South Korean Good Practice SDI Investigations...South Korean NSDI history It should be said that Korean SDI history cannot be separated from the NGIS project since both evolved together

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National Spatial Data Infrastructure: The Case of the Republic of Korea

iv

Table of Contents Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................................................. iv

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................................................... v

About the Author .............................................................................................................................................................. vi

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 8

Chapter 2. Social Context and Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 10

Chapter 3. The Current Korean SDI Situation ..................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 4. Korean NSDI History ........................................................................................................................... 36

Chapter 5. Best Practices in Korea .......................................................................................................................... 45

Chapter 6. Lessons Learned ..................................................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 7. A Strategic NSDI Model for the Developing Countries ................................................................. 62

Annex- A National Spatial Data Infrastructure Act ......................................................................................... 74

Annex- B Spatial Data Industry Promotin Act .................................................................................................. 85

Annex- C Current Status of Korean GIS Standards .......................................................................................... 94

Annex- D Korean SDI/GIS Organization List.................................................................................................. 97

Annex- E Selected List of the Korean National GIS Projects ......................................................................... 98

Annex- F Korean GIS Expert Investigation Results ....................................................................................... 105

Annex- G Tasks and Activities for SDI in Developing Countries (Example) ............................................. 111


v

Acknowledgments

This work would not be possible without the support of numerous people and organizations whose

contributions remain invaluable to the preparation and writing of this report. Specifically, I would like to

thank the Korea Trust Fund on ICT for Development and the The World Bank Group, especially Tim Kelly,

team task leader of the overall “SDI for Monitoring Development Outcomes” report; Marisela Montoliu

Muñoz, for her work on the original PCN; Bruce McCormack and Paul Scott, for their insightful and detailed

revisions; Samhir Vasdev, for editing and preparing this document for publication; and all reviewers whose

suggestions were deeply appreciated.


vi

About the Author

Eun-Hyung Kim is a professor at Division of Landscape Architecture & Urban Planning, College of

Engineering, Kyungwon University in Korea. Since he found GIS technology in 1985, most of his lifetime

has been devoted to GIS research on national and local GIS planning and implementation. His major

research area is on NSDI policies, GIS standards, GIS implementations in local governments and recently,

Geospatial Web and Ubiquitous City.

The Korea NGIS Project, also called the Korea NSDI, started in 1995 and is now on the third phase. The

fourth phase will begin next year. He might be the only one who went through the Korea NSDI planning and

implementation from the beginning to the present. He is also deeply involved in GIS implementation in local

governments. His most current NSDI perspective was presented by the paper, "The Prescriptive NSDI

Model(2008)".

Since 1995, he has been a member of Steering Committee for the NATIONAL GIS project to establish the

Korean NSDI and to develop its implementation plans. He is one of the five members who initiated the

NGIS project by the first-phase NGIS Implementation Plan. He has been participating in numerous

Advisory Committees in various central and local governments in Korea. Also, he is a Korean Head of

Delegate to the Technical Committee of the International Standard Organization on Geographic

Information/Geomatics (ISO/TC211).

His main papers include "A Study on a GIS ISP (Information Strategic Plan) Model for Local Governments

to Overcome the Problems in a Transition Period (2004)", "A Study on Integration Strategies for e-

Government and GIS in Korea (2005)", "Comparative Study on Advanced NSDIs for the future

NATIONAL GIS Implementation in Korea (2006)", "Study on Advanced Model for GIS Implementation in

Local Governments (2007)", and "The Prescriptive NSDI Model (2008)", which are on SDI policies from

local via national to international level.


1

Executive summary

This report seeks to understand how to help developing countries advance their SDI efforts based on the case study of South Korea. With remarkable economic growth, South Korea stands in a unique position in the world, transforming from a largely aid-dependent nation to a developed country in a relatively short period of time. Strategic efforts with advanced IT technologies have contributed considerably to its rapid economic development, largely due to South Korea‟s notable NSDI effort. To investigate and analyze the country‟s achievements as a good practice SDI, the current Korean SDI, this report reviews its situation and its history. Through the analysis, a strategic NSDI model is proposed that can help developing countries implement SDI efficiently.

The current Korean SDI situation The current Korean SDI situation can be identified by 12 issues: GIS applications, policy issues, legislation, organizational issues, funding, data sets, standards, software and network services, access issues, international issues, evaluation, and education/research. These issues fit neatly into six primary components of SDI (data, standards, access and metadata, policy, technology, and partnerships) as follows: 1) Data sets can be mapped to the data component; 2) Standards issues to the standard component; 3) Access issues to the access and metadata component; 4) Policy, legislation, and organizational issues to the policy component; 5) Software and network services issues to the technology component; and 6) Funding, international issues, evaluation, and education/research issues to the partnerships component. These components are interrelated through mutual interactions. With regards to the important issue of funding, a large amount of the Korean budget had been invested throughout the three phases of the

country‟s NGIS (1995-2000, 2001-2005, and 2005-2010). By 2008, a total of 1,2 trillion won ($1,1 billion) had been invested from public funding from national budgets – 2,787 billion won ($2,6 million) in the first phase, 4,550 billion won ($4,3 billion) in the second phase, and 4,438 billion won ($4,2 billion) in the third phase. On both the national and local levels, the plurality of NGIS expenditures was invested in creating and managing geospatial data and applications. It can be said that Korean SDI has been driven by a top-down approach rather than by a bottom-up approach because the central government has played a larger role to run the Korean SDI. Recently in Korea, however, a paradigmatic shift in GIS technology from geographic information systems to geo-spatial information resulted in new legislation, a change of policy from top-down approach to a more bottom-up approach, a harmonization of both of these approaches, and organizational arrangements for future direction. According to the 4th NGIS Plan (MLTM, 2010), a new concept of “Neogeography” will move the current NSDI direction toward a “new deal” data governance policy with private partnerships. Under the vision of Green – focusing on intelligence, integration, interoperability, governance, and easy access to spatial information – the “everywhere”, “everybody,” and “new deal” policy will begin to guide the country‟s NGIS.

South Korean NSDI history It should be said that Korean SDI history cannot be separated from the NGIS project since both evolved together. In other words, from simple digitization of information to knowledge, Korean SDI developed and changed rapidly through the implementation of various NGIS projects. This transformation can be illustrated by examining the three phrases of NGIS:


2

Table 1: The three phases of Korea's NGIS NGIS Phase 1 (1995-2000) NGIS Phase 2 (2001-2005) NGIS Phase 3 (2005-2010)

Go

al

Digitization of spatial data to

establish GIS infrastructure in

order to promote to national

competitiveness and

productivity

Construction of a wider GIS

digital landscape

Emphasis on the

infrastructure of the

implementation of Korean

Ubiquitous Land

Da

ta

Creation of digital topographic

and cadastral maps

Digital thematic map, parcel-

address map, administrative

boundary map, road map,

current land use map, national

land zoning map, and urban

planning map

Fundamental data including

administrative district,

transportation, marine and

water resources, etc

National /marine base map

National geodetic control

point, national imagery DB

Ap

plic

atio

n

GIS application for

underground facility

GIS application for

underground facility , land use,

environment, agriculture,

marine

Linkage and integration of

individual GIS application

systems

3D spatial information, UPIS,

KOPSS, BIM etc.

Sta

nd

ard

Developments of several

standards including∙ standard

for national base map,

underground facility map

Developments of standards for

exchange of spatial data

Developments of several

standards including∙ standard

for framework, data,

construction, distribution and

application for NGIS

Re-establishment of

framework data standard

Developments of advanced

several standards

Modification and

supplementation of existing

standards

Tec

hn

olo

gy

Mapping technology, DB Tool,

GIS S/W technology

3D GIS, high-resolution RS

technology

Intelligent land information

based on GIS technology

and developed new software

for the future information-

oriented society.

Hu

ma

n r

eso

urc

e

IT labor markets promotion

project

Offline GIS education

Online and offline GIS

education

Development of educational

program and educational

textbook

Online and offline GIS

education

Update of educational

program and educational

textbook


3

Cle

arin

g

ho

use

Pilot project for national spatial

clearing house

Project for national spatial

clearing house 70m datasets in

139 categories available

Advancement project for

management of national

spatial clearing house

Re

sea

rch

Research for NGIS Research for NGIS in mid- and

long-term policy project

Research for NGIS in

changing environments

Lessons learned from NSDI Lessons learned by the Korean NSDI align with the 6 components of SDI discussed earlier (data, policy, standard, access and metadata, technology,

and partnerships), and with the additional metric of GIS applications:

Table 2: Lessons learned from Korea's NSDI

SDI

component Lessons learned Recommendation

Da

ta

In South Korea, an over-emphasis on

data accuracy has retarded the

development of SDI. Harmonizing a

concept of data quality in users‘

perspective with suppliers‘ perspective

is important for data production,

usages and various applications

Harmonization of cost with quality is

important.

The strategies for data updating must

be considered during initial data-

building to prevent duplicated

investment for revision and data

updating.

Efforts to bridge gaps between

assessing formal institutional data quality

and informal real usage for business

For example, using digital ortho-photo,

satellite image or new surveying

technology can be preferable to using

traditional surveying methods.

For rapid return on investment, the

selection of maps at proper scale and

decision on data building method will

need to be reviewed.

Tools such as UFID for efficient and real-

time updating will be useful.


4

Sta

nd

ard

s

In the South Korean SDI, two kinds of

level as de jure standards have

developed: KS and TTA standards. To

Developing the standards while

obtaining consensus, will inevitably

take considerable time.

As a result, several NGIS projects have

been implemented without related

standards.

A delay of NGIS standardization results

in issues of data interoperability and

project inefficiency.

Strategic standardization based on

consensus among GIS communities for

SDI, more effectively and easily.

Tools such as the USGS geospatial

bluebook, the standards guidance

resource, are useful at the

implementation and conceptual levels.

Tec

hn

olo

gy

In spite of the development of GIS

technologies for the 3 NGIS phases, the

adoption of advanced foreign

technologies is significant in Korea.

With the help of ubiquitous

technologies, Korea competitively

develops specific technologies.

Due to a lack of best practicse in the

use of technologies from the get-go,

educational programs for GIS

technologists and experts are crucial.

Wider strategical use of open-source

technologies is recommended.

Strategic and rapid development of

selected technologies for developing

countries‘ SDI is recommended.

Po

licy

More administrative experts and fewer

GIS experts as decision makers may

have resulted in some trial and errors at

the beginning of NGIS phase in South

Korea.

Conflicts between the GIS and

surveying communities could present

problems, and the latter‘s influence has

been more substantial than the former

group‘s. Accuracy has prevailed over

fitness for use. It has retarded GIS

applications to bloom. ???

Tools such as a NGIS Master Plan in

every phase of NGIS in Korea

presented a vision, tasks, project and

budgets, with the SDI Master Plan first.

Legislation for the NSDI at a national

and local level is required for SDI. In due

time, legislation for SDI must be

introduced with a a clear definition of

roles defining who does what.

More participation and determination

of GIS experts in policy-making process

is needed.

Strategic and sustainable Master Plans

for SDI First, according to Master Plan,

implementation Plan is also needed.


5

Ac

ce

ss &

Me

tad

ata

Online or off line distribution networks

are essential for successful SDI.

NGIS ―One Stop Portal‖ for access

service and linkage of e-government

portal with NGIS portal are useful.

Standards for metadata and data

catalogue are required to distribute and

share data via the NGIS One Stop

Portal.

To spure adoption of the VGI concept,

poor knowledge of data availability

should be overcome and access to

spatial data .

Ap

plic

atio

n

Many GIS applications are developed

and used for efficient resource

management throughout the 15-year,

3-phase NGIS in South Korea.

The recent trend of users making their

own GIS applications using Open

APIhas significant implications for

developing countries. For example,

Open API services are available in

Seoul and Daegu at the local level.

Considering the limits of resources in

developing countries, for efficient

budget allocation, priorities among

various GIS applications would be

included in the master plan. To provide

interoperability of GIS applications, a

geo-Web platform is useful.

Rapid return on investment of GIS

applications must also be considered.

Pa

rtn

ers

hip

s

Strong government leadership and

organisational partnership are

important.

The delayed establishment of NGIS

standards during the 2nd phase was

due to a lack of organizational

partnerships.

Efficient institutional reorganization and

regulations required to promote

powerful organization partnerships.

For example, as Chairperson of National

Spatial Data Committee, the President

provided powerful leadership, rather

than the minister of land, transport and

maritime affairs. This alleviates the

potential obstacles of weaker

leadership, inter-organizational conflict,

and a lack of cooperation between

government agencies.

A strategic NSDI model for developing

countries

This report proposes a strategic NSDI model for developing countries based on South Korean lessons highlighted above and on the opinions of Korean GIS experts. This model includes 4 strategies, including strategies for geospatial data, GI capacity building, GI portal enabling access platforms, and cost-effective management of GI with partnerships, all of which can be established

for the development of SDIs at the national level with reference to the local level. In developing countries, due to a lack of various resources such as financial and human capital, top priority must be given to a product-based model. Given varying political, economic, and cultural circumstances in developing countries, the findings of this report will have different implications for different countries. However, primary consideration might be given to the creation of geospatial data.


6

S T R A T E G I E S F O R G E O S P A T I A L

D A T A

Like NGII‟s digital topographical map at 1:1.000 scale covering almost all of the countries in the Korean SDI, high quality geospatial data such as a digital topographical map makes successful SDI implementation possible. However, the digital topographic map database is also likely to be an expensive task that takes place over a relatively long period of time. Using new technologies, strategies for geospatial data for developing countries can exploit alternative information sources such as remotely-sensed data in addition to conventional survey technology. For example, Openstreetmap, which is a wiki-style VGI (Volunteered Geographic Information) map using various mapping techniques including remote mapping and sketching over aerial imagery with GPS unit, can be a possible method to build a basic map efficiently. A great deal can be done in this way without incurring the delays that are inevitably associated with conventional database creation.

Additionally, in Korea‟s experience processing further NGIS projects, not only building geospatial data but also maintaining it for sharing and utilizing is of paramount importance. In this context, it is more important to make data interoperable for data sharing and utilization. Thus, standardization is a prerequisite to building and sharing geospatial data, information, and services efficiently. GIS standards for interoperability of geospatial data and services should be developed according to the consensus of stakeholders.

Concerning the matter of financing, the co-funding model reliant on international funds (building topological maps with central and local governments in South Korea) serves as a good reference for developing countries with insufficient budgets.

S T R A T E G I E S F O R G I C A P A C I T Y -

B U I L D I N G

Due to poor human resources, misunderstanding or lack of technological accuity in developing countries, strategies for GI capacity-building are also of high importance. SDIs are likely to be

most successful in taking advantage of local and national geographic information assets in situations where the capacity exists to exploit their potential. This is particularly important in developing countries where the implementation of SDI initiatives is often dependent on a limited number of staff with necessary geographic information management skills. It must also be recognized that there remains a great deal to be done to develop GIS capabilities, particularly at the local level. GIS capacity-building can be considered in the adoption and vitalization of the VGI concept for future SDI development.

S T R A T E G I E S F O R G I P O R T A L

E N A B L I N G A C C E S S P L A T F O R M S

Without enabling access platforms, and the appropriate metadata services which help them to find this information, it is unlikely that a SDI will be able to achieve its overarching objective of promoting greater use of geographic information. There is also a practical reason that the development of metadata services should be given a high priority in the implementation of a SDI: These services can be developed at relatively low costs and high speeds. In this respect, they can be regarded as potential “quick winners” which demonstrate tangible benefits for those involved in SDI development. The establishment of Web-based metadata services provides information to users about the data that is available to meet their needs. It is also one of the most obvious SDI success stories. In recent years, the development of spatial portals has opened up new possibilities for metadata and application services. As their name suggests, spatial portals can be seen as gateways to geographic information (GI) resources. As such they provide points of entry to SDIs and help users around the world identify and connect to many GI-rich resources. These portals also allow GI users and providers to share content and create a consensus. Also, for better citizen spatial service , integration and linkage of e-government and NSDI should be done from the beginning of the project timeline to avoid duplication of efforts. Furthermore, in the context of recent trends toward vitalization with the adoption of the VGI concept, poor knowledge of data availability


7

should be improved and access of spatial data extended.

S T R A T E G I E S F O R C O S T - E F F E C T I V E

M A N A G E M E N T O F G I W I T H

S T R O N G L E A D E R S H I P A N D

P A R T N E R S H I P S

Strong government leadership and organizational partnerships have been evaluated as a primary drive to successful NSDI, as mentioned earlier. In order to pursue a more powerful organizational partnership, more efficient institutional reorganization and regulations are required.

The South Korean SDI case reveals that strong, top-down, national NSDI leadership by the central government is important to successful SDI implementation from the start.

This same strategy is needed for SDI in developing countries, wherein SDI coordinating bodies should play a key role.Like the National Spatial Data Committee in South Korea, an interagency committee is necessary to deliberate on and coordinate matters concerning national spatial data policy and to promote the coordinated development, use, sharing and dissemination of geospatial data and services. Finally, legislation for the NSDI at the national and local levels is required embrace the importance of SDI and to encourage a technological mindset.


8

Chapter 1: Introduction

Many countries worldwide including both advanced and developing are engaged in SDI development, which involves the development of geospatial services that support public service delivery, ultimately to promote economic development, stimulate better government, and foster environmental sustainability. This development ranges from local to state/provincial, national and regional levels, to a global level. SDI is now moving to underpin an information society and enable a society to be spatially enabled, (Rabajifard, 2006a).

SDI can be seen as a framework of spatial (GIS) data, metadata, users and tools (services) that are interactively connected in order to use spatial data in an efficient and flexible way. Due to its nature (size, cost, number of inter-actors), an SDI is usually government-related. SDIs and the broader use of GIS create an improved information environment worldwide.

With the increased generation and use of GIS data necessitates, however, the need for standardizing, organizing, storing, managing and sharing them better. Increasingly aware of the material and opportunity costs of bad GIS management practices, developing countries are now approaching for advice on how to develop sound Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDIs) – that is, the technologies, policies, standards, and human resources necessary to acquire, process, store, distribute and improve utilization of geospatial data.

To synthesize lessons from global experience on how countries can manage GIS, technical challenge can be reviewed. But, beyond(redundant) the technical challenge of building an SDI, the most critical issues and obstacles often emerge on the institutional, organizational, and financial fronts – that is, in the definition of the roles and responsibilities for diverse actors working with and benefitting from the SDI. In terms of it, institutional governance is necessary for effective and efficient spatial data and services management within or across organizations

In this context, there is a common need for knowledge on “how to” guide on the development of spatial data infrastructure (SDI) at a national level.

Contents of this report

This report provides a reference on the development of spatial data infrastructure (SDI) at a national level for developing countries. Based on recent SDI-related activities in Korea, and history of Korean SDI with best practices in Korea, a strategic NSDI model is suggested for developing countries. The report is divided into three parts with seven chapters by concept.

Social change, economic growth, and

SDI

The first part of the report examines the social background and theoretical reviews. To understand SDI in relation to South Korean historical, economic, and social background, Chapter 2 shortly reviews South Korean recent history of social change and economic growth since the Korean War. Next, SDI theoretical framework will be described with conceptual background and directional envision for the South Korean SDI investigation in practice.

The South Korean situation

The second part of the report draws about the status quo and history of South Korean SDI, that is, the current Korean SDI Situation (Chapter 3), History of Korean SDI (Chapter 4), Best Practices in Korea (Chapter 5) and Lessons Learned (Chapter 6). The Current Korean SDI Situation (Chapter 3) reviews 12 issues, GIS applications, policy issues, legislation, organizational issues, funding, data sets, standards, software and network services, access issues, and international issues, evaluations, and education/research.


9

History of Korean SDI (Chapter 4) introduces 3 phases of the NGIS project. The results of the project are analyzed and evaluated both at a national and a local level. Based on the evaluation by GIS Experts and existing NGIS evaluation reports, Best Practices in South Korea (Chapter 5) are selected to exemplify good NSDI characteristics in central and local governments. Lessons Learned (Chapter 6) is discussed in 6 SDI components such as 1) Data; 2) Law/institution, 3) Standards; 4) Access and metadata; 5) Technology; and 6) Partnerships; and additionally in GIS application. Based on above Chapter 3, Chapter 4, and Chapter 5, Lessons Learned is identified for the developing countries. In presenting the lessons, two different aspects relating to an SDI-technical and institutional/ organizational viewpoint and two audiences including technicians/project managers and policy-makers might be considered.

A strategic NSDI model for developing

countries The final part of the report addresses about a strategic SDI model for the developing countries based on previous chapters mentioned. The model provides a “how to” guidance including key factors and choices to have in mind in the development of SDIs at the national level with referencing at the local level. At the same time, SDI development is a longer-term and nonlinear process requiring a high level of coordination amongst different ministries and private entities that manage different data sets and provide necessary network services. Therefore, the key to its success may be highly context-specific. However, in the context of South Korean experience, several tasks for strategic SDI development proposed use of GIS to produce developmental outcomes for the developing countries (Chapter 7).


10

Chapter 2. Social Context and Theoretical Framework

Many issues on SDI development are strongly related with the society itself. Therefore, which stage of SDI development a country can enter and how fast and efficiently the SDI can be developed depend on how a society evolves (E. Olof Olsson, 2009). Since the beginning year of Korean NSDI, called NGIS (National Geographic Information System), 1995, the Korean society has rapidly changed with development of advanced IT technologies and remarkable economic growth.

Historical, economic and social

background

From 1950 to 2010, South Korea have gone through extreme depths of devastating war, gradual but steady national recovery, remarkable economic growth, and accession to membership in the OECD (Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development). And then, it became a member of the G20 (Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors) as one of the world‟s major economic powers. Despite of economic achievements, however, South Korea challenges for reunification and faces political conflict with North Korea.

H I S T O R I C A L B A C K G R O U N D

After the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945 (which marked the end of World War II), a Soviet-style socialist regime, was established in the north, while in the Republic of Korea, a Western-style republic was established. The two parts of the Korean nation - democratic South Korea and communist North Korea - still had internal conflicts including insurgency threats and subversion problems for the next 5 years. During the Korean War (1950–1953), millions of civilians died and the three years of war thoroughly destroyed most cities. The Korean Peninsula remains divided, and the Korean Demilitarized Zone is being the de facto border between the North and South Korea.

E C O N O M I C B A C K G R O U N D

Since the 1960s, in contrast of North Korea, South Korean economy has grown enormously and the economic structure was radically transformed. In 1957, South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, but it became 17 times as high as Ghana'sa in 2008. In 1995, South Korea‟s GNI (Gross National Income) per capita GDP (Gross domestic product) had reached $11,471 exceeding at first $10,000, and South Korea became a member of the OECD in the following year. A little over a decade later, in spite of a dramatic drop down to $7,477 due to an economic crisis in 1997-1998, its GNI per capita GDP reached $20,015 in 2007b.

Figure 1 Economic growth in South Korea (Source:

http://ecos.bok.or.kr/)

A rapid growth and success of economic development have changed various aspects of South Korean lifestyle in the social and cultural context. A wider-use of the internet is a good example.

S O C I A L B A C K G R O U N D

National territory area of South Korea which is under the south of Korean Demilitarized Zone has slightly increased from 99,250 km2 in 1995 to

a http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea b http://ecos.bok.or.kr


11

99,897km2 in 2009. At the same period, the population growth rate has been continuing to fall and the population increased a little c. Furthermore, with issues on urbanization and industrialization, social problems are increased. In order to solve various problems, improve quality of life, and ensure public safety, social infrastructure becomes to more important and the necessity of efficient managements for it required. Also, with advance in IT technologies, South Korea‟s shift to a post-industrialization era has already made considerable progress for the nation to moves to a more knowledge-based economy.

Figure 2 Change of population growth rate (Source:

www.index.go.kr)

Figure 3 Change of national area

(Source:www.index.go.kr)

c Compare, if reunified, Korean Peninsula total area would be

223,170 km2, total population 2010 estimate 73,000,000.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea) , http://www.index.go.kr

Governmental background: The

National GIS Project as an NSDI in Korea Two Gas Explosions in Korea took place in 1995 at the turning point of the South Korean economy, in whichits GNI (Gross National Income) per capita GDP (Gross domestic product) reached exceeding at first $10,000. The first-phase National GIS implementation plan was initiated just after two large gas explosions in Korea. As a solution for the accidents, GIS technology was broadcasted and could get more budgets for the plan. The accidents have invoked public awareness and necessity of GIS. By using GIS for underground facilities management, such accidents can be prevented and, economic and social benefits could be expected. Under the 4- phase comprehensive National GIS implementation plans, MLTM d , at central government level, have undertaken the NGIS project with the cooperation of many local governments, GIS academies and industries for 15 years as of 2010.

1st phase (1995-2000): “Digitalization of spatial data”

2nd phase (2001-2005): “Implementation of Korean Digital Land,”

3rd phase (2006-2010 in progress): “ For the Infrastructure of the Implementation of Korean Ubiquitous Land”

4th phase (as a completed plan 2011-2015): “Implementation of Korean Green Geospatial Society.”

E-government and NSDI Since Korean e-government initiatives have started in 2001 by Ministry of Public Administration and Home Affairs (now Ministry of Public Administration and Security: MOPAS), the Korean e-government one-stop portal had been officially opened on October in 2002.

d MLTM: Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime


12

Through the key e-government projects (2002 ~ 2003) and 31 e-government roadmap projects (2003~2007), the Korean e-government made innovative performances. Since 2007, it has been evaluated to the world top class e-government by UN evaluation. Under the master plan for the next generation of e-government established in 2007, however, a significant effort was made for the integration of spatial data and administrative data for Korean e-government. And now, via Korean e-government portal site, citizens have access to spatial data of various government agencies. On developing process of Korean e-government, integration and linkage of Korean e-government and NSDI between MOPAS and MLTM have become a critical issue. Though a concern on SDI in the early Korean e-government phase is not insufficient, for better citizen service and public efficiency based on spatial data, the projects are on process. In fact, Korean e- government can be considered an important channel to drive the SDI agenda. The NIIS project with a large amount of budgets which was launched in 2008 by MLTM and MOPAS is a good example. Also, the project for administrative spatial information system by MOPAS which is going on as one of Korean e-government projects is worthy of consideration.

Technology: Introduction and

development of ubiquitous technology With an advance of information and communication technology and network, Korea tries to introduce and develop ubiquitous technologies. In 2006, the basic plan for u-KOREA, which is working on action plans, was already established to achieve the world's first ubiquitous society. u-IT is an enabler making all objects to have computing power allows them to use anytime and anywhere through networking. Also, u-IT is characterized by the term's 'real', 'connected', 'invisible', and 'calm' and u-services utilizing u-IT enable intelligent services through context understanding, space convergence services, real-time site services, and invisible servicese.

e MIC, “u-KOREA Master Plan to Achieve the World‟s First

Ubiquitous Society”, 2006

Korean nationwide ubiquitous city projects at central and local government level are especially established. For the ubiquitous city, spatial data becomes extremely crucial for better ubiquitous service.

Theoretical framework A short review of the theoretical framework such as SDI concept, component, hierarchies and evolution of SDI may be useful for the SDI investigation and the strategic NSDI model later.

C O N C E P T O F S D I

According to the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure Association Cookbook (Nebert, 2004) ,“the term Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) is often used to denote the relevant base collection of technologies, policies and institutional arrangements that facilitate the availability of and access to spatial data” f . A. Rajabifard (2002) describes SDI as an enabling platform based on dynamic, hierarchic concept with the aim of facilitating and coordinating the exchange and sharing spatial information between different stakeholders g . A definition used by the U.S. Federal Government includes the technologies, policies, standards, human resources, and related activities necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial datah. SDI, as a minimum infrastructure, includes applications, standards, technology and institutional governance necessary for effective and efficient spatial data and services management within or across organizations.

In fact, the concept of SDI is different within various contexts of political, social, administrative and technical environments; however, its ultimate objectives are to promote economic development, stimulate better government and foster environmental sustainability (Masser, 1998).

SDIs provide the framework for optimization of the creation, maintenance and distribution of geographic information at different organization

f http://www.gsdi.org/gsdicookbook g A. Rajabifard et al, 2002 in “Developing Spatial Data

Infrastructures: From concept to reality” by Ian Williamson, 2003 h http://www.fgdc.gov


13

levels (e.g., regional, national, or global level) and involve both public and private institutions. SDI is fundamentally about facilitation and coordination of exchange and sharing spatial data, services and other resources between stakeholders in the spatial community. From a technical point of view, in order to facilitate access to and exploitation of spatial data, SDIs must set up a series of services to be reused by their community of users in the construction of different applications and value-added services. Thus, SDI enables users to save resources, time and effort by avoiding duplication of efforts related to information collection, maintenance and integration (Chan et al., 2001).

These definitions of SDI can be applicable in South Korean SDI, and Choi et.al(2009) has also defined that SDI is the framework for the optimization of creation, maintenance and distribution of geographic information including all of the logical and physical platform for spatial data, standard, access, policy, human resources and technologiesi.

C O M P O N E N T S O F S D I

Coleman and McLaughlin (1998) define components of SDI as sources of spatial data, database and metadata, data networks, technology, institutional arrangement, policies and standards and end-users. A. Rajabifard (2002) asserts that data, people, standards, policy and access network are included in SDI.

More systematically, the GSDI Association‟s 2006

newsletter proposed that SDIs would include all

or a combination of the following elements:

Geographic data (or GIS) – the actual digital geographic data and information;

Metadata – the data describing the data (content, quality, condition, location, disclosure or confidentiality issues, etc.), which permits structured searches, comparison of data and inter-operability;

i B.M.Choi, et.al, “Establishment of Korean Spatial Data

Infrastructure Model and Study of Globalization Strategy”,

2009,KHRIS

Framework – include mechanisms for identifying and sharing the data features, attributes, and attribute values, and mechanisms for updating the data without complete re-collection;

Services – to help discover and interact with the data;

Clearinghouse – to actually obtain the data in uniform, distributed searches through a single user interface;

Standards – created and accepted at local, national, or global levels;

Partnerships – relationships and agreements across relevant actors and organizations that reduce duplication and collection costs and leverage local, national and global technology and skills;

Education and Communication – allowing individual citizens, scientists, administrators, private companies, government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and academic institutions to communicate and learn from each other.

Among various components and elements of SDI mentioned, components of Korean SDI can be framework data, metadata & access (clearinghouse), standards, technology, human resources, law/institution and partnership [Figure 4].


14

Figure 4 Korean NSDI Components (Source: MLTM, ―The 4th-phase National GIS Comprehensive Implementation Plan

(2010-2015)‖, March 16, 2010)

S D I H I E R A R C H Y

An SDI hierarchy is made up of inter-connected SDIs at corporate, local, state/provincial, national, regional (multi-national) and global levels (Figure 5). Two views on SDI hierarchy are introduced, such as umbrella view of SDI and the building block view of SDI, A. Rajabifard (2002) explained that SDI hierarchy creates an environment, in which decision-makers working at any level can draw on data from other levels. The themes, scales, currency and coverage of the data needed for it depend on different levels of SDI hierarchy.

Figure 5 Korean SDI hierarchy (Source: A. Rajabifard et.

al., 2002)

In the SDI hierarchy, the SDI at a national level has stronger relationships as well as a more significant role in building SDI in other levels.

Thus, South Korean SDI should be taken into consideration in a SDI hierarchy, in which vertical and horizontal relationships are included. Figure 6 shows a South Korean SDI hierarchy which allows the different levels of SDIs data available, standard for data and application, and other components of SDI interconnected vertically and horizontally. As an example of vertical interconnection, spatial data such as the topological map etc. are integrated covering all levels. GIS Applications at a national level are also mapped with those at a local level, such as UPIS, Underground Facilities GIS etc. Horizontally, at any level including a national level via at a provincial level to at a local level, each of 6 SDI components is interrelated. At last, as far as partnership, both vertical and horizontal partnerships in SDI hierarchy are key components for successful SDI:


15

Figure 6 Korean SDI hierarchy (Source: Kim (2010)

E V O L U T I O N O F S D I

B.van Loenen(2009) analyzed that the focus of

SDIs has moved from data orientation in the

1990s to process orientation in the late 1990s-

2005 towards service-oriented SDIs exemplified

by the INSPIRE directive in Europe and the

Spatially enabling government initiative in

Australiaj.

Also, as summarized by Masser (2005, p. 257), current trends in SDI development are as follows:

From a product to a process model;

From formulation to implementation;

From data producers to data users;

From database creation to data sharing;

From centralised to decentralised structures;

From coordination to governance;

From single to multilevel participation;

From existing to new organisational structures.

j B. van Loenen, et.al(ed), “SDI Convergence; Research, Emerging

Trends, and Critical Assessment”, 2009

With the increasing role of the data user and multilevel participation, recently, a new trend of user-created geospatial content Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) named by Goodchildk is emerging. Thank to wider access to internet, ease mapping technologies such as GPS and mobile devices in web 2.0 environment anyone who have access to them now can add information to geospatial data. Openstreet map is a good example of VGIl. Like USGS National Map Corpsm, also in the public sector, an effort to integrate VGI with official authoritative information is going on made. Using a concept of VGI, user-created geospatial content can be considered a resource for SDI along with its development. As Goodchild said, it can be regarded as VGI clearly fits the model of NSDI. So to speak, a collection of individuals acting independently, and responding to the needs of local communities can together create a patchwork coverage. Given a server with appropriate tools, the various pieces of the patchwork can be fitted together, removing any obvious inconsistencies, and distributed over the Web. The accuracy of each piece of the patchwork, and the frequency with which it is updated, can be determined by local needn. Therefore, it can be a powerful source of spatial data that can be included in SDIs and VGI potential in developing countries which can be discussed in policy issues later.

k Michael F. Goodchild, “Citizens as sensors: the world of

volunteered geography”, 2007, NCGIA VGI Workshop l http://www.openstreetmap.org/ As the free wiki world map,

OpenStreetMap creates and provides free geographic data such as

street maps to anyone who wants them all around whole world. m http://nationalmap.gov/TheNationalMapCorps/ The National

Map Corps' Web-based data collection procedure presents an

opportunity for private citizens to contribute specific geographic

knowledge to the USGS's mapping program. By completing a simple

registration procedure, volunteers can immediately collect data and

provide the location and name of important map-worthy features in

their community. n Michael F. Goodchild (2007)


16

In South Korea, completing the 3rd phase of the NGIS project, most of trends mentioned are founded. For example, in the 1st phase of NGIS, more concerns were on data creation and production of dataset such as digital topological maps and various thematic maps, later in the 2nd and 3rd phases more efforts on data sharing were made.

For future SDI evolution toward the knowledge/information society, Korean NSDI policies and programmes will be transformed as suggested in “The 4th-phase National GIS Comprehensive implementation plan (2010-2015).”

Present Future

IT Environment Digital Ubiquitous

Type of Information 2D, Static 3D, Dynamic

Subject Supply-Driven Demand-Driven

Types of Business Individual Cooperative

Data policy Close, Limited Open Policy Data Open Policy

Information Domain Stand alone Linkage･Integration

Table 3: Changes in the 4th-Phase Korean NSDI (Source: MLTM, 2010)


17

Chapter 3. The Current Korean SDI Situation

12 issues to describe the current Korean SDI situation are identified: GIS applications, policy issues, legislation, organizational issues, funding, data sets, standards, software and network services, access issues, and international issues, evaluation, and education/research. These issues are reviewed and will be mapped to 6 SDI components later: 1) data sets issue is mapped to Data component, 2) standards issue to Standard component, 3) access issues to Access and Metadata component, 4) policy issues, legislation, organizational issues to Policy and Institutional component, 5) software and network services issues to Technology component, and 6) funding, international issues, evaluation, and education/research issues to Partnership component. GIS applications will be added to the 6 SDI components as a composite of those.

GIS applications In Korea, there are many GIS applications in various domains: for the purpose of development and management of both natural and human resources such as environments, land use, road, underground facilities, agriculture, farmland, rural development, soil, forest, park, cultural heritage, underground water, marine resources, natural disaster and security, geology, military, and education in the public sector covering both at a national and local level. Also, in the private sector, various innovative applications for health, financial management,

banking and insurance, marketing and customer management and so on are developed in South Korea. Moreover, mobile GIS applications for navigation and internet searching based on the map have already pervaded people‟s everyday lives .

Usage in the public sector In total, in the public sector including at a national and local level, 6 major projects and 27 general projects for GIS applications have been underway funded by the NGIS budgets since 1995. 6 major projects mean the essential and basic GIS applications: National Spatial Information System, 3D GIS, UPIS (Urban Planning Information System), the 2nd advanced KLIS (Korea Land Information System), KOPSS (KOrea Planning Support Systems), and Architectural management system based on GIS. Also, 27 General projects for GIS applications in various domains including environments, agriculture, forest, marine resources, utilities, cultural heritage, water, statistics, and military have been completed and being used. Besides them, other several GIS projects have been executed by each Ministry‟s budget. Table 4 shows many GIS applications which have been developed with funds of general projects and now being used in various domains:

Table 4: Korean GIS applications (Source: MLTM, "The Study on Evaluation of NGIS Project and Action Plan," 2008, p.57)

Domains National Government Agencies in the Public Sector Applications

Environment ME(Ministry of Environment) Environmental GISo

Agriculture MIFAFF(Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and

Fisheries), Rural Development Administration Agriculture GIS

Forest Korea Forest Service Forest GISp

o http://egis.me.go.kr/

p http://fgis.forest.go.kr/fgis/


18

Marine MLTM (Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime

Affairs) Marine GIS

Utilities MLTM Underground Facilities GIS

Water MLTM Underground Water GIS

Cultures Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea Cultural Heritage GISq

Statistics Statistics Korea SGISr

Military MND(Ministry of National Defense) Military GIS

Education MEST(Ministry of Education, Science and

Technology) Educational GIS

Table 5: Examples of GIS applications at the local level

q http://gis-heritage.go.kr/ r http://gis.nso.go.kr

Domain Local

Government Application URL

Province/

Metropolit

an city

level

Daegu

Bus information system

Neighbor GIS system

Address information system

http://businfo.daegu.go.kr/

http://gis.go.kr

http://address.daegu.go.kr

Seoul Urban Planning Information

System

Busan Lifemap System http://lifemap.busan.go.kr

Gwangju Bus information system

Neighbor GIS system

http://bus.gjcity.net/

http://gis.gjcity.go.kr

City,

Gu/Gun

level

Gwacheon Address information system http://210.104.127.25

Gunsan Gunsan Neighbor GIS

system http://gunsan.info

Gunpo Water GIS system

Gangdong-gu Gangdong life map http://map.gangdong.go.kr/home/ind

ex.jsp

Gangnam-gu Gangnam-gu GIS http://gis.kangnam.seoul.kr

http://gis.go.kr/http://bus.gjcity.net/


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Table 6 Korean neighborhood GIS map services in the private sector

Some application systems such as Underground Facilities Management system, Land Information system, and 3D GIS systems have been developed by the central government. They are used and managed by local governments to prevent local governments from dual investments and to encourage wider use of GIS applications. Also, some GIS applications for sightseeing, cultural tour, were developed by local governments themselves to meet their specific needs. Table 5 shows several sample GIS applications at the local level out of many applications.

Usage in the private sector

In the private sector, Korean portal vendors, such as “Daum,” “Nate,” and so on, provide various map services now, with widening scope and improving the quality of service. Bing map and Google map service from foreign vendors are also available in Korea. The services of these international companies, however, are not predominant in the Korean geospatial market share. Korean domestic vendor, such as “Daum” Map with a high resolution based on an aerial photograph and street view has a significant competitive edge with global Google map based on remote sensing data. Besides because of Korean data security policy, the full vector coverage of all over the country is not open to

foreign vendors. So, considering a return of investments this can be a reason that Korean market is not attractive to them. Competitive efforts for larger GIS market-shares are made in the private sector especially in Neighbourhood GIS application like searching restaurants, hospitals and others. An increase in innovative GIS applications is expected, such as location based services, g-customer relationship management, mobile services and ubiquitous services.

Policy issues

Policy issues are complex. A successful implementation of SDI components mentioned would depend on proper policy and partnership. Policies need to touch on SDI driving forces, building fundamental data, GIS application, technology, access, standard, and education. These policy issues will be discussed in detail later. Here, focusing only on a governance policy for SDI in a comprehensive perspective, a debate on changing paradigm from the top-down to bottom-up approach in South Korea will be addressed. There is no objection among Korean GIS experts that the larger part of the successful achievements of South Korean SDI results from strong driving forces by the central government as the top-down

Service name Vendor URL

Wooricy Sundosoft Co.Ltd http://www.wooricy.com

CyberCT CyberCT http://www.cyberct.net

Empas map Empas http://map.empas.com/

Superpagemap KTH http://freemap.isuperpage.co.kr/

Cybermap world Cybermap world Co.Ltd http://www.cybermap.co.kr/

Wholsee Mandoma&Soft Co.Ltd. http://www.wholsee.com

Paran map KTH http://map.paran.com/

Daum city map Daum communications Co.Ltd http://local.daum.net/map/

Yahoomap (gugi) Yahoo Korea http://kr.maps.yahoo.com

Navermap NHN Co.Ltd http://maps.naver.com

Congnamul Twinklelittlestar Co.Ltd http://www.congnamul.com/

http://www.congnamul.com/


20

approach s . There are both top-down as well a bottom-up approach for building spatial data infrastructure. In the relation of the SDI hierarchy mentioned above, there can be differences between the top down and bottom up approach. In general, while traditional top down SDI is defined a national policy and producer driven, bottom up SDI might be driven by user. Also, it can be analyzed between each level of SDI hierarchy including national SDI, provincial SDI and local SDI. In terms of it, most attempts to update and manage digital topological data and to develop some GIS applications were made in a top-down approach by matching funds with local governments in Koreat. At the same time, top-down approach leads to some troubles like lack of horizontal partnerships, less willingness for data sharing, weak voluntary participation, and so on. Furthermore, there is less coordination among various leading organizations in every domain and project. Thus, harmonization of top-down and bottom-up approach has become more important. Table1

s There can be different perspectives between top down and bottom

up approach. According to “FIG Views of GIS and NSDI( )”,

NSDI can proceed even if a formal policy document [top down

approach] does not exist. It is possible to proceed with certain

operational level activities [bottom up approach] while the policy is

being formulated. These activities can themselves drive and

encourage policy. In the context of it, South Korean NSDI mainly

can be considered in top down approach with a formal policy

document, such as NGIS master plans and related legislation etc. t For example, see invested budgets of project for revision and data

updating of digital topographic map(1995～), and Co-Management

of Road & Underground facilities(2001) in Annex E. Selected List of

the Korean National GIS Projects

showed that the necessity of the combined approach to move toward demand-driven, cooperative, data open policy and linkage & integration, open, sharing and participation. With the recent Web 2.0 trends, “open”, “sharing” and “participation” become a keyword. South Korea government also intend to open its geospatial information as much as possible and the private sector can play a leading role in the processing and distribution of geospatial information. According to the 4th NGIS Plan(MLTM, 2010) mentioned, a new concept of “Neogeography” will move the current NSDI direction toward a new deal data governance policy with the private partnerships. Under the vision of GRreen, focusing on intelligence, integration, interoperability, governance, and ease access to spatial information, the “everywhere”, “everybody,” and “new deal” policy will be opened. Like the Korean experience, that is, a shift from a top down to a more integrated top down/bottom up overall approach would be beneficial, particularly for developing countries. It can be said that a top down approach is somewhat inevitable for successful SDI, particularly in the early stages, but user driven bottom up SDI becomes more important.

Stage Top-down Approach Bottom-up Approach

Early stages

Focus on standard,

partnership, and law, policy and institutional

arrangement

Focus on creation of GIS application, and

data construction

Later stages Focus on access and metadata Focus on data update

Table 7: Top-down and bottom-up approaches to SDI


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Legislation There are two main legislations for NGIS at national government level in Korea, which are attached in Annex A, B. Replacing “the Act on the establishment and use of the National Geographic information System [Act No. 8852, repealed ]” legislated in 1996, with new visions of Korean NSDI for the future, “the Act on National Geospatial Information [Act No.9705, on May 22, 2009 approved., on August.23, 2009 implemented]” is recently working.

The new legislation indicates a significant meaning on the Korean SDI. Because of the paradigm shift in the GIS technology from geographic information system to geo-spatial information, a majority has recognized the importance of SDI and the necessities of the new legislation in Korea. This legislation is driven by the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (MLTM) supported with multi participation of Korean GIS communities because that is a starting point to establish the policy to build spatial data and implement various projects for national SDI. A comparison between the new and old legislation shows a big picture of Korean SDI change and development.

To promote Korean GIS industry, “the Act on Promotion of Spatial Information Industry [Act No.9438, on February 6,2009 approved, on August 7, 2009 implemented] is additionally enacted in the last yearu. According to this Act, by delegating his responsibilities or sharing his deputies, the MLTM(Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs ) could be co-responsible

u Also, “Presidential decree on Promotion of Spatial Information

Industry [Presidential decree No 21881, on December14, 2009

implemented.]” and “Regulation on Promotion of Spatial

Information Industry [MLTM regulation No 155 on August.7, 2009

implemented]” are in context of the Act on Promotion of Spatial

Information Industry..

New

(Korean Act No.9705)

Old

(Korean Act No. 8852, repealed)

General Provisions

(§2 definition)

(§3 access)

§2 ―spatial data", "spatial database"

"spatial data system"

"national spatial data system"

"National Geospatial Program"

"spatial data referring system"

§3 Facilitation of Access and Use of

Spatial Data with Citizens

§2 ―geographic information‖

―geographic information system‖

―national geographic information

system‖

§3 Disclosure of Geographic

information

System to promote

§5 National Spatial Data Committee

§10 Support from the Government

§8 National Geographic information

System Promotion Committee

-

Creation of National

Spatial Data Framework

§12 Fundamental Spatial Data

§13 Spatial Data Referring System

§18 Establishment of National Spatial

Data Center

-

-

-

Establishment and

Utilization

§21 Construction and Management

of Spatial Databases

§25 Utilization, etc. of Spatial Data

§15 Establishment and Management

of Geographic information Database

§18 Utilization of Geographic

information

Protection §28-§31 Protection of National Spatial

Data

§22-25 Protection of Geographic

information

Table 8: Comparison between the new and old legislation

http://engdic.daum.net/dicen/search.do?q=a


22

with different GIS relevant organizations in the public and private sector in order to promote Korean GIS industries.

At a local government level, there are GIS regulations: such as, at a provincical level, Gyeonggi province, North Kyongsang and South Kyongsang province, at metropolitan city level, Seoul, Busan, Daegu, Incheon, Dajeon, Gwangju, at medium city level, Gangneungm, Junju, and, at small city level, Gu /Gun have different GIS regulations. Most of GIS regulations in local governments cover on building, using and managing GIS data and security, for example, Gyeonggi GIS Ordinance, Regulations for spatial data security in Daegu, Dajeon, Busan, Incheon, Gwnagju and othersv.

Organizational issues

According to Act No.9705 §5, a coordinating structure within the public sector to promote Korean SDI was established in the MLTM in 2009. That was named as “a National Spatial Data Committee,” an interagency committee, to deliberate on and coordinate matters concerning national spatial data policy to promote coordinated development, use, sharing and dissemination of Korean geospatial data and services. The Committee is comprised of not more than 30 members including the chairperson. As the chairperson, the Minister of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs serves and as members the following persons from both the public and private sectors serve:

1. A public official in a vice ministerial grade at a central administrative agency managing the national spatial data system, who is determined by Presidential Decree;

2. No less than seven heads of local governments (Deputy Mayors or Deputy Governors in the case of the Special Metropolitan City, Metropolitan Cities, Dos and Special Self-Governing Provinces) commissioned by the chairperson;

v http://www.law.go.kr/

3. No less than seven civil experts with extensive professional knowledge and experience in a spatial data system commissioned by the chairperson

The Committee structure is currently composed of 4 Subcommittees and 3 other subcommittee based on Presidential decree. 4 Subcommittees are Subcommittee on general affairs and coordination; Subcommittee on standardization and technical standards (specifications); Subcommittee on promotion of industries, and Subcommittee on surveying and hydrographical survey. And, 3 other subcommittee according to Presidential decree No 21881, Subcommittee on the national framework data, Subcommittee on spatial reference system and Subcommittee on spatial fusion service are organized now. Figure 7 shows the current Korean NSDI Organizations.

As an only Korean national mapping agency, NGII(National Geographic Information Institute) established in 1958 has been playing an important role in Korean SDI. Current NGII organizations are composed of 6 Divisions, 15 in charge and 2 teams for covering geodetic & vertical & public surveying, geospatial image information & photogrammetry, geographic information & mapping, and nations land information survey. At a local government level, the issue on the formation and position of GIS organizations is controversial. At the beginning of the 1st phase of NGIS, there was no separate organization in local governments. Now, GIS separate organizations are established in some. According to a survey on local governments in South Koreaw, there are a few separate GIS division. Due to lack of human resources and budgets in local governments, mostly a local public service officer is responsible to work each domain business with each GIS application. For example, it is responsible of the division of urban facilities with urban facilities GIS application, the division of cadastral information with cadastral GIS application, and division of water and underwater information with water and underwater GIS application etc. It has worked to be a reason of poor data sharing, inefficiency and ineffectiveness in the local governments. In the process of business process

w NGII, “ Study on digital topological map at 1:2500 scale”, 2010


23

reengineering, GIS organizational issues will continue to be a main common concern. Thus, now, South Korea recognizes that both at a

provincial and local government level, a formation of efficient and proper GIS organizations or organizational restructure is required.

Figure 7 Korean NSDI organizations (SourceL MLTM, 2010)

Additionally, in the process of the establishment of the GIS Coordinating Body for Underground Facilities as an inter-organizational structure at a local government level, the lessons learned can be found for developing countries. In order to coordinate integrated management for underground facilities, at the earlier stage, the GIS Coordinating Body for Underground Facilities at several local governments is not successful except for a few advanced local government cases such as Seoul, Daegu GIS Coordinating Body for Underground Facilities. Because too many stakeholders such as water pipeline and sewage division of local governments, KT (Korea Telecommunication Corporation) x , KOGAS (Korea Gas Corporation) y , DOPC(Daehan Oil Pipeline Corporation) z , KEPCO(Korea Electric Power Corporation) aa , and KDHC(Korean

x http://www.kt.com/ y http://www.kogas.or.kr/ z http://www.dopco.co.kr/ aa http://www.kepco.co.kr

District Heating Corporation) bb are participating in digital underground facilities map project, data sharing is much more difficult to create and manage underground maps even through cooperative efforts with NGII. Cooperation based on complete MOU with every stakeholder is necessary to solve the problem of data sharing at a local level, but a solution was driven by the central level of governments and related organizations. Harmonization of a top-down approach and a bottom-up approach between the central and the local governments is the good answer. Now GIS Coordinating Body for Underground Facilities is actually working for a management of digital underground facilities map. As non-governmental GI organisations for GIS industries, studies and researches, the following organisations are working for development of Korean SDI: Korean Association of Survey & Mappingcc

bb http://www.kdhc.co.kr cc http://www.kasm.or.kr


24

The Korean Association of Surveying and Mapping (KASM) was established in 1972 as a non-profit organization to contribute to the development of the surveying industry by providing quality service for engineers and companies.

With a long history, since the 1st phase of NGIS project in 1995, KASM as a powerful organization which represents the interest of surveying community has provided new surveying technologies and studied various laws for legal enforcement and the revision purpose. Especially, an important role of KASM regarding Korean SDI development is to assess public surveying results for the National Geography Information Institute dd . Without assessment by it, public surveying results and map productions such as digital topographic map, digital underground facilities map must not be usable for public purpose. It is a significant effort for authoritative data quality of spatial data including surveying results. It also collects and researches diverse data on surveying and mapping, while providing education and training for surveying engineers. In addition, KASM publishes surveying books in and out of the country, supports a variety of technologies for its members and sets standards for surveying work cost so as to conduce to the development of the surveying industry and improvement of surveying technologies. Korean Geographic Information Industries Cooperativeee The Korean Geospatial Information Industries Cooperative (KBiz) was established in 1992 as a non-profit organization to contribute to the development of the geospatial Information Industries. It is composed of mostly small and medium geospatial information industrial companies and the number of it reaches up to 135 companies from all over the world now. Its main

dd The Association has been entitled by the government to assess the

public surveying results and to manage the career of engineers

(entitled by the Ministry of Construction and Transportation

according to Article 61 of the Survey Law) ee http://www.giscorea.com

business is GIS education for data quality and new technology. Korea Association of Geographic Information Studiesff The Korean Association of Geographic Information Studies (KAGIS) started in 1997 with 180 scholars for academic purposes in geographic information science. It aims to contribute to develop geographic information studies and to communicate academic information and advanced geospatial technologies based on national and international academic network. Annual GIS workshop and conference are held by KAGIS and many related books and articles published to encourage both national and local SDI in South Korea. Korean Society of Remote Sensinggg The Korean Society of Remote Sensing (KSRS) was established in 1984 for the development of remote sensing in Korea. As an academic society, its goal is to make a significant contribution to develop and distribute the advanced interdisciplinary technologies, to encourage co-research and cooperative development of remote sensing technologies, and to promote international academic communication and exchange of remote sensing technologies. It has worked as an associate member of the International Symposium on Remote Sensing (ISRS) since 1996. Also, KSRS hosted international conference of Asian Conference on Remote Sensing (ACRS) in 2003. In GIS private sector, such as GIS S/W provider, GIS DB developer, GIS consulting and audit service provider, and GIS academies are making partial efforts for developing Korean SDI.

Industry vendor: In 2008, the number of registered GIS companies to MLTM was about 400. However, that of registered land surveying companies was far more

ff http://www.kagis.or.kr gg http://www.ksrs.or.kr


25

than over 2,200. By now, most GIS companies still remain the status of SMEs. The large and representative companies, such as Samsung SDS, Sundosoft. INC, Korea geoSpatial Information & Communication Co., Ltd. LG-EDS, SK C&C, KTdata, Geomania, Hanjin Information System & Telecommunication etc. can be some of them mentioned above.

Funding In Korea, from the first phase (1995-2000) to the 3rd phase of NGIS(2005-2010), a very large amount of the budget had been invested. By 2008, total 1trillion and 2billion won had been invested,

made up 2,787 billion won in the 1st phase, 4,550 billion won in the 2nd phase, and 4,438 billion won in the 3rd phase. With covering both at the national and local level, budgets for data and applications show the highest percentage with degrees, while for standard the lowest percentage. Figure 8 shows the change of each NGIS sector‟s budget during this period and Table 10 describes figures in detail. For the 4th phase of NGIS (2011-2015), much more budget (4 trillion and 405.7 billion won) are supposed to be invested. This will be also assigned to the national and local governments‟ budgets.

Figure 8 Time flow chart of each NGIS sector's budget (Source: MLTM, 2010)

Table 10: Investment for Korean SDI (Source: MLTM, 2010)

The 1st NGIS phase

(1995-2000)

The 2nd NGIS

phase(2001-2005)

The 3rd NGIS

phase(2006-

2010)

Budgets Unit billion

won

million

USD %

billion

won

million

USD %

billion

won

million

USD %

Framework data 1,166 145.5 41.8 1,476 113.5 32.4 1,506 146.7 33.9

Digital

Cartography Imagery LBS Telematics Total

Number of

Registered

Companies

195 26 140 35 396

Table 9: Number of registered GIS companies (Source: MLTM, 2008)


26

Application 1,287 160.8 46.2 2,689 207.1 59.1 2,342 228.5 52.8

Technology 204 25.4 7.3 226 17.5 5.0 531 51.9 12

Standard 14 1.7 0.5 40 3.2 0.9 13 1.3 0.3

Law/institution/

policy 116 14.6 4.2 119 9.1 2.6 46 4.3 1

Sum 2,787 348.1 100 4,550 350.3 100 4,438 432.7 100

Table 11: Planned Budgets for the 4th Phase of NGIS (2011-2015)

For the Korean NSDI, as well as collection and preparation of funds, prevention of dual investments and efficiency of the allocation of resources are very important and interested. In order to achieve the successful GIS implementation, it is also important to obtain continuous financial supports from decision makers. So, as a persuasion measure for the budget appropriation, several cost/benefit analyses in the allocation of resources in the Korean SDI field have been made at a national and a local level. At a local level, from the large metropolitan city such as Daeguhh, and Incheon Metropolitan City ii to medium city like Chungju City jj , the cost-benefit analyses have been undertaken and the results of them were very useful for moving the local governments toward expenditure in local SDI, particularly in the UIS at that time. Recently, at a national level cost/benefit

hh Myung-Hee Jo, Kwang Ju Kim, Sang-Woo Park, “Benefit-Cost

Analysis of GIS in Local Governments: A Case Study of Taegu

Metropolitan City”, 1999 ii Incheon, “A Study on Benefit Cost Analysis of UIS,” 2001 jj Kwang Ju Kim, “A Study on Benefit Cost Analysis of Chungju

UIS,” 2003

analysis of national 3D GIS project is a good example for budget competitionkk, but it fails to get a budget for the next year project because of a relatively lower BC ratio of it.

Data sets Spatial data sets are at the core of any SDI and essential for GIS usage. Here, in regards to the report‟s concern, namely, the policy relevance and use of economic analysis based on geo-referenced data or GIS data, fundamental spatial data could be relevant. To avoid duplicating data production efforts, Korean national fundamental spatial data can be introduced like Framework data in the U.S.A. As mentioned in Table 5, the legislation for fundamental spatial data has been recently enforced. According to Act No.9705 §12 1,

kk KDI, “A Study on Benefit Cost Analysis of 3D GIS”, 2009.8

To help to enhance efficiency and transparency in infrastructure

procurement, Public & Private Infrastructure Investment

Management Center PIMAC) in Korea Development Institute (KDI)

evaluates public and private infrastructure investment.

The 4th NGIS phase (2011~2015)

billion won million USD %

Coordinate Governance 10,343 882.5 23.5

Ease Access 905 78.9 2.1

Interoperability 1,383 116.4 3.1

Integration 19,592 1,671.1 44.5

For Intelligent spatial information 8,096 691.0 18.4

For Promotion of spatial information industry 1,079 90.1 2.4

Others 2,659 225.3 6.0

Sum 44,057 3,755.4 100


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MLTM shall designate as fundamental spatial data the spatial data relevant to artificial structures such as topography, coastal boundaries, administrative boundaries, boundaries of roads or railways, boundaries of rivers, acreage and structures, and other major spatial data determined by Presidential Decree after consulting with the heads of relevant central administrative agencies. Thus, fundamental spatial data which consists of the following 8 themes now can be added to other major themes such as addressesll and many other data:

• Administrative boundaries,

• Transportation,

• Hydrography,

• Cadastral maps,

• Geodetic controls,

• Topographic maps,

• Facilities,

• Satellite imagery & aerial photographs Even though the digital topological map at various scales including at 1:1,000 scale, at 1:5,000 scale and at 1:25,000 scale covering all over the countries are available, not all of the fundamental spatial data are available now. Some themes are still being built. In spite of a large amount of investment for spatial data building through the 3 stages of NGIS projects in Korea, fundamental spatial data cannot be fully and widely used now. At the earlier 1st

ll As far as addresses themes, old and new address system coexists on

the process of transformation to new one in Korea. That is why

address data is not included in the fundamental data sets.

Government does to use existing land-lot number and street name

address at the same time until 2011 for national life confusion

prevention by method of construction address conversion, and plan

to complete various government and municipal office document and

general full equipment etc. in period while establish location

indication facilities and device including address that establish a high

quality new address system that set in a Ubiquitous era until 2011 and

is improved. After then, it might be included in fundamental spatial

data.

phase of NGIS projects, most people did not understand an importance of fundamental spatial data well. Besides, it was a complicated task to decide which spatial data is selected as fundamental spatial data without a clear concept and definition of it. It requires the coordinating process across various stakeholders based on users‟ need. . As a result, for example, it has taken considerable time that projects for several themes including boundaries of roads layer for transportation theme and boundaries of rivers layer for hydrography at 1:5000 scale are completed. But, in Korea, for various GIS

Documents

South Korean Good Practice SDI Investigations...South Korean NSDI history It should be said that Korean SDI history cannot be separated from the NGIS project since both evolved together