakespeare

GrammarGrammar

The Pronoun System of EnglishThe Pronoun System of English Early Modern English (1500)Early Modern English (1500)

– II /me/me we/uswe/us– thou/theethou/thee ye/youye/you– he/him; she/her; ithe/him; she/her; it they/themthey/them

Contemporary English (2000)Contemporary English (2000)– II /me/me we/uswe/us– youyou youyou– he/him; she/her; ithe/him; she/her; it they/themthey/them

The Pronoun System of Southern EnglishThe Pronoun System of Southern English

Contemporary English (2000)Contemporary English (2000)– II /me/me we/uswe/us– youyou youyou– he/him; she/her; ithe/him; she/her; it they/themthey/them

Contemporary Southern English (2000)Contemporary Southern English (2000)– II /me/me we/uswe/us– youyou y’ally’all– he/him; she/her; ithe/him; she/her; it they/themthey/them

Montgomery suggests origins in Scots-Irish.Montgomery suggests origins in Scots-Irish.

GrammarGrammar

““double modals”double modals” [I might could do [I might could do it]it]

““What’s something that you might can What’s something that you might can do to take your mind off of eating?” do to take your mind off of eating?” (10/7/04)(10/7/04)

The English VerbThe English Verb I I gogo there every Friday. there every Friday. Only one “modal” verb is allowed (showing Only one “modal” verb is allowed (showing

ability, possibility, probability):ability, possibility, probability):I I can gocan go there every Friday there every Friday

I I could gocould go there every Friday there every Friday

I I may gomay go there every Friday there every Friday

I I might gomight go there every Friday there every Friday

““Double modals” in Southern English:Double modals” in Southern English:I I may can gomay can go there every Friday there every Friday

I I might could gomight could go there every Friday there every Friday

Effect?Effect?

Montgomery suggests origins in Scots-IrishMontgomery suggests origins in Scots-Irish

NegationNegation

Positive sentence: I saw itPositive sentence: I saw it

Negative sentence:Negative sentence:– Early Modern English: I saw it notEarly Modern English: I saw it not– Modern English: I did not see itModern English: I did not see it

Negation (continued)Negation (continued) Single negation with polarity item:Single negation with polarity item:

– I saw something like them.I saw something like them.– I saw nothing like them./I didn’t see anything like I saw nothing like them./I didn’t see anything like

them.them. Double negation:Double negation:

– I didn’t see nothing like them. (but: I saw I didn’t see nothing like them. (but: I saw something not unlike them.)something not unlike them.)

Triple negation:Triple negation:– I didn’t see nothing like them nowhere.I didn’t see nothing like them nowhere.

Pre-posed negation with “ain’t”:Pre-posed negation with “ain’t”:– I ain’t seen nothing like ‘em nowhere.I ain’t seen nothing like ‘em nowhere.– Ain’t seen nothin’ like ‘em nowhere.Ain’t seen nothin’ like ‘em nowhere.– Dreamland Barbeque: “Ain’t nothin’ like ‘em Dreamland Barbeque: “Ain’t nothin’ like ‘em

nowhere.”nowhere.”Multiple negation found in Shakespeare and other authors.Multiple negation found in Shakespeare and other authors.

Discourse PatternsDiscourse Patterns

politeness politeness

storytelling traditionsstorytelling traditions

PolitenessPoliteness

address terms showing respectaddress terms showing respect

rituals of conversationrituals of conversation

indirectnessindirectness

Storytelling TraditionsStorytelling Traditions

““I’m a Southern storyteller; we I’m a Southern storyteller; we digress.”digress.”

Social Judgments Social Judgments Associated with Dimensions of DialectAssociated with Dimensions of Dialect

Within AlabamaWithin Alabama

By Non-AlabamiansBy Non-Alabamians

““Tailoring” an accentTailoring” an accent

Current Trends (1865 – 2008)Current Trends (1865 – 2008)

Regional IdentityRegional Identity

New research is suggesting the New research is suggesting the postbellum period as highly postbellum period as highly significant for the development of a significant for the development of a distinctively Southern way of distinctively Southern way of speakingspeaking

Recent Linguistic Changes Recent Linguistic Changes and and

Regional IdentityRegional Identity

Increase in “R-fulness”Increase in “R-fulness”among Younger Speakersamong Younger Speakers

““Country” versus Urban SpeechCountry” versus Urban Speech

Shifting Population within the USShifting Population within the US

African-Americans to northern cities, African-Americans to northern cities, and then back to the Southand then back to the South

Non-Southerners into the SouthNon-Southerners into the South

Presence of Presence of Speakers of Other LanguagesSpeakers of Other Languages

GermanGerman JapaneseJapaneseKoreanKoreanSpanishSpanish

Stay tuned….Stay tuned….

Invitation to participateInvitation to participate

E-mail me at E-mail me at cdavies@bama.ua.educdavies@bama.ua.edu if you’d like an annotated handout. if you’d like an annotated handout.

The Origin and Early Development of The Origin and Early Development of AA(V)EAA(V)E

The Anglicist HypothesisThe Anglicist Hypothesis The Creolist HypothesisThe Creolist Hypothesis The Neo-Anglicist HypothesisThe Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis The Substrate HypothesisThe Substrate Hypothesis

The Anglicist HypothesisThe Anglicist Hypothesis

the roots of AAVE can be traced to the roots of AAVE can be traced to the same source as Anglo American the same source as Anglo American dialects: British dialectsdialects: British dialects

The Creolist HypothesisThe Creolist Hypothesis

AAVE developed from a “creole” AAVE developed from a “creole” language, similar to other English-language, similar to other English-based creoles in African and the based creoles in African and the Caribbean, vestige found in “Gullah,” Caribbean, vestige found in “Gullah,” went through “decreolization”went through “decreolization”

Developed during 1970s and 1980s: Developed during 1970s and 1980s: “Black on White” in the Story of “Black on White” in the Story of EnglishEnglish

New data to challenge the Creolist New data to challenge the Creolist Hypothesis:Hypothesis:

WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. (earlier AAVE not as distinct from (earlier AAVE not as distinct from Anglo varieties as the Creolist Anglo varieties as the Creolist Hypothesis would predict)Hypothesis would predict)

Black expatriate insular varieties of Black expatriate insular varieties of EnglishEnglish

Examination of the sociohistorical Examination of the sociohistorical situation and the demographics of situation and the demographics of the antebellum Souththe antebellum South

The Neo-Anglicist HypothesisThe Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis

Earlier postcolonial African American Earlier postcolonial African American speech was directly linked to the speech was directly linked to the early British dialects brought to North early British dialects brought to North America, but AAE has since diverged America, but AAE has since diverged so that it is now quite distinct from so that it is now quite distinct from contemporary European American contemporary European American vernacular speechvernacular speech

The Substrate HypothesisThe Substrate Hypothesis

Even though earlier AAE may have Even though earlier AAE may have incorporated many features from incorporated many features from regional varieties of English in regional varieties of English in America, its durable substrate effects America, its durable substrate effects have always distinguished it from have always distinguished it from other varieties of American English other varieties of American English (whereas Neo-Anglicist claims that (whereas Neo-Anglicist claims that earlier form was identical)earlier form was identical)