Sound, Suggestibility and Hypnotisability: Can an artificial auditory environment utilising music and sound enhance the process of hypno-psychotherapy?

8/10/2019 Sound, Suggestibility and Hypnotisability: Can an artificial auditory environment utilising music and sound enhanc

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Sound, Suggestibility and Hypnotisability: Can an artificial

auditory environment utilising music and sound enhance

the process of hypno-psychotherapy?

By Peter Bryant


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Sound, Suggestibility and Hypnotisability Peter Bryant

2

Table of ContentsIntroduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Section 1: Terminology, Definitions and Assumptions. .......................................................................... 6

Suggestion and Suggestibility. ............................................................................................................ 6

Clarification of Terms: Suggestion and Suggestibility ..................................................................... 6

Suggestion ....................................................................................................................................... 6

Suggestibility ................................................................................................................................... 8

General Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 10

Suggestion ..................................................................................................................................... 10

Suggestibility ................................................................................................................................. 10

Hypnotic Susceptibility and Hypnotisability. .................................................................................... 11

Clarification of Terms: Hypnotisability .......................................................................................... 12

General Characteristics of Hypnotisability .................................................................................... 12

Trance ............................................................................................................................................... 13

Clarification of Terms: Trance ....................................................................................................... 13

General Characteristics: Trance .................................................................................................... 13

Absorption & Dissociation ................................................................................................................ 14

Clarification of Terms: Absorption and Dissociation .................................................................... 14

Absorption .................................................................................................................................... 14

General Characteristics: Absorption and Dissociation .................................................................. 14

Absorption .................................................................................................................................... 14

Dissociation ................................................................................................................................... 14

General Characteristics: Dissociation ........................................................................................... 15

Assumptions ...................................................................................................................................... 15

Section 2: Music and the Mind. ............................................................................................................ 16

Therapeutic Properties of Music....................................................................................................... 16

Music, Mind and Brain ...................................................................................................................... 18A Socio-cultural History of Music and Hypnosis ............................................................................... 21

The History of Therapeutic Music and Sound ................................................................................... 27

Sound and Brainwave Manipulation ............................................................................................. 27

Music Therapy ............................................................................................................................... 28

Section Three: Music and Hypnosis Research. ..................................................................................... 32

Procedure .......................................................................................................................................... 32

Scopus ........................................................................................................................................... 32

Web of Science .............................................................................................................................. 33


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PubMed ......................................................................................................................................... 33

PsycINFO ....................................................................................................................................... 33

Other Publications ........................................................................................................................ 33

Section 4: General Overview of the Literature. .................................................................................... 35

H1. Can sound manipulate an individuals level of suggestibility?.................................................... 35

H2. Can sound manipulate an individuals hypnotic susceptibility?................................................. 38

H3. Are these manipulations temporal or permanent? .................................................................... 40

H4. Which characteristics of sound are most likely to alter a listeners hypnotisability?................. 41

H5. Could music or sound enhance the process of hypno-psychotherapy and if so, how? .............. 42

H6. How may these findings be best utilised by therapy practitioners? ........................................... 43

H7. Does being musically sophisticated increase a persons hypnotisability?.................................. 43

Section 5: Conclusion and considerations for further research. .......................................................... 44

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 45

ABSTRACT: Music and Hypnosis have many similar qualities and properties. This

paper aims to investigate the methods by which music could aid the process of

hypno-psychotherapy. A systematic literature review of the topic is conducted.

Eighty-four relevant papers are discussed and analysed in order to establish an

empirical research base for the topic. It is found that the psychological properties

of absorption, dissociation, empathy, expectancy and rapport development are

common to both fields and can be used to assist clients with the

psychotherapeutic process in multiple ways, as discussed. Recommendations for

further research are provided alongside guidance and support for therapists

wishing to utilise music within their hypnotherapy and psychotherapy practices.

Main text word count = 11,990.


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Introduction

The psychological state which has been labelled hypnosis by scholars, practitioners and

researchers for most of its modern existence, is usually, and most effectively instigated via the use of

sound (American Psychological Association, 2014). This sound has traditionally been the words of a

therapist or a qualified professional who has delivered suggestions to the listener within the context

of a therapeutic intervention, to manage and assist with and alleviate unpleasant symptoms of a

particular mental disorder, health condition or habitual issue. Throughout the history of hypnosis,

there have been a number of questions raised by scholars as to the ability of music to produce

hypnotic phenomena and specifically musics capabilities to compliment and enhance a talking-

therapy session (Kennaway, 2011). This may be thanks to hypnosis and music enjoying a complex

and interconnected relationship due to their broadly similar psychological features such as

absorption, dissociation and expectancy (Rouget, 1985). In many cultures around the world, the idea

of utilising music for the benefit of health is relatively commonplace and is now gaining acceptance

in the western world (Saarikallio, 2012; Campbell & Doman, 2011).

With the rise in modern audio technology, it is now a common occurrence for talking-

therapists to utilise music regularly within their practices, both within the actual sessions themselves

and within their therapeutic recordings for client distribution (Brookhouse, 2013). Just how

widespread the utilisation of music within a therapeutic context is, does not currently seem to be

known, however, the majority of practitioners who utilise music within their sessions qualify it to

drown out extraneous noise or to fill the otherwise empty silence for the reassurance of their

subjects (and perhaps, if they are completely honest, also themselves) (Brookhouse, 2013).

This is one way of using music to benefit the process of therapy, however, I plan to argue

that the use of music can be exploited further as a tool to aid talking-therapists by heightening a

clients suggestibility and willingness to engage within the therapeutic process. This strategy, it is


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hoped, would thereby improve the efficacy of psychotherapeutic procedures in a cost effective

manner, and without the negative side-effects of other solutions.

This paper will present a systematic literature review of the current and historical thinking

on this topic with the intention that these investigations promote future primary research within this

area.

I have a number of hypotheses that I wish to investigate during this literature review which

are as follows:

1) Does music or sound allow individuals to become more suggestible?

2) Can music or sound manipulate a persons level of hypnotisability?

3)

If H1and/or H2are correct then are these alterations temporal or permanent?

4) If H2is true then, which characteristics of sound are most likely to alter the listeners

hypnotisability and why might these musical characteristics adapt client hypnotisability?

5)

How could these findings enhance the process of hypno-psychotherapy?

6)

How best may these findings be utilised by practitioners in their psychotherapy practices

in order to achieve greater results with clients?

7)

Does being musically sophisticated increase a persons ability to be hypnotised?

At the close of this paper, I shall recommend additional areas of research in order to

elaborate upon these initial hypotheses in order to improve the perspective on this topic for future

researchers. This paper is an overview of how sound and music can affect the mind. How music can

improve client-therapist relationships and sound can improve hypnotic and psychotherapeutic

interventions for the benefit of clients. I believe that music is a vitally important, cost-effective, side-

effect free, largely untapped source of potential for improving the lives of many people.


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Section 1: Terminology, Definitions and Assumptions.

Writing on topics such as Music, Mental Health, Medicine, Psychology, Hypnosis and

Suggestion unavoidably requires the use of jargon. Unfortunately, there is a disparity on the use of

some terminology throughout the literature, particularly with regard to hypnosis, which has suffered

many problems with the definition of its terms over the course of its history (Waterfield, 2004). I

have, therefore, dedicated this section to providing my working definitions of several terms that I

shall use throughout this paper in favour of ensuring that my meaning and use of each term is clear.

Suggestion and Suggestibility.

Suggestion and suggestibility have become largely synonymous within popular culture

thanks to the topic of hypnosis being prevalent in mainstream popular culture1 (Tasso & Perez,

2008). This is an issue for researchers and academics as there are several important distinctions

between the two definitions and their related phenomena which are relevant to hypnosis and their

associated mental processes.

Clarification of Terms: Suggestion and Suggestibility

Suggestion

Suggestion has seven definitions, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, only one of

which is within the remit of hypnosis:

The insinuation of a belief or impulse into the mind of a subject by words, gestures, or the

like; the impulse or idea thus suggested.

The six accompanying definitions are more common everyday definitions or niche uses of

the word (Oxford English Dictionary, 2014). The phenomenon of suggestion is pervasive in everyday

life; a young child injures himself, picks himself up and dusts himself down. Only then does he

1See A Socio-cultural History of Music and Hypnosis on page 21.


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witness his mothers expressionof panic which prompts him to cry. It has therefore been suggested

to him that he is expected to react emotionally to this situation by his anxious mother (Gass & Seiter,

1999; Gwynn & Spanos, 1996; Tasso & Perez, 2008).

The above scenario is an example of everyday or non-hypnotic suggestion. Suggestion is not

a purely hypnotic phenomenon as some individuals believe; it is not a requirement for suggestion to

be within a therapeutic or even a so-called hypnotic context in order for it to be effective in

communicating ideas and beliefs. Thus slow down is a suggestion along with a whole plethora of

everyday statements that we regularly encounter in our lives within normal communication. The lack

of distinction between these different types of suggestion has caused some confusion within

academic texts which, as a result, now make a deliberate effort to explicitly categorise suggestions

as nonhypnotic suggestion (hurry up) and hypnotic suggestion. The only difference between these

two types of suggestion is that hypnotic suggestions are non-hypnotic suggestions conducted in a so-

called trance state, or - at least - within the context of hypnosis (which may in itself, be a suggestion)

(Tasso & Perez, 2008). Accordingly, modern authors have argued that there are an almost limitless

number of types of suggestion depending on their context, whilst others have been more reserved

and stated that the ability to respond to both hypnotic and non-hypnotic suggestions is a global and

universal trait with similar properties to intelligence which has multiple facets and qualities (Tasso &

Perez, 2008, p. 284; Gardner, 2006).

It is generally agreed that there are three distinct components of suggestion (Bernheim,

1889):

1. The introduction of an idea (to the individual).

2.

The acceptance of that idea (by the individual).

3. The realisation of that idea (by the behaviour, performance or attitude of the individual).

These three properties are vital for any suggestion to be effective. Everyday suggestion has a

pivotal role for our communicative abilities, which arguably, make us human. There is strong


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evidence that our innate capacity for suggestion has directly contributed to our evolutionary success

as a species (Brown, 1991; Waterfield, 2004). It has been found that everyone of normal cognitive

ability is born with the psychological mechanisms and traits which enable them to be capable of

accepting suggestions. Despite its importance, the literature on the topic of suggestibility

(particularly non-hypnotic suggestibility) is still poor, due to it being side-lined in favour of research

on hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility which is arguably easier to objectify and empirically measure

(Tasso & Perez, 2008).

Suggestibility

Suggestibility is characterised as to how readily an individual will accept statements and

ideas (suggestions2) from others and subsequently act upon them. There is no requirement for the

presence of a hypnotic context which is a similar property for the use of the term suggestion.

However, in recent popular culture, hypnosis and suggestibility have become fused in the public

consciousness (along with hypnotic susceptibility or hypnotisability3). It is for this reason that the

term suggestibility is commonly used to refer to the psychological state of hypnosis, as suggestion is

arguably a central and vital facet and requirement of effective hypnosis (Kihlstrom, 2008, p. 26).

However, the literature posits that suggestibility and hypnotisability are separate psychological

constructs and should be treated as separate, mutually exclusive entities (Hilgard, 1973; 1991;

Bowers, 1983; De Pascalis, 1989; Edmonston, 1989; Evans, 1989; De Pascalis, et al., 1998; Tasso &

Perez, 2008). After all, suggestions form a pivotal role in hypnotic procedures in order to inspire

positive change. The only qualifier that they are hypnotic is that these suggestions are delivered to

the client during a so-called state or psychological framework of trance. However, in this paper, I

shall not use the term suggestibility to refer to an individual's capacity to enter a so-called

psychological state of hypnosis. Instead, I shall regard it as a term to describe how effectively both

2See page 6-8 for a definition.

3See page 11 for a definition.


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hypnotic and non-hypnotic suggestions enact on the behaviour and attitude of the listener.

Unfortunately, for the purposes of clarity, highly suggestible individuals are usually ascribed to be

very competent hypnotic subjects. Highly hypnotisible individuals are seen to have an improved

ability to comply with verbal suggestions and thus, the efficacy of the therapeutic procedure is

enhanced4. This trend has lead to a confusion of the terms suggestibility and hypnotic susceptibility

or hypnotisability5. These pseudo-interchangeable terms even appear in dictionaries as the word

suggestibility, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is synonymous with hypnotisability6:

Susceptibility to (hypnotic or other) suggestion(Oxford English Dictionary, 2014).

These definitions are somewhat unhelpful as the research literature has, correctly, begun to

separate the psychological train of suggestibility from that of hypnotisability.

An individuals level of suggestibility dictates how successful the second and third

components are from the three facets of suggestion7and thus how readily a new idea is accepted by

that individual and to what extent it affects their life. This is where hypnosis (along with other

mechanisms) can be used as a tool in order to increase both hypnotisability and suggestibility using a

hypnotic and psychological environment. Research has indicated that suggestibility can be modestly

increased using a wide variety of factors from hypnosis to pharmacological products and other

psychological tools (Faymonville, et al., 2000). However, the ability of music or sound to enhance

suggestibility (with or without the use of hypnosis) is conspicuous only by its absence from the

majority of empirical research literature. For the purposes of this paper, I shall work according to the

definition that suggestibility is the degree to which an individual can accept non-hypnotic

suggestions. This is important, as it can be argued that music is a form of non-hypnotic suggestion

4See the list of assumptions on page 15 for more on this.

5For the sake of argument (and my word count) I shall use the term hypnotisability to mean hypnotic

susceptibility for the remainder of this paper.6Hypnotisability itself is not referenced within the OED. This is surprising as hypnotisability does feature

heavily within the literature. For example Lynn & Snodgrass Hypnotizability and music involvement (1986), orHypnotizability and blink rate by (Lichtenberg, et al., 2008) among others.7See the three distinct components of suggestion (Bernheim, 1889), summarised on page 7 of this paper.


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which may be more effective when combined with the context and psychological attributes of

hypnosis. Music can be seen a parallel to linguistic suggestion; an idea can be communicated to an

individual either explicitly and consciously with language or unconsciously with sound and music.

General Characteristics

Suggestion

The general characteristics of suggestion are a deliberate instruction, idea or theme

communicated to an individual with the intent to alter their perspectives, beliefs, or attitudes in

order to invoke a paradigm shift. Thus, all forms of communication could be labelled as suggestive.

This includes written and verbal language, music, literature and art. Suggestion is capable of

permeating all of the senses including visual, olfactory, auditory, proprioceptive (Kinaesthetic),

somatosensory and gustatory perception. Suggestion is a facet of everyday life; we encounter it on

an almost continual basis in everyone we communicate with (Tasso & Perez, 2008).

Suggestibility

Suggestibility is the degree to which we accept these ubiquitous suggestions. Evidence has

suggested that a persons general level of suggestibility decreases with their age (Hilgard, 1965). This

may be due to a number of psychological biases which generally increase in power with our

cumulative life experience. However, there are as yet no general tests of suggestibility8. It has been

argued that there are three distinct types of suggestibility; Emotional suggestibility9, Physical

suggestibility and Intellectual suggestibility, but there may be as many types of suggestibility as there

8Suggestibility tests of which there are eighteen common varieties, which were developed during the mid-to-

late 20th

century such as the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibly Scales (SHSS) (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1959),

actually measure hypnotisability factors such as hypnotic quality and hypnotic depth (Laurence, et al., 2008;

Waterfield, 2004). For more information on these scales, including their potential in clinical practice see

(Weitzenhoffer, 2000, pp. 250-306)9This type may be particularly suitable for musical hypnosis thanks to music being a very effective mechanism

for conveying and manipulating emotional states (Juslin & Sloboda, 2001).


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are types of suggestion with each type having its own factor (and measure) of suggestibility

(Edmonston, 1989).

Hypnotic Susceptibility and Hypnotisability.

Hypnotisability10

is a measure of an individuals capacity to complete ahypnotic experience

in terms of depth and performance (Kihlstrom, 2008). It can be defined as an individuals readiness

to enter a state of hypnosis whatever that may be - and subsequently the amount (and quality) of

hypnotic phenomena which can seemingly be achieved by the individual when experiencing

suggestions when under the psychological influence of hypnosis (Tasso & Perez, 2008). As we have

already witnessed, hypnotisability is commonly confused with suggestibility. In academic

environments, there are important requirements for clear distinctions between the two

psychological traits (Tasso & Perez, 2008). Hypnotisability has had a reasonably large interest from

academics throughout the 20th

century. Clarke Hull made a pioneering attempt at quantifying the

quality of a hypnotic state with the use of scales, in order to assess an individuals ability to enter a

trance state (Hull, 1933). Subsequent development by other scholars and academics has enabled a

wealth of psychometric tests to be implemented in order to assess the quality of an individuals

hypnotic experience11

(Woody & Barnier, 2008). Researchers can now utilise a wide variety of tools

to assess the quality of an individuals hypnotic experience, but further work is needed from a

research perspective in specific areas. For example, the majority of scales designed to assess

hypnotisability aim to assess the depth of a trance, however, the existence of this depthand its

clinical methodology is contested by some researchers and practitioners in modern literature

(Kihlstrom, 2008).

10Hypnotizability in American English.

11See footnote 8 on page 10 for more information.


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Clarification of Terms: Hypnotisability

Hypnotisability can be subjectively measured using psychometric tests12

. When an individual

reaches a point where they can no longer manifest a subsequent phenomenon that the researcher

or therapist is requesting, they are said to have reached their current level of hypnotic susceptibility.

Tests of hypnotic susceptibility tend to be used primarily in research environments rather than as an

aid to therapeutic intervention as most therapists deem them to be an unnecessary hindrance to the

therapeutic process with the exception of the most sceptical of clients (Brookhouse, 2013).

General Characteristics of Hypnotisability

Unlike suggestibility, hypnotisability has been shown to remain relatively constant

throughout an individuals life (Piccione, et al., 1989). Research has suggested that there are

individual differences in hypnotisability with around 5-10% of the population finding a hypnotic state

easy to engage with and 5-10% finding hypnosis extremely difficult to achieve with a broad spectrum

in-between these two extremes. This spectrum (generally considered to be identical to many other

personality and psychological trait) is represented as a Gaussian bell curve. However, hypnotisability

can be affected by personality traits such as an individuals capacity for absorption13

and certain

types of intelligence (Geiger, et al., 2014; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2007). Other research has

demonstrated that small alterations and enhancements in hypnotisability can be made depending

upon the individuals environment, personal experiences and genetic makeup (Gorassini, 2004).

Strong correlates which do appear to be related to measures of hypnotisability are absorption

(Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974; de Groh, 1989), fantasy proneness (Lynn & Rhue, 1988), empathy

(Wickramasekera & Szlyk, 2003) and self-directedness14

(Laidlaw, et al., 2005). It has been noted that

children have higher hypnotic susceptibility scores than adults, possibly due to their innate capacity

for imaginative exercises. There are no physiological traits or identifiers of hypnotisability.

12See page 9, footnote 7 Suggestibility tests.

13

See definition on page 14.14Individuals with an internal locus of control had lower hypnotisability scores than individuals with an

external locus of control.


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Furthermore, an individuals hypnotisability can be modestly adjusted with drugs, abnormal

circumstances or environments and with repeat exposure to hypnosis (Hilgard, 1965).

Trance

A trance is an altered state of consciousness from normal consciousness (Wier, 2007, p. 58).

The debate on whether hypnosis is a trance state has been a point of contention for the majority of

the 20th

century (Waterfield, 2004). However, for the purposes of this paper, the distinction is

unimportant. Few scholars would argue that the act of hypnosis causes no psychological change for

any individual. In this essay, I choose to call this state a trance. Whether it be caused by social

pressure to conform or by a different set of brainwave patterns on an EEG machine is not a crucial

distinction for my argument to stand. The term trancehas been used throughout the majority of

music literature to reference rituals of demonic possession, absorption, dissociation and other

psychological constructs. I shall refer to them all as a state of trance and explicitly state which type I

am discussing at the relevant time.

Clarification of Terms: Trance

As discussed above, throughout this essay, I shall use the term trace to indicate the state of

hypnosis. I am defining the state of trance according to Beckers definition as:

Acognitive, emotional, and behavioural state characterized by the loss of sense of self, the

cessation of inner languaging [sic], and an extraordinary ability to withstand fatigue or pain (Becker,

2004).

I will utilise the assumption that hypnosis (both hetero and solo) results in a successful state

of trance throughout this paper.

General Characteristics: Trance

The characteristics of trance have been widely documented and have been subject to

exaggeration. Unlike hypnotic susceptibility, there are physiological and behavioural patterns to the


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trance state; however, these cannot indicate for certain that an individual is in trance and should be

used with caution (Barber, 1961).

Absorption & Dissociation

The interrelated psychological traits of absorption and dissociation have provided a possible

psychological mechanism for trance, hypnosis and other phenomena associated with an altered

state of consciousness involving music to occur (Herbert, 2011).

Clarification of Terms: Absorption and Dissociation

Absorption

Absorption is defined as

aneffortless, non-volitional quality of deep involvement with the objects of consciousness

(Jamieson, 2005).

This is in contrast to goal-directed attention, which is effortful, rational and progress

directed (Herbert, 2011, p. 5).

General Characteristics: Absorption and Dissociation

Absorption

Absorption has been identified as a contributing factor to strong or peak musical

experiences (Lowis, 1998).

Dissociation

The treatment of dissociation will be purely non-pathological for the entirety of this paper.

Non-pathological dissociation is defined as:

an altered state of consciousness that is not organically induced, and that involves the

temporary alteration or separation of normally integrated mental processes in conscious awareness

(Butler & Palesh, 2004).


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General Characteristics: Dissociation

Dissociation involves a temporary detachment from immediate surroundings and reality. It is

commonly displayed on a continuum from everyday experiences such as daydreaming to severe

pathological breakdowns (Dell & O'Neil, 2009, p. 18). It is worth noting, that, despite its similarities

with hypnosis (indeed, dissociation is considered to be the hallmark psychological quality of the

hypnotic experience15

), several studies have shown that it does not appear to predict hypnotic

susceptibility or hypnotic responsiveness (Faith & Ray, 1994; Silva & Kirsch, 1992). Although, it has

also been found that individuals diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder have the highest

hypnotisability scores of any clinical group (Spiegel, et al., 2011).

Assumptions

Throughout this paper, I adhere to several assumptions (for the sake of argument) which are

not yet ready to be clarified by the research literature. None of these assumptions are controversial,

and although general acceptance is no proof of the statement being correct, all my assumptions are

commonly held beliefs among the majority of empirically minded hypnotherapists and scholars.

1. Better quality hypnotic experiences lead to higher efficacy of effective interventions.

2.

The higher a persons hypnotisability, the more likely they are to have a higher quality

hypnotic experience.

15See (Orne, 1959; 1966; Bowers, 1983; Frankel, 1976; Hilgard, 1986; Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994) for more on this.


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Section 2: Music and the Mind.

Therapeutic Properties of Music

Music is inherently suggestive, although its ability to explicitly communicate or express

anything with a similar quality to language is highly lacking (Patel, 2008, p. 301). In modern times,

there have been many debates between scholars as to musics ability to communicate concepts,

ideas and objects in a similar way to language (Levitin, 2006; Patel, 2008). These debates are still

ongoing, but aside from a strong argument as to the development of language itself (Mithen, 2007),

music seems to be essentially redundant in modern communicative processes (Pinker, 1997). Music

scholars and composers have debated musics ability to communicate messages throughout the 20th

century. Ivor Stravinsky stated his controversial opinion in 1936 in his autobiography that:

music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all If, as is nearly

always the case, music appears to express something, this is only an illusion and not a reality. It is

simply an additional attribute which, by tacit and inveterate agreement, we have lent it, thrust upon

it, as a label, a convention in short, an aspect which, unconsciously or by force of habit, we have

come to confuse with its essential being(Stravinsky, 1936, pp. 53-54).

Having said this, this additional attribute is extremely powerful in television, films and in

our lives. Anecdotal evidence of the power of music to stimulate memory, improve performance at

cognitive tasks (such as creativity and athletic ability) and to contribute to emotional and mood

management are beginning to be supported by a large amount of empirical evidence (Whaley, et al.,

2009)16

.

The academic study of music and its potential to alter the mind has been small compared

with the references from popular culture. Rumours of musics alleged ability to brainwash the mind

have been relatively commonplace throughout history; over one thousand years ago, musics ability

16For more on the topic of music, healing and its power to accelerate and improve cognitive development see

(Campbell & Doman, 2011).


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to control the emotive state of listeners deemed it an unattractive addition to church services as

religious leaders feared that music had the capacity to influence the ethos of listeners, for good or

for illand feared its power over the human psyche (Burkholer, et al., 2010, p. 25). There have even

been specific composers whose music has been associated with hypnosis and hypnotic phenomena

the most prolific of which is Richard Wagner whose music has been perceived to induce hypnotic like

properties in its listeners, primarily through the use of highly emotive passages (Warthin, 1894)17

.

The understanding of music as a psychological tool to aid our comprehension of the mind

has increased in recent times thanks to a greater recognition of the power of our own psychological

processes and new technology. Unfortunately, this technological development has fed a wave of

reports of musics alleged contribution to so-called suggestion based suicides, murders and other

similar incidents (Kennaway, 2012). On the other side of the spectrum, there is the rapidly expanding

field of music therapy which is increasingly becoming a highly popular therapy modality18

. All these

findings can assist other therapists in how to use music constructively and responsibly with their

own clients in order to improve their therapeutic results.

17There is an extremely recent experiment (currently in press), where eight volunteers were asked to listen to

the entirety of Wagners Ring Cyclewhilst their heart rate, sweat level and micro-movements were monitored.Preliminary results suggest that individual psychological responses can be prompted by musical techniques

such as the use of leitmotifs in order to manipulate the audiences reaction(Goldsmiths, University of London,2014).18

See page 28 for more information.


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Music, Mind and Brain

Musics ability to influence the mind has been shown in a wide variety of domains

throughout history. Examples include playing tempo-calibrated music in supermarkets and

restaurants in order to manipulate how long individuals spend within these establishments. Sonic

techniques have been promoted to businesses as a potential method of increasing turnover by

controlling how much money individuals spend within these respective environments (Gueguen, et

al., 2007).

Music has been used in commercial settings, media and by individuals themselves to suggest

everything from moods, ideas and products throughout history. Research into this area has

uncovered a wealth of surprising findings which have influenced business practices. For example,

supermarkets can suggest to customers which wines to purchase using music from different

(stereotypical) nationalities and different associated musical instruments. The presence of French

music in a wine isle (as indicated with the traditional French instrument; the accordion) can lead to

an increase in sales of French wine by a factor of five. A similar result has been found with the use of

the Germanic oompah band music increasing German wine sales by a factor of two (North, et al.,

1997). The music was acting (perhaps unconsciously) as a suggestion as to the nationality of the

wine to be chosen by the customers. It is this type of musical suggestion that I am aiming to

investigate and whether it can be applied for more than purely commercial means.

One of the most obvious and powerful mechanisms of the capacity of sound to manipulate

the mind is called Pavlovian conditioning. The work of Ivan Pavlov (1849 1936) successfully

demonstrates that concepts and ideas can be associated with external objects such as dogs

associating food with the sound of a tuning fork, bell or metronome (Pavlov, 1927). This conditioned

response could then, with repeated exposure and training, be instigated even when there was no

food present. Since these studies, it has been shown that conditioning affects humans on many


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levels and can be extremely powerful as a therapeutic tool19

. There have been a number of cases

where musical instruments have been used in order to aid hypnotherapy interventions, in particular

the use of a gong is favoured by some practitioners as an exotic and dramatic instrument to aid

therapeutic change (Livnay, 2014).

Is that all there is to music as a tool for therapeutic and cognitive change? Can there be a

mechanism for aiding the process of hypnosis using music besides standard Pavlovian conditioning?

Further examples of the power of music include noise and sound control in the world of gambling

and in other entertainment media such as television shows and films where we are provided with an

auditory accompaniment which enables the viewer to gain a better understanding of the context of

the visual information being presented. One only has to watch a horror film or a comedy with the

sound turned off to appreciate the value of a soundtrack, score or canned laughter track. Sound and

music convey highly-emotive messages in an extremely effective and efficient manner. Architects

have long exploited the auditory properties of the environments which they create, particularly

within the entertainment industry. Greek amphitheatres are renowned for their spectacular auditory

properties. This is mainly due to their circular, tiered design and the specific properties of the type of

limestone that went into their construction. These considerations helped to dampen unwanted low-

frequency crowd noise and boosted the actors voices at higher frequencies (Declercq & Dekeyser,

2007). Modern examples include casino design where hard, sonically reflective surfaces are

maximised in order to allow a higher degree of sound reflection and reverberation. These reflections

allow the casino to sound and seem busier than using soft surfaces. Busy casinos promote and

motivate gamblers to bet more money, more frequently and increase impulsivity due to the

psychology of social proof and social conformity (Friedman, 2000, pp. 135-137). Another example,

from modern warfare, features the playlists of soldiers stationed in territories overseas, which

contain an extremely high amount of heavy metal and other violent music. Soldiers readily admit to

19This school of thought is broadly referred to as Behaviourism.


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using music in order to alter their mindset in order to allow them to become monsters and commit

what they commonly refer to as inhumane acts in the name of war (Gilman, 2010).

The benefit of music has not gone unnoticed in a variety of domains related to psychology

and performance improvement. For example, the use of music during cardio-vascular exercise can

improve performance by as much as 15% (Edworthy & Waring, 2006). Other transference effects

have been noted, for example, an enhanced capability to complete spatial tasks (Rauscher, et al.,

1993), increased work productivity and enhanced reading comprehension, among other

psychological improvements (Music Works, 2014)20

.

Music has been isolated as a key factor in rapidly transforming our sense of self via an

altered state of consciousness known as a trance. Music is used throughout the world in order to

enhance trance or ecstatic rituals (Becker & Penman, 2009). However, the relationship between

music and trance is complex and there is, as yet, no evidence that music alone can place a listener in

a state of trance without the correct context and the listeners implied consent (Heap, 2013). The

effects demonstrated with trance states and music require both language and music working in situ

in order to have their full transformative effect. However, there is not currently enough research to

rule out whether instrumental music alone could, in the right circumstances, have a comparable

effect purely of its own merit (Patel, 2008, pp. 324-325).

20For more on this please see Victoria Williamsons excellent book You are the Music (2014). Also see the

fascinating Music Works project (www.musicworksforyou.com).


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A Socio-cultural History of Music and Hypnosis

Among the scattered and disparate literature on the topic of music and hypnosis are a

number of key articles which attempt to address basic questions about the links and contrasts

between the two fields. An understanding of the historical and current attitudes towards music and

hypnosis in popular culture is important, as personal expectation, which depends and is influenced

by the attitudes of popular culture, is a trait shared by both music and hypnosis (Lynn, et al., 2008, p.

122; Stevens & Byron, 2011). Presently, the most prominent of these articles is by James Kennaway

who discusses the history of music, hypnosis and trance states from their earliest beginnings to the

present day (Kennaway, 2011). Kennaway begins by tracing the history of music and trance back to

the late eighteenth century where the early development of hypnosisthen referred to as animal

magnetism occurred (Waterfield, 2004). Music had obviously existed long before these hypnotic

effects were popularised by Franz Mesmer. Mesmer not only utilised music and sound to

therapeutic effect, (referred to by him as sympathetic vibration) but also developed a theory that

auditory phenomena could be used to communicate, propagate and reinforce what came to be

understood as modern-day hypnotic suggestion (Mesmer, 1779, p. 78; Goldschmidt, 1983;

Kennaway, 2010). Indeed, it has been heavily speculated that pianos, violins and harpsin particular

the glass armonica which Mesmer frequently used in his treatments are directly responsible for

the successes and triumphs of his bogus therapy of magnetically aligning human universal fluid

(Polter, 1934, p. 15; Franklin, 1785, p. 23; Gallo & Finger, 2000; Hadlock, 2000; Hyatt King, 1945).

This hypothesis gains more validity when we consider that many of Mesmers clientshad very strong

musical experiences throughout their lives, such as auditory hallucinations, cures achieved with the

aid of music and stories of tone-deaf patients suddenly developing musical talent whilst in a

magnetized sleep(Wirth, 1836, p. 180; Kretschmar, 1824, pp. 41-42; Spiritus, 1819, pp. 83-4; Baehr

& Kohlschtter, 1843, p. ix). Today, music has a longstanding relationship with healthcare thanks to


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the development of Music Therapy21

an intervention which is specifically designed around the

modality of music and its capacity to improve the mind (The American Music Therapy Association,

2014). Unfortunately, the public opinion of hypnosis has not progressed as much as the opinion of

music therapy within western culture22

.

Other practitioners of hypnosis began to see the benefits of using sound and music within

their performances. The beginnings of hypnosis were usually displays of women reaching a crisis

seemingly caused by the techniques of a male hypnotist. The sexualised nature of this practice has

been discussed at length23

(Braid, 1843; Kaplan, 1974). Of particular note are Jean-Martin Charcots

use of gongs, tuning forks and other percussive instruments in order to provoke cataleptic fits or

hysterical hypnosis (Regnard, 1887). Other individuals such as Paul Regnard, Paul Richer, Alfred

Binet and Charles Fr also used percussive instruments in addition to simple melodies and

childrens lullabies with similar resultsto Charcot (Regnard, 1887, pp. 261-2; Richer, 1881, pp. 599-

600; Binet & Fr, 1887, pp. 88-89, 93). From the perspective of clients, it may have seemed as if the

sound itself was contributing something to these performances by allowing them to be more

outlandish and incredible than performances without the aid of music.

Moving into the 19th

century, musical hypnosis became of interest to mainstream

composers, in particular, Wagner. I have already discussed that he was suspected of using hypnotic

techniques to aid his compositions and, as a direct result of his new compositional style, was labelled

a mesmerist and a master of hypnosis. These terms were intended to be highly derogatory

implying that he could control and manipulate his audience without their prior consent (Nietzsche,

1888, pp. 104, 99). Wagners personal notes are full of references to the current thinking on the

topic of musical hypnosis, and he was quite obviously fascinated by the concept (von Herrmann,

21See page 28.

22Today, music therapy is effectively a chartered profession whilst hypnotherapy and even psychotherapy is

still largely unregulated.23

It is interesting that music was chosen as a means of enhancing hypnotic technique as music performance

was a predominantly female pastime during the 18

th

century (Burkholer, et al., 2010). The use of music intherapeutic sessions may have enhanced the rapport between Mesmer and his female clients thereby

improving the alleged performance of animal magnetism.


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2007). At the time, popular culture contained frequent references to hypnosis, indeed a novel

entitled Trilbywas published in 1894 where musical hypnosis features as a major plot mechanism.

The novels antagonist Svengali hypnotises the protagonist (a young, innocent and nave teenage girl

called Trilby) into performing hypnosis around Europe before marrying her (du Maurier, 1985).

If anyone suspected that the anxieties surrounding music and hypnosis would abate during

the 20th

century - when the frequently wild claims could be examined according to the scrutiny of

the scientific method, rather than supported by anecdotal evidence - they were to be disappointed.

Alongside the huge technological advances promoted by the first and second world wars came new

fears about music and its ability to influence the mind, in particular, its use as a tool for

brainwashing. Music could now be recorded, manipulated and then distributed in processes that

would have been unimaginable to composers and performers during the 18th

century (Rouget, 1985,

p. 121). Once again, popular culture was ahead of academic interest as anxieties about the Cold War

fed into mainstream media including manipulation by music. Cinema (once itself considered to be a

form of hypnotism (Andriopoulos, 2008)) contributed to this by publicising films such as The

Manchurian CandidateandA Clockwork Orangewhich depicted the Ludovico Technique a fictitious

form of aversion therapy which involved watching atrocious images of violence whilst listening to

music (Burgess, 1966).

Academic interest in using auditory cues in order to influence the mind took a revolutionary

step when Ivan Pavlov started conducting experiments with dogs (Pavlov, 1928)24

. This, now famous

research, sparked the academic debate into whether humans could be primed to behave in a similar

fashion to the dogs in Pavlovs experiments; namely, to respond to auditory stimuli completely

unconsciouslyauditory hypnosis (Thomas, 1994).

The development of popular music brought with it further anxieties about control. Genres

such as rock and heavy metal (potentially a straw man approach by lawyers thanks to its general

reliance on satanic themes and evil iconography) drawing strong criticism from governments for

24To save me repeating myself, please see my previous discussion of Pavlovian conditioning on page 18.


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their themes of rebellion, evil and death (Kennaway, 2011). This criticism was initially centred at the

sheer popularity of the music; for example, right-wing Christian David Noebel has argued that rock

music is literally a communist plot orchestrated by Russian researchers in order to take control of

Americas youth.He cites that the widespread popularity of the Beatles during the 1970s and 80s

as proof of his argument (Ostendorf, 1997; Noebel, 1974; Noebel, 1982).

It is not just the music which has come under attack but also the lyrics. There have been a

number of violent incidents and suicides allegedly caused by music that the perpetrators were

listening to prior to the incidents taking place. Concern arose about the phenomenon of subliminal

messages encoded into the lyrics of tracks which, it was argued, could instruct people to become

violent, impulsive or act more impulsively. The first alleged instance of subliminal messaging was not

in auditory form but in film. In 1957, James Vicary claimed to have developed a new way of

marketing confectionary to cinema audiences using subliminal messages such as drink coke and

eat popcorn at extremely short durations whilst the film was being performed (Packard, 1957).

Subsequent research has shown that this technique is not as profitable or as reliable as Vicary

claimed in his research, in fact, he had made the whole thing up in an effort to revive his consulting

business (Moore, 1992; Pratkanis, 1992). Despite this, the auditory equivalent of subliminal

messaging called backmasking gained even more public attention than its visual (likely fictitious)

analogy. A popular claim was that bands such as Judas Priest were deliberately inserting barely

audible, reversed, satanic messages into recordings, which, it was argued, could affect the

unconscious minds of listeners. It was claimed that these messages could unconsciously alter the

behaviour, beliefs and attitudes of the listeners without conscious awareness, resulting in increased

suicidal tendencies and other violent behaviours (Lilienfeld, et al., 2010). Experts have often

disagreed about precisely what is being said in these messages as they are, by definition, almost

impossible to understand (Kennaway, 2011). Nevertheless, this has not held back high profile

litigation as artists such as Ozzie Osborne who was (unsuccessfully, as the case was thrown out on

the grounds of free speech) sued in 1985 based on the accusation that his song suicide solution had


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caused a listener to attempt suicide. This suicide, it was argued, had been instigated via the process

of musical brainwashing. Another case, again in 1985, saw two teenagers shoot themselves. Their

parents blamed the heavy metal band Judas Priest, claiming that satanic incantations are revealed

when the music is played backwards(Wright, 2000).

Further examples of the harm of alleged musical brainwashing can be found in the 1990s

after Richard Kuntz committed suicide whilst listening to Marilyn Manson and media reports blamed

Manson for the Columbine school massacre in 1999 (Wright, 2000). In all of these cases, individuals

have testified in court that it was the music that was the primary culprit of these atrocities. The

arguments for the method of use is remarkably similar to one of the theories regarding how

hypnosis may operate (i.e. the critical factor theory25

) in that if someone were to hear the phrase

God is Satan, the brain would reject it straight away. However, if someone were to hear the phrase

dog sinatas or Satan is God backwards then it would be decoded by the right (or creative) part

of the brain and stored as a fact (Aranza, 1983). The academic interest in this area is continuing but

does not currently support the idea that musical brainwashing is a large contributing factor in

teenage suicides (Scheel & Westefeld, 1999; Rosenbaum & Prinsky, 1991).

Although the idea of music and hypnosis has had an influential and notorious history, the

idea of musical hypnosis for brainwashing has significant weaknesses. Firstly, there is scant evidence

to suggest that people can be hypnotised against their will or without their knowledge an almost

essential requirement for any hypnotic procedure (Heap & Aravind, 2001). Furthermore, the quasi-

hypnotic states which have been associated with the history of this topic may be more accurately

described as a voluntary, self-controlled, learned change of self-consciousness (Erlmann, 1982).

This is important, as these findings do not rule out that music can contribute to a trance experience

when an individual is adequately informed about what is taking place and consents to it.

Furthermore, the effects of music upon any trance state are, at best, minimal from a brainwashing

25This theory states that suggestions in hypnotised individuals do not undergo the same level of critical

analysis as suggestions in non-hypnotised individuals see (Zarren & Eimer, 2002, pp. 6-7).


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perspective, although they may a much more significant benefit for psychotherapeutic outcomes

and interventions (Fachner, 2006; Schipkowensky, 1977).

An ethical therapist then may be able to use music in order to enhance therapy and

accomplish greater therapeutic achievements than with standard silent therapy alone. That being

said, it has been found that music may only have a limited effect in the practice of hypnosis, and it

has been shown that the participants have to be in some way complicit with the way in which the

music is being used (Critchley & Henson, 1977). This is not a problem for therapists and other

professions who would be glad of any method which can be seen to improve the lives and

therapeutic results of their clients. I would argue that the therapeutic use of hypnosis, which has so

far been pushed to the sidelines of research and implementation due to the fears and anxieties of

brainwashing deserves to be investigated to the fullest extent. In the next section, I aim to amass all

the available primary research literature on the therapeutic use of musical hypnosis.


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The History of Therapeutic Music and Sound

Sound and Brainwave Manipulation

One of the first academic papers to address the topic of direct musical manipulation of the

mind was written by Heinrich Wilhelm Dove, a physicist and meteorologist who discovered the

phenomenon of binaural beats in the beginning of the 19th

century (Dove, 1839; Oster, 1973). Ever

since the invention of the Electroencephalogram (EEG)it has been claimed that sound may be able

to alter brainwave patterns. Indeed, this is the most popular hypothesis of musical manipulation of

the mind. Binaural beats have become the central mechanism for these claims which posit that they

are able to adjust conscious awareness by altering the firing rates of neurones by a process called

entrainment. Binaural beats are constructed by the superposition of two different tones. The degree

to which these tones differ in frequency is directly related to the frequency of the binaural beat. For

example, if I performed two tones, one with a frequency of four-hundred and forty hertz to your left

ear and one with a frequency of four-hundred and sixty hertz to your right ear via headphones, then

you would perceive a binaural beat of twenty hertz. It is claimed, that a binaural beat of twenty

hertz (that is, the difference between the left and right ears) is capable of manipulating your

neurones to fire at this rate (i.e. twenty times per second) and thus affect conscious experience. It is

generally agreed that normal consciousness has a neuron frequency of ten to fourteen hertz

whereas an individual who is asleep (or in a state of trance) would display brainwave activity around

four to five hertz or lower. However, evidence behind this theory has been lacking and has proven

difficult to validate.

A theory of brainwave entrainment was first postulated as a supporting theory for evidence

for a similar effect to binaural beats in the visual domain (Herrmann, 2001; Budzynski, 2006). This

theory was extrapolated into the auditory domain and applied to the phenomena of binaural beats

(Foster, 1990). Modern studies on binaural beats were conducted in the latter half of the 20th

century, possibly due to their demand for synthetic audio technology (the phenomena, owing to the


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use of pure sinusoidal tones, do not normally exist in the natural environment (Oster, 1973). The

results of these studies have been mixed. Some show effects in the application of binaural beat

technology for stress management, pain reduction, and behavioural improvement (Huang &

Charyton, 2008) along with affect vigilance (attention) and improvement of mood (Lane, et al.,

1998). Other research has demonstrated no or very little effect, for example, with pain perception

(Wahbeh, et al., 2007; Stevens, et al., 2003). However, this murky research landscape on the topic

has not stopped claims by practitioners of being able to induce alterations in listener consciousness,

along with a large amount of other desirable (and marketable) mental effects. Binaural beats have

even been marketed and used as a form of auditory drug (gethightnow.com, 2013). This is

anecdotally regarded as being a feature of brainwave entrainment, although the supporting

evidence and research for brainwave entrainment, contrary to popular opinion, is severely lacking

(Turow & Lane, 2011). Sadly, the empirical research literature on binaural beats has proven to be a

lot less exciting than the claims made by the retailers of binaural beat audio products with very little

evidence of their efficacy in treating psychological conditions such as stress, anxiety or pain

perception (Bryant, 2012). This is not to say that music itself may be ineffective in assisting with

psychological ailments as binaural beats are unusually harsh, unnatural sounds and the mechanism

by which they are claimed to work is dubious, at best. Other types of music, along with other

auditory interventions, have shown a lot more potential to be therapeutically viable and effective.

Music Therapy

Despite the lack of evidence for sound directly altering brain states via binaural beats and

entrainment, to claim that music has no place in altering the mind or provide a therapeutic influence

would be highly incorrect. The therapeutic properties of music have demonstrated highly positive

results under empirical examination. Inherent musical properties such as the social, communicative


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and cognitive aspects of musical performance and improvisation play a vital role in music therapy

which is:

An evidence-based clinical intervention utilising music and sound to address physical,

emotional, cognitive and social needs of individuals(American Music Therapy Association, 2014).

There is a huge amount of research demonstrating the positive effects of performing,

listening to and improvising music for a wide variety of medical and psychological conditions

including depression (Maratos, et al., 2008), assisting individuals with Autism and other learning

disabilities (Geretsegger, et al., 2014), mental health disorders such as Schizophrenia or

Schizophrenia-like disorders (Mossler, et al., 2013), and acquired brain injury (Bradt, et al., 2010).

This research landscape has tended to focus on music as an interactive and social activity rather than

directly on the psychological qualities of music (such as the type and genre of the music and what it

means for the listener). However, some important findings can be taken from the research literature

of music therapy and applied to other therapies (such as hypnotherapy and psychotherapy) in order

to improve client care. A number of scholars have drawn parallels between the techniques of

hypnosis and those used in music therapy. For example, music can capture the attention of a listener

in much the same way that a hypnotic suggestion by seeming to attract the conscious awareness of

the listener wholly and fully (Vas, 2013). Furthermore, argues the Hungarian scholar Jzsef Vas:

Hypnosis can be seen as an inductive method expressing its effect from outside to inside the

client or participant, however, music can be used as a deductive therapeutic tool, effecting from

inside to outside (Vas, 2013).

Other scholars have also noted similarities between hypnosis procedures and music.

Rhythmic practices which lead to:

phase locking when two or more objects are pulsing at nearly the same time tend to lock

in and begin pulsing at the same rate...the rhythm can bring the two (therapist and client) together


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on a level which is distinct from verbal communication...even more basic and significant." (Moreno,

1988, p. 271)

This is not just an apt description of a musical style and technique, but also the hypnotic

practice of pacing and leading which is an inherent aspect of modern hypno-psychotherapeutic

practice (Livnay, 2014).

Hypnosis has also been a highly effective tool in studying auditory hallucinations. Hypnosis

has been used in several studies to create auditory hallucinations which could be studied in a PET

scanner. Highly hypnotisable participants were not able to differentiate between a recording of a

voice and their own auditory hallucination of a voice in their head allowing researchers to gain a

valuable insight into the neuroscience of psychosis (Szechtman, et al., 1998).

Clearly the overlap between music therapy and other modalities is only just beginning to be

investigated. The use of music within psychotherapy in general has demonstrated several important

properties which can assist in the therapy intervention such as: increasing levels of arousal (Berlyne,

1971; Madsen, et al., 1975), evoking curiosity (Berlyne & Borsa, 1968), improving the ability to focus

and diverting attention away from other potentially distracting senses (Hernandez-Peon, 1961;

Marteniuk, 1976), providing a positive emotional experience (Berlyne, 1971), and enticing an

emotive response (Juslin & Sloboda, 2001). However, both hypnotic and musical interventions have

their uses in facilitating an improved performance in the psychotherapy process, for example,

listening to music has been shown to decrease levels of arousal due to stress (Pelletier, 2004);

increase client self-disclosure during highly emotive procedures (Jensen, 2001); assist therapist with

client resistance by allowing the client to seemingly control the session utilising music (Stanton,

1980); and assist with relaxation techniques (including, crucially, progressive muscle relaxation)

(Robb, 2000). Music can even assist and improve induction procedures (Morris, 1986); alongside

client support strategies such as self-hypnosis (Walker, 1990); and assist with therapeutic deepening

techniques (Walker & Diment, 1979) alongside other factors which assist therapy clients by


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contributing directly to the therapeutic process (Granone, 1973). Furthermore, music can benefit

from hypnotic procedures (for example, by combating performance anxiety) in order to produce

enhanced performances (as judged by experimentally blinded music critics) (Mellgren, 1979). Music

can also be used as an adjunct to hypno-psychotherapy in the care of cancer patients, by focusing

the mind, and by allowing emotions to be triggered and controlled. These powerful strategies,

alongside other therapeutic techniques such as anchoring, assisting with hypnotic imagery and

enabling a greater sense of focus enable hypnosis and music to be powerful allies in combating

complex mental health and other psychological issues (Esser, 2007).


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Section Three: Music and Hypnosis Research.

Procedure

This paper shall use the following research databases in order to provide a systematic

literature review of the topic of Music, Suggestion and Hypnosis. To perform this review, several

databases will be used to assess the range of literature that currently exists. Multiple databases are

used in order to gain a complete overview of the present research landscape. These databases will

include Scopus26

, Web of Science27

, PubMed28

, PsycINFO29

, and Google Scholar30

. Articles that were

unavailable online were sourced from the British Library or via International Inter-Library Loan. All

articles will be assessed for their quality during the search process by their relevance to this papers

hypotheses. Primary research findings and data will not be collated in this paper as there are too

many research variables and not enough studies to perform a fair and comprehensive meta-analysis

at this time. All searches were performed on the 29th

of September 2014 using the search terms

Hypnosis, Music, Suggestibility, and Hypnotizability (the z/s spelling is automatically redundant

in all databases). Searches were conducted by Music followed by either Hypnosis, Suggestibility

or Hypnotisability. Furthermore, there was no time specification provided for the search resulting

in a complete publication history for these search terms. The methodology of the search process is

broken down only in the Scorpus search in order to save words, but is identical for all the included

databases.

Scopus

Scorpus is the largest up-to-date collection of global, unbiased and expertly sourced

research data in the world (Elsevier, 2014). Music and Hypnosis yielded five results (based on title

26http://www.scopus.com/(Requires university login).

27www.webofknowledge.com(Requires university login).

28

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed29http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/

30http://scholar.google.co.uk/
http://www.scopus.com/http://www.scopus.com/http://www.scopus.com/http://www.webofknowledge.com/http://www.webofknowledge.com/http://www.webofknowledge.com/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhttp://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/http://scholar.google.co.uk/http://scholar.google.co.uk/http://scholar.google.co.uk/http://scholar.google.co.uk/http://www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhttp://www.webofknowledge.com/http://www.scopus.com/


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only a strict search) with 289 results when the search included the article title, abstract and

keywords (a loose search). Of these 289 results, only 38 were relevant to this paper ranging from

1956 to 2014. Music and Hypnotisability yielded 10results in the loose search; it was, therefore,

not deemed necessary to include the results of a strict search (1 result, present in loose search).

Music and Suggestibility yielded 6 results for a strict search. A further search of Music and

Suggestion produced 654 results of which only 8 were relevant for this paper. Upon collating the

results of this database search and removing, duplicate papers, a total of 51 papers were extracted

from the Scorpus search for inclusion in this paper.

Web of Science

The total number of articles from this database, after elimination of repeated papers, is 13

resulting in a cumulative total of 64 papers.

PubMed

This search produced 7 unique papers. A total of 71 papers had now been discovered.

PsycINFO

A total of 15 new articles were discovered in this database resulting in a total of 84 papers

for inclusion in this paper.

Other Publications

Included within this literature review will be a number of other publications which do not

form part of a research database. These include books, magazine articles, newspaper clippings and

other sources which will be documented in the bibliography at the end of this paper alongside the


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articles I have sourced from the research databases above. The online academic research tool

Questia31

was used in order to discover the majority of these publications with others sourced from

the bibliographies of papers which have been included in this document.

31https://www.questia.com/
https://www.questia.com/https://www.questia.com/https://www.questia.com/https://www.questia.com/


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Section 4: General Overview of the Literature.

The topic of Music and Hypnosis, much like the topic of hypnosis itself, has waxed and

waned in interest for its entire existence (Kennaway, 2011). The research literature has reflected this

fact. Whilst the literature is not as sensational as the popular culture narrative32

, it is still extremely

interesting. In this section, my aim is collate the disparate research literature from a number of

sources and provide an overview of the topic so far and attempt to answer the eight hypotheses set

out in my introduction. There have been remarkably few studies conducted in this field when

compared to other interventions33

and the studies which have been conducted are of limited quality.

I do believe that the research which has been conducted demonstrates a highly positive outlook for

the application of music and hypnosis research. Ideally, this paper would be a meta-analysis of the

field, but the research literature, as it currently stands, is nowhere near this ideal. A meta-analysis of

music and hypnosis cannot yet be conducted. It is my hope that this paper will inspire more research

in this area in order for a meta-analysis to be completed in the near future. I will conclude this

section with recommendations for further research in order to implement this.

H1. Can sound manipulate an individualslevel of suggestibility?

We have already witnessed the power of music in commercial and business settings34

.

Purchasing decisions can be influenced by sound, for example, it has been found that individuals

purchase more expensive wine when classical music is played rather than top 40 popular music due

to the inherent suggestions and stereotypes of sophistication and affluence associated with classical

music (Areni & Kim, 1993). Further research has indicated that even the taste of wine can be

influenced by the music being played at the time of consumption (North, 2011). Research on

whether repeated exposure to these auditory cues can increase the likelihood of a favourable

response for the initiator is scarce. However, research from other domains has generally shown that

32

See ASocio-cultural History of Music and Hypnosis on page 21.33For example, Hypnosis compared against Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.

34See page 18.


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repeated exposure to suggestions increases their power and effectiveness and can even, in extreme

circumstances, lead to the creation of false memories (Zaragoza & Mitchell, 1996). Using music and

sound is a highly indirect mechanism to influence individuals and can, therefore, have powerful

ramifications when used to increase everyday non-hypnotic suggestibility. However, for whatever

reason, the mechanisms behind these impressive observations are not usually discussed by the

researchers. A notable exception can be found in research which has shown that music combined

with suggestion is a highly prevalent way of decreasing driver stress and anger. Drivers who were

tested within an education class performed significantly better after instrumental music preceded by

a verbal suggestion (intended to relax the driver) was presented to them, rather than silence in

subsequent driving tests on a simulator (Groene & Barrett, 2012).

Music can also be used to aid suggestive and associative memory recall. Techniques have

been developed where music can assist learning a foreign language. Learners are instructed to listen

to the music and allow rhythmically stated foreign words to wash over them in a remarkably similar

way to some hypnotic procedures. This procedure has proven remarkably successful and supports

the idea that the unconscious mind can absorb and retain information presented whilst the

conscious mind is distracted with a different, unrelated task (Stanton, 1984).

Further examples of how music can affect or influence our choices are highly prolific. There

have been a number of studies which have examined the use of music on telephone call centre

waiting times. It has been found that customer expectations, along with familiar music, are highly

effective in keeping people waiting on the telephone (Sherwin, 2013). There has even been an entire

companyMuzak Holdings - established in order to produce music to influence customers in order

to make them calmer on the telephone, increase impulsivity with regard to purchasing decisions or

to make them more receptive to advertising. This practice appears to be in high demand and worth a

considerable amount of money and investment as the company Mood Media purchased Muzak

holdings in 2011 for 215 million (National Post, 2011).


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The suggestion-based effects of music have also been felt in the education sector with

background music boosting the behaviour and mathematical performance of school children with

emotional and behavioural difficulties (Hallam & Price, 1998). Music can also be used to dramatically

increase the atmosphere in social spaces such as banks. Classical music performed in a banking hall

caused a two hundred and thirty-three percent increase in a customers perception of the bank as

inspiringagainst the same environment having only ambient noise (North, et al., 2000). Further to

this, the type of music, volume of music and time of day all had significant interactions on

customers estimates of the maximum sum they would spend for products on sale at a bar (North, et

al., 2000).

It has been suggested that low-frequency sound called infrasound, and strong vibrations are

a key contributor to alleged ghost and other supernatural sightings. The psychological effects of

infrasound have been investigated (anecdotally) perhaps most notably by Vic Tandy who developed

a reputation for debunking paranormal myths in the late 20th

century when he experienced a

ghostly apparition whilst working in a research laboratory for a medical manufacturing firm. Tandy

then experienced a ghostly apparition in his peripheral vision which promptly vanished when he

turned to observe it properly. The experience was later attributed to imperceptible low frequency

noise emanating from a recently installed extractor fan that activated the physiological fight or

flight response, this generated tension, unease and caused Vics eyes to vibrate in their sockets

leading to him seeing the ghostly apparition(Lyster, 2001). These infrasound vibrations have also

provided an explanation for reports of the London underground being haunted with extremely high

levels around areas that are frequently reported bizarre experiences (Ghosts of the Underground,

2006).

All this research literature, alongside anecdotal support from films, songs and other media

demonstrate that sound, music and noise can have a high influence over our thoughts, feelings and

emotions and can successfully persuade and suggest concepts, ideas and behaviours to individuals at


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an unconscious level. Music and sound is a very powerful and highly effective method of delivering

suggestions.

Despite this, there is as yet, no studies on whether music can increase a persons general

level of suggestibility. This may be due to the fact that there are no objective measures of

suggestibility itself, let alone studies which examine the correlates to this psychological trait. I am

therefore not in a position to answer my hypothesis in full, but can state that music is a highly

effective method of delivering suggestion and the more it is utilised, the more effective it seems to

become (from an anecdotal perspective).

H2. Can sound manipulate an individuals hypnotic susceptibility?

The limited research literature on this topic makes it difficult to reach a direct conclusion.

Researchers have found that listening to ten minutes of music produced a slight increase in hypnotic

responsiveness, but ten music of listening to silence failed to generate any increase at all (Talone, et

al., 1975). Indeed, sensory deprivat

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Sound, Suggestibility and Hypnotisability: Can an artificial auditory environment utilising music and sound enhance the process of hypno-psychotherapy?