Someobservations on'ancient' mining atPhalaborwa

Some observations on 'ancient' miningat Phalaborwa

C. E. MORE*. B.A. (Pretoria) (Visitor)

SYNOPSIS

A brief account is given of historical references to the Phalaborwa area, the first being to the mountain of copperand iron sought by Francois de Cuiper in 1725. These are followed by a description of several finds in the area,which are related to finds described in the literature and to Bantu tradition on the subject. Phalaborwa is one of theearliest known mining sites in the Republic of South Africa, Loolekop having been a mining centre, as shown bycarbon-14 dating, since 770 A.D.

SAMEVATTING

Daar word 'n kart oorsig van historiese verwysings na die Phalaborwa-gebied gegee en die eerste daarvan is dieberg van koper en yster waarna Francois de Cuiper in 1725 gaan seek het. Hierdie verwysings word gevolg deur 'nbeskrywing van verskeie ontdekkings in die gebied wat in verband staan -met ontdekkings wat in die literatuurbeskryf word, en met Bantoe-oorlewerings ocr die onderwerp. Phalaborwa is een van die oudste bekende myn-bougebiede in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika en volgens datering met koolstof-14 was Loolekop reeds sedert 770n.c. 'n mynbousentrum.

INTRODUCTION

Acting on Roger Summers's warn-ing!, I use the word ancient with

reservation:The word 'ancient' is a purely relative

chronological term, depending on thehistorical background of the user. InWestern Europe, where written recordsbegan under the Roman Empire, thingsare 'ancient' if more than 2000 vearsold. In America, however, Colu~busprovides a boundary between ancientand modern.

In the interior of Africa, writtenhistory is far more restricted and inRhodesia itself there is a statute-Monuments and Relics Act, 1936-which puts the boundary of antiquityat 1st January, 1890.In South Africa we have similar

legislation, but our legislators havenot been quite as specific in pro-viding a date!

In these brief notes on 'ancient'mining (that is, mining before theadvent of the twentieth century), Irecord a few observations that Ihave not seen mentioned in thenumerous reports and publicationsthat have become available duringthe past decade. Many of theseobservations are my own, madewhen I was resident in Phalaborwat(1961-1963). During that time, ac-companied by my family and friends,I spent all my spare time visitingmore than 60 sites of archaeologicalinterest in the area.

Prior to 1960 there was a paucityof literature on the pre-European

. An amateur archaeologist.

tThis is the official spelling, which is inkeeping with North Sotho orthography.The accepted meaning is 'better than theSouth', relating to an episode in tribalhistory.

tThere is some confusion, but this couldonly refer to the copper from Loolekop.

mining of the Phalaborwa ores.Scant attention had been given to itby professional archaeologists, and,had it not been for the observationsof geologists like Hal12 and Schwell-nus3, much of what had been leftby way of 'ancient' workings onLoolekop (Loolwe), at the site of theold Guide Mine and immediatelynorth of the old Malelane road nearAprilkop, would have been lost toscience by the encroachment ofmodern mining operations. BeforeMason4 could survey and map theworkings, or Van der Merwe5. 6applythe most modern methods of scienceincluding carbon-14 dating, blastingand drilling of the carbonatite areahad already taken its toll. TodayLoolekop is completely lost to arch-aeology; and so are other im-portant sites, which are now coveredby tailings, rock overburden, orslimes, or which serve as reservoirsor other necessities of modern min-ing. Large tracts of bush have beenstripped to make way for town-ships and highways. Even the humanmaterial has been affected by'foreign' influxes, but here sciencehas been more fortunate, thanks tothose7-12 who have recorded thehistory and ways of the local ba-Phalaborwa and other Lowveldtribes.

HISTORICAL REFERENCES

Loolekop is clearly the mountainof iron and copper that Francois deCui per set out to find in 172513. Hewas sent by the Dutch East IndiaCompany, who had heard of themountain from the Bantu involved

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY

in barter trade with the east coast.Again, the area formed the subject

of the following entries14 in the1868 journal of }(arl Mauch, thenoted German explorer and geolo-gist:

Copper ore, for which large mines areestablished at Palabora, is smelted bythe blacks there and fashioned intoornaments. . . The region is sparselypopulated by men. Small kraals arefound in the vicinity of small springs orperennial streams and are usuallyhidden in granitic hills between bouldersas, for instance, the chief Lepata ofPalabora. The kaffirs here are ex-perienced smelters. . .

Next on the scene was EdwardButton (1869), but he evidently didnot enjoy the confidence of thelocals, for Thomas Baines15 notes:

. . . among the Mosheshiman hills ofporphyritic granite, with occasionalchloritic slate, they found nativesworking coppert, but were not allowedto see any of the mines. .. Crossingthe river Salate, and emerging from thehills to the west, they came upon talcschist with bands of steatite . . .The baTubatse of Masisimale are

to this day the neighbours of thebaPhalaborwa; the MasisimalaRange is adjacent to Phalaborwaand, among those hills in 1954, 1961,and several times afterwards, I wasable to locate what must be one ofthe best-preserved metal age sitesin South Africa. More than six ironfurnaces were discovered, a copperfurnace was at one time operated ina small cave, and the hut floors,terraces, and the like are intact andawait the attention of a professionalarchaeologist. The site is on thefarm 'Square', about 12 miles (19,3km) from Phalaborwa, on the roadto Mica. The 'talc schist with bandsof steatite' is to be found on the

I:1

JANUARY 1974 227

I

I!,}!~11

i

Plate I-Three of several dolerite hammers found on Loolekop. Note the shallowdepressions on the sides (about the size of a 50-cent piece), evidently fashioned tofacilitate holding them. Other depressions were caused by careful hammeringwith iron gads and chisels such as those shown. The tools shown here are fromKgopolwe, which is now a proclaimed National Monument. As Kgopolwe wasoccupied by the baPhalaborwa until 1903, these tools probably date from thenineteenth century, but they follow a pattern hundreds of years old. All the tools

had been used and showed signs of minework.

farm 'Shiela', on the north bank ofthe Olifants River, not far fromthe confluence with the Selati. Thereis evidence that the baPhalaborwaused iron adzes to cut soapstonebowls at this factory site. But theywere latecomers, for the area teemswith handaxes and picks fashionedby man from rolled river stonesand banded ironstone during theearlier Stone Age, the South AfricanPalaeolithic, 50 000 years ago.

During the previous century, theLowveld tribes had been muchharassed by the raiding Swazis,whose warriors are said to havebeen stark naked and to have carriedhuge shields of white cowhide. ThebaPhalaborwa, the baNarene, andthe baPedi combined forces, lay inwait for the booty-laden Swazis re-turning from the north, and mas-

228 JANUARY 1974

sacred them at the junction of theLepelle (Olifants) and the SelatiRivers. The expertly fashionedspears, arrows, and battle-axes madeby famous smelters revered in tribalhistory, like Malatswane, Pilusa, andNkwane16 had proved their metaland mettle!*

FINDS NEAR PHALABORW A

I have often wondered what hasbecome of the green skull that JohanBreitenbach (I think that was hisname), a geologist with PalaboraMining Company during pilot-plantdays (1961), showed me in one ofthe temporary offices on Loolekop.It had been found in the carbonatitearea, and the malachite had made

*Oral tradition, but also recorded in partby Van Warmelo in Ethnological SeriesNo. 10-16, 1944. p. 8, para. 23.

it light green. In 1962, I found thescapula of a kudu 70 ft (21,3 m)down one of the shafts of the ancientworkings exposed in the Foskor pitafter a blast. It bore scars of aniron implement, possibly an axe,but, judging by its green colour, itwas probably contemporary withthe light-green skull. The skull, itseems reasonable to conclude, wasthat of an 'ancient' mineworker,probably killed in a mine accident.

Although I never found anymining tools on Loolekop, exceptdolerite hammers, I did discover acomplete set of gads and chisels,and a holed iron for drawing wire,all hidden in the hollow of a hugerock on the south slope of Kgopolwein 1962 (Plate I). These iron toolsand the hammers are similar tothose demonstrated by Leo Fro-benius17 and R. J. Mason1s ashaving been in use at Rooiberg andMalabog. Moreover, at the apex ofLoolekop, there was a particularlylarge ancient working on whichmalachite had been laboriously chip-

,JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY

Plate 11- The entrance to a huge 'ancient' working at the apex of Loolekop.

;

Lf

ped away from one face (Plates 11and Ill). One of the Kgopolwe gadsfitted neatly into everyone of thedepressions on the ore face. In thissame working I collected severalpieces of wood so old in appearanceas to be almost like cork. Most ofthese fragments were round, from2 to 3 inches (50,8 to 76,2 mm)thick, and had been cut with irontools; some were pointed. Thesecould have been stays of somesort. Pottery fragments, some richlydecorated, were also collected, aswere several jaw bones of smallbuck. The 'ancient' miners must haveeaten their meals on the spot. Afurther find was a partly burnt pieceof candelabra euphorbia; the copperminers of Musina, who had oncemined at Phalaborwa but left underthe leadership of Dopokabatho forricher fields, are said to have usedthe 'leaves' of this latex tree (na-boom) for lighting purposes9.

Some of the 'ancient' workingsconsisted of extremely narrow stopesas little as 15 inches (37,5 cm) wide,and often 20 feet (6,096 m) and

deeper in places. It was impossiblefor an adult to see and labour inthem. One possibility is that thesewere merely vents, as illustrated byTerry Donnelly for the dust cover ofRoger Summers's splendid work!,but child labour cannot be ruledout. Female labour was certainlyemployed, and perhaps the bestever illustration of this is the paint-ing by Samuel Songo depictingBantu women mining gold in Rho-desia in 'ancient' times. He painted itin 1951, when he was Canon Pater-son's pupil at Cyrene Mission Schoolnear Bulawayo. The painting nowhangs in Rhodesia House, London.Captive labour was probably used,as indicated by a poem or song ofthe baPhalaborwa, one of severalcontaining references to metallurgy,which contains this reference in thelast line of the third stanza: 'Theconquered are taught how to smeltiron'. Loolekop, it seems, once hadslaves working metal and probablymining in the narrow passages too.

The Loolekop miners were dou bt-lessly mining malachite as a pri-


ority, and, since the average coppercontent is 0,7 per cent, the taskmust have been a very laborious one.Heaps of primitive tailings (PlateIV) surrounding the open-cast work-ings that I examined on Loolekop in1962 showed that the minutest pieceof malachite had been removed andthe iron ore discarded. There wasno need to mine the iron for the orecould be had for the picking up onthe surface. In addition, there is anabundant magnetite scree on thewestern slope of Loolekop. It isalso probable that the first people onthe'scene were able to pick the greenmalachite encrustations from theweathered orebody on the surface.In any event, 'a rough estimate bymining engineers indicates that wellover 10000 tons of rock containingsecondary copper ore deposits (mala-chite and azurite) had been removedfrom the hill before the start ofrecent mining activities'5.

In method of mining there is verylittle to distinguish the Loolekopworkings from those of 'ancient'miners in Rhodesia, Messina, orelsewhere in Southern Africa. Inextent they were very large. Oneaspect of possible difference wasrelated to me by the late Mr Riih.He said that the 'ancient' workingsat the old Guide Mine on the farmSchiettocht, about 4 miles (6,4 km)north-west of Loolekop, had stepsleading down to the shafts and otherpassages. WaIter Henry Scannell,who was the first European to settleand mine at Phalaborwa, and whohad once worked this propertyduring the early 1900s, discoveredthis when he cleared the back-filledworkings for development. Stepshad been cut into the bedrock. WhenI examined official papers19 on theold Guide Mine in 1967, I saw twoidentical plans drawn by Scannell,indicating the location of 'ancient'workings, but there was no specificreference to steps. The remains of'ancient' workings I saw at theabandoned old Guide Mine were on asmall scale and mainly opencast likethe odd depressions near Aprilkop.Many were filled up.

Although Loolekop and surround-ings were the main mining andsmelting centres of the Lowveld, thenot- too-distant Murchison Range hasalso been shown2° to have engaged

JANUARY 1974 229

Plate Ill-The interior chamber of the same working as shown in Plate 11. Fromthis chamber, several stopes were found leading, mostly in a westerly direction,even from the floor, which was mostly backfilled. The ore surface, especially nearthe dark patch towards the right ofthe 3 ft (0,9 m) steel rule, showed very distinct,although weathered and smoke-covered, pock-marks of an iron gad that had been

used for chipping the malachite streaks away.

the attention of the 'ancients'. Ofspecial interest is the presence ofzinc blende in the Castle Koppiesnorth workings. This is the onlyknown occurrence of zinc blende inthe Murchison schist belt. The'ancients' probably obtained brasswhen they smelted these ores. Al-though copper was probably pro-spected for in the first place, theold workings have been found tocontain traces of gold too; forinstance, at Solomon's Mine, about5 miles (8 km) north of Gravelotte,and at workings about 100 yards(91,4 m) long and averaging 4 yards(3,7 m) wide, opencast and with apillar in the centre, about 11 miles(2 km) north of the United JackMine.

Tin for the making of bronzecould be had at Phalaborwa bybarter from elsewhere, for no sourceof this ore is known in the immediatevicinity of Loolekop. Experiencedmetallurgists that they were, the

230 JANUARY 1974

baPhalaborwa of old very probablyknew the art. In the papers men-tioned above1D, there was a recordof Scannell's having shown Lawson,the beacon inspector from Leyds-dorp, 'tin nodules obtained from theother side (south) of the OlifantsRiver. Did the 'ancients' know thesource of Scannell's find?

Not only did the peoples ofSouthern Africa, before the adventof the European, mine and prospectfor various metals, but they werealso capable of working iron, copper,tin, and gold and of making bronzeand brass. It therefore seems to memore appropriate to refer to them asMetal Age peoples than as Iron Agepeoples, which is the term com-monly used.

The furnaces (Plates V and VI)and the copper lerale of the Phala.borwa area have been described sooften that I shall not mention themhere except to make two obser.vations for the record.

Firstly, as far as I know, theearliest photograph of a SouthAfrican furnace in operation is thatgiven in a book compiled by H. F.Gros21 in about 1888. The inscriptionreads: 'Makaties Iron Foundry, IronMountain, East of the Spelonken'.To my knowledge, there is only oneiron mountain in that position, andthat is Loolekop. The structure of

Plate IV-From the apex of Loolekop, looking towards the Olifants River (1962).The overgrown 'ancient' tailings are to be seen in the foreground and middle

distance. Today this is a huge open-cast pit for modern mining.


Plate V-One of several iron-smelters' furnaces at a combined habitation and'factory' site in the Masisimala hills on the farm 'Square'. As a copper smelterwas active in a nearby cave, this was rightly a Metal Age site not unlike thoseobserved by Karl Mauch (1868) or Edward Button (1869). Iron smelters used threetuyeres, and copper smelters a single, but larger, one. The difference is due to the

degrees of heat required for the smelting of iron and copper ores.Plate VI-A copper-smelter's furnace on the western slope of Maseke hill on thefarm 'Wegsteek'. The clay tuyere, the mouth glazed by heat, is in the possessionof the University of Potchefstroom (C.H.E.). The furnace itself was removed forpreservation by N. J. van der Merwe. (For comparison, the spade is approximately

27 in or 69 cm.)

the furnace and the tuyeres istypical of the iron furnaces ofPhalaborwa, numerous remains ofwhich are still extant (at 'Square',for instance).

Secondly, further evidence thatthe lerale is native to Phalaborwawas provided by Mr R tih, a pioneerof the district. The word leralemeans 'wire' and refers to copperobjects about 18 inches in length (seePlate VII). Some authorities say thelerale was a form of currency, otherscontend it had sexual significance,

and still others argue that it wasmerely cast in this form for readyconver!:;ion to ornament!:; and thelike. Because of their rarity, themarale (the plural form) werethought to have been handled onlyby royalty, but there is evidence tosuggest that they were fairly com-mon at one time, though neverplentiful, and that they were usedin the barter trade. Mr R tih toldme that he ploughed up four maralenear Maseke hill in the 1920s. Itwas obvious that they had been

Plate VII-A lerale of solid copper. The specimen pictured here was obtained adecade ago by barter from a witch-doctor and was presented to the author.


cast on the spot, which was nearone of the copper furnaces I locatedin 1961 (Plate VI).

CONCLUSION

Although the development ofPhalaborwa in the twentieth centuryhas resulted in the loss of manyarchaeological sites, it has alsohad its advantages from thescientific point of view. Archaeologyhas been enriched by the carbon-l4dating of the Loolekop mining-from about 770 A.D. to the end ofthe nineteenth century-and habi-tation for the same period has beenproved at Kgopolwe hill. In ad-dition, a pottery or ceramicssequence relative to the baPhala-borwa and covering a period ofmore than a thousand years hasbeen found extant by N. J. van derMerwe and his team of scientists.

Phalaborwa thus represents one ofthe earliest known Metal Age sites inthe Republic of South Africa.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The copyright for the finds men-tioned in this paper and for thephotographs reproduced here is vest-ed in the Potchefstroomse Uni-versiteit vir Christelike Hoer Onder-wys.

REFERENCES1. SUMMERS, R. Ancient mining in

Rhodesia. Salisbury, National Mu-seums, Museum Memoir no. 3, 1969.

2. HALL, A. L. The geology of the Murchi-son Range and district. Pretoria,Government Printer, Geological Sur-vey Memoir no. 6., 1912. p. 164 ff.

3. SCHWELLNUS,C. M. Short notes on thePalaboroa smelting ovens. S. Afr. J.Sci., vo!. 33. Mar. 1937. p. 904 ff.

4. MASON, R. J. The origin of SouthAfrican society. S. Afr. J. Sci., vo!. 61,no. 7. Ju!. 1965.

5. 'Y AN DER MERWE, N. J. The carbon-14dating of iron. Chicago, Chicago Uni-versity Press, 1969. p. 100 ff.

6. YAN DER MERWE, N. J., and SCULLY,R. T. K. The Phalaborwa story:archaeological and ethnographic in-vestigation of a South African IronAge group. Wld Archaeol., vo!. 3,no. 2. London, Routledge and KeganPaul, Oct. 1971. p. 178 ff.

7. KRIGE, E. J. Note on the Phalaborwaand their Morula complex. BantuStudies, vo!. 11. Johannesburg, Uni-versity of the Witwatersrand, 1937.p. 357 ff.

8. KRIGE, J. D. Traditional origins andtribal relationships of the Sotho ofthe Northern Transvaa!. Ibid.,p. 321 ff.

9. MAMADI, M. F. (edit. 'N. J. vanWarmelo). The copper miners ofMusina and the early history of theZoutpansberg. Pretoria, Government

JANUARY 1974 231

Printer. Ethnological publications,no. 8, 1940. pp. 81, 193 ff. (Sothotext).

10. VAN W ARMELO,N. J. Lowveld tribes.Pretoria, Government Printer, Eth-nological publications, nos. 10-16,1944.

11. RAMAILA, E. M. Seriti sa Thabantsho.Johannesburg, Bona Press Ltd,1959. p. 84 ff.

12. Du TOIT, A. P. Die plek van diemateriele skeppinge van die Phala-borwa in hul kultuur. Pretoria, Uni-versity of South Africa, unpublisheddoctoral thesis, 1968.

13. PUNT, W. H. J. Die verkenning van dieKrugerwildtuin deur die HOIK, 1725.Pretoria, National Parks Board, Koe-doe fir. 1, 1958.

14. BERNHARD, F. O. Karl Mauch,African explorer. Cape Town, Struik,1971. pp. 41, 54.

15. BAINES, T. The gold regions of SouthEastern Africa. Port Elizabeth, Mac-kay, 1877. p. 77.

16. MALATJIE, H. (for Chief B. M.

NoticesTHE FEDERATION OF

SOCIETIES OFPROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS

The following letter has been re-ceived from the Secretaries of theabove Federation.

Ref. EHvdL/MM/27 13/11/1973TO THE SECRETARIES OF ALLMEMBER AND AFFILIATE SOC-IETIES

Dear Sir/Madam,

ENTRIES IN TELEPHONEDIRECTORIES

Heretofore the General PostOffice has not always been con-sistent regarding the use of thetitles "Pr. Eng." and "Pr. Ing." or"Eng." behind the names of Pro-fessional Engineers in the telephonedirectories.

In a letter dated 12 September1973 ref. 3B27/3E1A/73, the PostMaster General advised the SouthAfrican Council for Professional En-gineers that appropriate arrange-ments were being made to includethe titles "Pr. Eng." and "Pr. Ing."when requested to do so by Pro-fessional Engineers.

It would be appreciated if youcould publicise this matter in yourJournal.

232 JANUARY 1974

I

Makushane). History of ba-Phala-borwa--Malatjie tribe. Manuscriptdated 16th Jul., 1960, in possession ofC. E. More. p. 5.

17. FRoBENIUs, L. Erythriia. Berlin, At-lantis-Verlag, 1931. Pictures 52 and53 (photographs).

18. MAsoN, R. J. Prehistory of the Trans-vaal. Johannesburg, WitwatersrandUniversity Press, 1962. p. 420.

19. File kept by the Mining Commis-sioner, Pietersburg, examined in theoffices of the Secretarv for Mines,Pretoria, in 1967. The' file was re-ported as having been destroyed,when enquiry was made in 1973.

20. VAN EEDEN, O. R., et al. The mineraldeposits of the Murchison Range, eastof Leydsdorp. Pretoria, GovernmentPrinter. Geological Survey Memoirno. 36,1939. pp. 69, 129, 130, 137, 141,142.

21. GROS, H. F. (compiler). Pictorial des-cription of the Transvaal. Ca 1888.(Three volumes are lodged in theAfricana Museum, Johannesburg).

Yours faithfully,(Miss) E. H. VAN DER LlNDE

for Secretaries

DIE FEDERASIE VANVERENIGINGS VIR

PROFESSIONELEINGENIEURS

Die volgende brief is van dieSekretarisse van die bogenoemdeFederasie ontvang.verw. EHvdL/MM/27 13/11/1973

AAN DIE SEKRETARISSE VANALLE LlD- EN GEAFFILIEERDEVERENI GIN GS

Geagte heer/dame,

INSKRYWINGS IN TELEFOON-GIDSE

Tot dusver was die Hoofpos-kantoor nie altyd konsekwent inverband met die gebruik van dietitels "Pr. Ing.", "Pr. Eng." of"Ing." na die name van Professio-nele Ingenieurs in die telefoongidseme.

In 'n brief gedateer 12 September1973, verw. 3B27/3E1A/73 verwittigdie Posmeester-Generaal die Suid.Afrikaanse Raad vir ProfessioneleIngenieurs dat gepaste reelings ge-tref word om op versoek van Pro-fessionele Ingenieurs die betiteling"Pr. Ing." en "Pr. Eng." op teneem.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

For a small, comprehensive map of thearea:

SCHWELLNUS, C. M. Vermiculite depositsin the Palabora area, N.E. Transvaal.Pretoria, Government Printer. GeologicalSeries Bulletin no. 11, 1938. Fig. 2. (Thismap should be read with TrigonometricalSurvey Map 2331CC 1:50000, Pretoria,Government Printer).

For an excellent account of smelting inthe area:VERWOERD, W. J. Sekere produkte vanprimitiewe koper, yster- en bronssmelteryin Dos-Transvaal, met besondere ver-wysing na Phalaborwa. Tegnikon, Oct.1956.

For a comprehensive work on thegeology of Phalaborwa:HANEKOM, H. J., et al. The geology of thePalabora Igneous Complex. Pretoria, Gov-ernment Printer, Geological Survey Mem-oir no. 54, 1965.

Dit sal waardeer word indien uhierdie saak deur middel van uJoernaal sou bekend stel.

Die uwe,

(Mej.) E. H. VAN DER LlNDE

namens Sekretarisse

PAPERS OF INTERESTThe following recently published

papers may be of interest to memobers.

Load flow data base and solution,using a digital computer, by P. S.Doepel (Manager, Data ProcessingDept, ESCOM). Trans. S. Afr.Inst. Elect.. Engrs, November 1973.

Materials in electrical machines-today and tomorrow (22nd BernardPrice Memorial Lecture), by R.Noser (Deputy Vice-President, Ro-tating Electric Machine Division,Brown Boveri & Co. Ltd, Baden,Switzerland). Trans. S. Afr. Inst.Elect. Engrs, December 1973.

Optical metrology using laser light,by W. Fink, W. Schneider, andW. Grabner (NPRL, CSIR). S. Afr.Meek. Engr, November 1973.

Problems in the operation ofspecial duty pumps, by K. A. Garrett(Managing Director, Attack En-gineering). S. Afr. Meek. Engr,November 1973.


Documents

Someobservations on'ancient' mining atPhalaborwa