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Alevism

Not to be confused with Alawites.For other uses, see Aleviler and Alawi (disambiguation).

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Part of a series on Nizari-Ismāʿīli Batiniyya, Hurufiyya,Kaysanites and Twelver Shī‘ism

Alevism

Beliefs[show]

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Alevism or Alevi (/'ælɛvij/, also /æˈlɛviː/ or /əˈleɪviː/, Turkish: Alevîlik or Turkish: Anadolu Alevîliği/Alevileri,[1] alsocalled Qizilbash, Spiritual Shiism or Sufi-Shia by outsiders[2]) is a mystical[3] branch of Islam who claim to befollowers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his son-in-law Ali, the Twelve Imams (other than Sunni Muslims whobelieve in the four Rashidun caliphs) and their descendant, the 13th century Alevi saint Haji Bektash Veli. Havingsome links with Twelver Shia Islam (like the importance of the Ahl al-Bayt, the day of Ashura , the Mourning ofMuharram, commemorating Karbala, etc.), the practices of the Alevis are based on Sufi elements of theBektashi[4] tariqa,[5] and have a lot of points in agreement with Quranism.[6] Alevism is seen as one of the twomain branches of Islam in Turkey, the other being Sunni Islam. The two branches are said to have come intoexistence after the death of Hussain ibn Ali (Muhammad's grandson) at the Battle of Karbala.[7][8]

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Controversy regarding the definition[edit]

Some sources link Alevism to Shia Islam and particularly to the heterodox syncretic[4] sufi group known as theBektashi Order. According to these sources, Alevism is very closely related to Bektashism: commonalities includethe veneration of the Alevi saint Haji Bektash Veli, a Turkish[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] or Iranian[17][18][19][20][21][22]

saint from Khorasan (modern-day Iran)[23] of the 13th century. Many Alevis refer to an "Alevi-Bektashi" tradition,but this identity is not universally adopted, nor is the combined name used by non-Turkish Bektashis (e.g., in theBalkans). In addition to its religious aspect, Alevism is also closely associated with Anatolian folk culture.

Alevi identity[edit]

Alevis claim to be following the bāṭenī[3] (mystical) teachings of Muhammad, the Quran, his Ahl al-Bayt, TheTwelve Imams and their descendant Alevi saint and sufi master Haji Bektash Veli. For this reason it's also referredto as Shīʿah-ee Bāṭen’īyyah.[3] Most of the believers live in Turkey, with some scattered minorities in Bulgaria,Cyprus, the Caucasus, Greece, Iran and the Turkish Diaspora.[24][25]

Definition of the Presidency of Alevi-Islam Religion Services[edit]

According to The President of the Islamic-Alevi Religious Services Dede (religious figure) İzzettin Doğan,"Alevism" is nothing but a tasawwufī-bāṭenī[3] interpretation (tafsir) of Islam.[26]

“ What's Alevism, what's the understanding of Islam in Alevism? The answers to these questions, instead ofthe opposite of what's known by many people is that the birthplace of Alevism was never in Anatolia. Thisis an example of great ignorance, that is, to tell that the Alevism was emerged in Anatolia. Searching thesource of Alevism in Anatolia arises from unawareness. Because there was not even one single Muslim orTurk in Anatolia before a specific date. The roots of Alevism stem from Turkestan - Central Asia. Islamwas brought to Anatolia by Turks in 10th and 11th centuries by a result of migration for a period of 100 -150 years. Before this event took place, there were no Muslim and Turks in Anatolia. Anatolia was thenentirely Christian.[27] We Turks brought Islam to Anatolia from Turkestan. - Professor İzzettin Doğan, ThePresident

”

The official original speech in Turkish: Alevilik nedir? Aleviliğin İslam anlayışı nedir, nasıl doğdu,nasıl gelişti? Bu soruların yanıtı ki, çok kişinin bildiğinin tersine, Aleviliğin doğuş yeri Anadoludeğildir. Bu büyük bir cehalet örneğidir, yani Aleviliğin Anadolu da çıktığını söylemek. Anadolu'da buişin kaynağını aramak bilgisizlikten kaynaklanıyor. Çünkü Anadolu bugün üzerinden yaşadığımıztopraklarda belli bir tarihten önce bir tek Müslüman, bir tane de Türk yoktur. Orta Asya kökenliinsanların göçebe kavimlerin oradaki kuraklık ve moğol istilası nedeniyle orada tutunamayıp yenibir yurt arama kaygılarının sonucudur. Maveraünnehir dediğimiz, yani Siriderya ve Amuderyanehirleri arasındaki topraklarda yaşayan ve yaşamlarının tarım ve hayvancılıkla geçiren kavimlerin100-150 sene süren göç macerasından sonra, yani Türkler'in Anadolu'ya gelmeleri, Anadolu'daTürk köyü kurmaya başlamaları. Anadolu'ya gelen Türkler de beraberlerinde inançlarını veİslamiyet'i getirdiler. Gelenler İslam'dı, bunların kendi anlayışlarını Anadolu'ya getirmeleri 10 - 11.asırda gerçekleyen bir olaydır. Ondan önce ismine Anadolu dediğimiz coğrafyada herhangi bir Türkve herhangi bir Müslüman'a rastlamak mümkün değildir. Anadolu o zamanlar Hıristiyan'dır.

Etymology[edit]

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"Alevi" is generally explained as referring to Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The name represents aTurkish form of the word ‘Alawi (Arabic: يولع ) "of or pertaining to Ali". According to Ishikists' assertion, on the otherhand, it was derived from "Alev" ("flame" in Turkish) in reference to fire which is extensively used in Alevi rituals.However, traditional Islamic Alevi's claim that the name Alevi is linked to Ali, just like the word Musevi is linked toMusa (Moses), Isevi is linked to Isa (Jesus) and Mevlevi is linked to Mevlana (Rumi). According to them the use ofcandles is based on Quran chapter 24, verses 35 and 36: "God is the Light of the heavens and the earth. Theexample of His light is like a niche within which there is a lamp, the lamp is encased in a glass, the glass is like aradiant planet, which is lit from a blessed olive tree that is neither of the east nor of the west, its oil nearly gives offlight even if not touched by fire. Light upon light, God guides to His light whom He pleases. And God sets forthexamples for the people, and God is aware of all things. (Lit is such a Light) in houses, which God has permitted tobe raised to honour; for the celebration, in them, of His name: In them is He glorified in the mornings and in theevenings, (again and again)."

Even though the term Alevi is thought to be simply the Turkish derived form of Arabic ‘Alawī, the Arab form of theterm today refers to the distinct group of the Arabic-speaking Alawites of Syria.[28][29]

Alevi used to be grouped as Kızılbaş ("redheads"), a generic term used by Sunni Muslims in the Ottoman Empirefor the various Shia sects from the 15th century. Many other names exist (often for subgroupings), among themTahtacı "Woodcutters", Abdal "Bards" and Çepni.[citation needed]

Alevi Islamic School of Theology (Madhhab)[edit]

In Turkey, Shia Muslim people belong to the Jafari Islamic school, which tracks back to the sixth Shia Imam Jafaral-Sadiq (also known as Imam Jafar-i Sadiq), are called as the Ja'farīs, who belong to Twelver Shia. Although theAlevi Turks are being considered as a part of Twelver Shia Islam, they are different than the Jafarī Muslims in theirconvictions and beliefs.

Their aqidah (theological conviction) is based upon a syncretic fiqh system called asBatiniyya-Sufism/Ismailism[31] which incorporates some sentiments of Sevener-Qarmatians, originallyintroduced by Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī ,[32][33] and later developed by "Maymunal-Qāddāh" and his son "ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun" ,[34] and Mu'tazila with a strong belief in The TwelveImams.

Not all of the members believe that the fasting in Ramadan is obligatory although some Alevi-Turksperforms their fasting duties partially in Ramadan.

Some beliefs of Shamanism still are common amongst the Qizilbash-Alevi-Turks in villages.

On the other hand, Bektashis has a conviction of Batiniyya Ismailism[31] and Hurufism with a strong beliefin the The Twelve Imams.

In conclusion, Qizilbash-Alevi-Bektashis are not the followers of Ja'fari jurisprudence, even though they canbe considered as members of different Shia-Tariqat all looks like sub-classes of Twelver-Shia Islam. Theirconviction includes Batiniyya-Hurufism and Qarmatian-Isma'ilism sentiments.[31][35]

They all may be considered as special groups not following the Ja'fari jurisprudence, like Nusayris(Alawites) who are in the class of Ghulat Twelver Shia Islam, but a special Batiniyya belief somewhatsimilar to Isma'ilism in their conviction.

In conclusion, Twelver branch of Shia Muslim population of Turkey is composed of Mu'tazila aqidah ofJa'fari jurisprudence madhhab, Tasawwufī-Batiniyya aqidah of Maymūn’al-Qāddāhī fiqh of the Alevīs, andCillī aqidah of Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh of the Alawites,[36][37] whoaltogether constitutes nearly one third of the whole population of the country. (An estimate for the TurkishAlevi population varies between Seven and Eleven Millions.[38][39] Over 85% of the population, on the otherhand, overwhelmingly constitute Maturidi aqidah of the Hanafi fiqh and Ash'ari aqidah of the Shafi'i fiqh ofthe Sunni followers.)

Following poem is (one) source to be concerned:

Harabî sen İmam Câfer'e bağlan // Harabi (thou) follow (the path of) Imam Ja'far al-SadiqBaşka mezhepleri etme vazife // Do not make any other Madh'hab (Islamic school) to duty.

- belongs to: Edip Harabi, ~1900, Istanbul

Beliefs[edit]

Main articles: Faith and Iman (concept)

Alevi beliefs are hard to define, since Aleviness is a diverse movement without any central authority, and itsboundaries with other groups are poorly demarcated. Many teachings are based on an orally transmitted traditionwhich has generally been kept secret from outsiders (but is now widely accessible).

The basis for Aleviness's most distinctive beliefs is found in the Buyruks (compiled writings and dialogues ofSheikh Safi-ad-din Ardabili (eponym of the Safavi order), Ja'far al-Sadiq (the Sixth Imam), and other worthies).Also included are hymns (nefes) by figures such as Shah Ismail or Pir Sultan Abdal , stories of Hajji Bektash andother lore.

"Alevi-Bektashis acknowledge they are from Ahl al Kitab" by stating that the last four holy books(Quran, Gospel, Torah and Psalms) has the same degree of importance in guiding people to the Divine

Truth. This confession is pronounced in Turkish: "Dört kitab'ın Dördü de "Hâkk""Four valid books in Islam, namely Psalms, Torah, Gospel, and Qu'ran are all the "Righteous"

Quran, the last holy booksent by God Gospel Torah Psalms

Quran Surah 2 verse 136 : Says: "We believe in Allah, and in that which has been sent down on us andsent down on Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob, and the Tribes, and that which was given to Mosesand Jesus and the Prophets, of their Lord; we make no division between any of them, and to Him wesurrender".

Allah, Muhammad and Ali[edit]

Alevis believe in the unity of Allah, Muhammad, and Ali, but this is not a trinity composed of God and the historicalfigures of Muhammad and Ali. Rather, Muhammad and Ali are representations of Allahs light (and not of Allahhimself), being neither independent from God, nor separate charactestics of Him.

Haqq-Muhammad-Ali

Muhammad-Ali

ALLAHALI MUHAMMAD

Left side: Ali ibn Abi Talib, Center: Muhammad, Right side: Allah. (Reflections of the Qizilbash-Bektashi belief)

In Alevi writings there are many references to the unity of Muhammad and Ali , such as:

Ali Muhammed'dir uh dur fah'ad, Muhammad Ali, (Ali is Muhammad, Muhammad is Ali)

Gördüm bir elmadır, elhamdü-li llâh. (I've seen an apple, all praise is for God)[40]

The phrase "For the love of God-Muhammad-Ali" (Hakk-Muhammed-Ali aşkına) is common to several Aleviprayers.

For some, the linking of the three together seems polytheistic and not in line with monotheistic Islamic teachings,but Alevis counter that such people do not understand The bāṭenī[3] meaning of the Alevi equation of Allah-Muhammed-Ali.

The Twelve Imams[edit]

Main article: The Twelve Imams

The Twelve Imams is another common Alevi belief. Each Imam represents a different aspect of the Universe andare realised as twelve services or On İki Hizmet which are performed by members of the Alevi community. EachImam is believed to be a reflection of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the first Imam of the Shi'ites, thus we find references to the"First Ali" (Birinci Ali), Imam Hasan the "Second 'Ali" (İkinci Ali), and so on up to the "Twelfth 'Ali" (Onikinci Ali),Imam Mehdi. The Twelfth Imam is hidden and represents the Messianic Age.

Plurality[edit]

There are two sides to creation, one goes from a spiritual centre to plurality, the other goes from plurality to thespiritual centre. Plurality is the separation of pure consciousness from the divine source. It is seen as a curtainalienating creation from the divine source, and an illusion which in Aleviness is called the Zāherī or the Exotericside to reality. The hidden or true nature of creation is called the bāṭenī[3] or the esoteric.

The fact of plurality in nature is attributed to the infinite potential energy of Kull-i Nafs when it takes corporeal formas it descends into being from Allah. During the Cem ceremony, the cantor or aşık sings:

"All of us alive or lifeless are from one, this is ineffable, Sultan.For to love and to fall in love has been my fate from time immemorial."

This is sung as a reminder that the reason for creation is love, so that the followers may know themselves andeach other and that they may love that which they know.

The perfect human being[edit]

Main article: Al-Insān al-Kāmil

Linked to the concept of the Prototypal Human is that of the "Perfect Human Being" (Insan-i Kamil). Although it iscommon to refer to Ali and Haji Bektash Veli or the other Alevi saints as manifestations of the perfect human being,the Perfect Human Being is also identified with our true identity as pure consciousness, hence the Qur'anicconcept of human beings not having original sin, consciousness being pure and perfect. The human task is to fullyrealise this state while still in material human form.

The Perfect Human Being is also defined in practical terms, as one who is in full moral control of his or her hands,tongue and loins (eline diline beline sahip); treats all kinds of people equally (yetmiş iki millete aynı gözle bakar);and serves the interests of others. One who has achieved this kind of enlightenment is also called "eren" or"münevver" (mūnavvar).

Practices[edit]

Main article: Four Doors

The Alevi spiritual path (yol) is commonly understood to take place through four major life-stages, or "gates".These may be further subdivided into "four gates, forty levels" (Dört Kapı Kırk Makam). The first gate (religiouslaw) is considered elementary (and this may be perceived as subtle criticism of other Muslim traditions).

The following are major crimes that cause an Alevi to be declared düşkün (shunned):[41]

killing a person

committing adultery

divorcing one’s wife

stealing

backbiting/ gossiping

Most Alevi activity takes place in the context of the second gate (spiritual brotherhood), during which one submitsto a living spiritual guide (dede, pir, mürşid). The existence of the third and fourth gates is mostly theoretical,though some older Alevis have apparently received initiation into the third.[42]

Cem and Cemevi[edit]

Main articles: Jem (Alevism) and Cemevi

The central Alevi corporate worship service is the Cem ceremony. Alevi worship and other social activities takeplace in assembly houses (Cemevi). The ceremony's supposed prototype is the Muhammad's nocturnal ascentinto heaven, where he beheld a gathering of forty saints ( Kırklar Meclisi), and the Divine Reality made manifest intheir leader, Ali.

The Cem ceremony features music, singing, and dancing (Samāh) in which both women and men participate.Rituals are performed in Turkish, Zazaki, Kurmanji and other local languages.

Bağlama

Main article: Bağlama

During the Cem ceremony the ashik plays the Bağlama whilst singing spiritual songs, some of which are centuriesold and well known amongst Alevis. Every song, called a Nefes has spiritual meaning and aims to teach theparticipants important lessons. One such song goes thus:

"Learn from your mistakes and be knowledgable,Don't look for faults in others,Look at 73 different people in the same way,God loves and created them all, so don't say anything against them."

SamāhA family of ritual dances characterized by turning and swirling, is an inseparable part of any cem. Samāh isperformed by men and women together, to the accompaniment of the Bağlama. The dances symbolize (forexample) the revolution of the planets around the Sun (by man and woman turning in circles), and the putting off ofone’s self and uniting with God.

Görgü CemiThe Rite of Integration (görgü cemi) is a complex ritual occasion in which a variety of tasks are allotted toincumbents bound together by extrafamilial brotherhood (müsahiplik), who undertake a dramatization of unity andintegration under the direction of the spiritual leader (dede).

DemThe love of the creator for the created and vice versa is symbolised in the Cem ceremony by the use of fruit juiceand/or red wine [Dem] which represents the intoxication of the lover in the beloved. During the ceremony is Demone of the twelve duties of the participants. (see above)

SohbetAt the closing of the cem ceremony the Dede who leads the ceremony engages the participants in a discussion(chat), this discussion is called a sohbet.

Twelve services[edit]

There are twelve services (Turkish: On İki hizmet) performed by attendees of the cem.

1. Dede : This is the leader of the Cem who represents Muhammad and Ali. The Dede receives confessionfrom the attendees at the beginning of the ceremony. He also leads funerals, Müsahiplik, marriageceremonies and circumcisions. The status of Dede is hereditary and he must be a descendant of Ali andFatima.

2. Rehber : This position represents Husayn. The Rehber is a guide to the faithful and works closely with theDede in the community.

3. Gözcü : This position represents Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. S/he is the assistant to the Rehber. S/he is the Cemkeeper responsible for keeping the faithful calm.

4. Çerağcı : This position represents Jabir ibn Abd-Allah and s/he is the light-keeper responsible formaintaining the light traditionally given by a lamp or candles.

5. Zakir : This position represents Bilal ibn al-Harith. S/he plays the bağlama and recites songs and prayers.

6. Süpürgeci : This position represents Salman the Persian. S/he is responsible for cleaning the Cemevi halland symbolically sweeping the carpets during the Cem.

7. Meydancı: This position represents Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman.

8. Niyazcı: this position represents Muhammad ibn Maslamah. S/he is responsible for distributing the sacredmeal.

9. İbrikçi: this position represents Kamber. S/he is responsible for washing the hands of the attendees.

10. Kapıcı: this position represents Ghulam Kaysan. S/he is responsible for calling the faithful to the Cem.

11. Peyikçi: this position represents Amri Ayyari.

12. Sakacı : represents Ammar ibn Yasir. Responsible for the distribution of water, sherbet (sharbat), milk etc..

Festivals[edit]

Main articles: Day of Ashura and Nowruz

Newruz "New Day" is the Persian New Year observed on 21 March (the Spring equinox) as a celebration ofnewness and reconciliation. It is celebrated by many modern Turkic peoples as well. Apart from the original beliefsof the Zoroastrians regarding the New Year, Alevis also celebrate and commemorate the birth of Ali, his weddingwith Fatima, the rescue of Yusuf from the well, and the creation of the world on this day. Various cem ceremoniesand special programs are held.

Mourning of Muharram[edit]

Main article: Mourning of Muharram

The Muslim month of Muharram begins 20 days after Eid ul-Adha (Kurban Bayramı). Alevis observe a fast for thefirst twelve days. This is called "Turkish: Muharrem Mâtemi", "Turkish: Yâs-ı Muharrem" or "Turkish: MâtemOrucu" (Mourning of Muharram). This culminates in the festival of Ashura (Aşure), which commemorates themartyrdom of Husayn at Karbala. The fast is broken with a special dish (also called aşure) prepared from a variety(often twelve) of fruits, nuts, and grains. Many events are associated with this celebration, including the salvationof Husayn's son Ali ibn Husayn from the massacre at Karbala, thus allowing the bloodline of the family ofMuhammad to continue.

The solstice and equinox celebrations and their confusion with historical and human incarnations are very wellmirrored in Christian religious, and even political, celebrations, e.g. May Day and Christmas, and more closely stillwith Celtic traditions.

Hıdırellez[edit]

Main articles: Hıdırellez and Khidr

Hıdırellez honors the mysterious figure Khidr (Turkish: Hızır) who is sometimes identified with Elijah (Ilyas), and issaid to have drunk of the water of life. Some hold that Khidr comes to the rescue of those in distress on land, whileElijah helps those at sea; and that they meet at a rose tree in the evening of every 6 May. The festival is alsocelebrated in parts of the Balkans by the name of "Erdelez," where it falls on the same day as Đurđevdan or St.George's Day.

Khidr is also honored with a three-day fast in mid-February called Hızır Orucu. In addition to avoiding any sort ofcomfort or enjoyment, Alevis also abstain from food and water for the entire day, though they do drink liquids otherthan water during the evening.

Note that the dates of the Khidr holidays can differ among Alevis, most of whom use a lunar calendar, but some asolar calendar.

Müsahiplik[edit]

Main article: Müsahiplik

Müsahiplik (roughly, "Companionship") is a covenant relationship between two men of the same age, preferablyalong with their wives. In a ceremony in the presence of a dede the partners make a lifelong commitment to carefor the spiritual, emotional, and physical needs of each other and their children. The ties between couples whohave made this commitment is at least as strong as it is for blood relatives, so much so that müsahiplik is oftencalled spiritual brotherhood (manevi kardeşlik). The children of covenanted couples may not marry.[43]

Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi reports that the Tahtacı identify müsahiplik with the first gate (şeriat), since they regard it asa precondition for the second (tarikat). Those who attain to the third gate (marifat, "gnosis") must have been in amüsahiplik relationship for at least twelve years. Entry into the third gate dissolves the müsahiplik relationship(which otherwise persists unto death), in a ceremony called Öz Verme Âyini ("ceremony of giving up the self").

The value corresponding to the second gate (and necessary to enter the third) is âşinalık ("intimacy," perhaps withGod). Its counterpart for the third gate is called peşinelik; for the fourth gate (hâkikat, Ultimate Truth), cıngıldaşlıkor cengildeşlik (translations uncertain).[44]

Folk practices[edit]

Ziyarat places

Many folk practices may be identified, though few of them are specific to the Alevis. In this connection, scholarMartin van Bruinessen notes a sign from Turkey's Ministry of Religion, attached to Istanbul's shrine of Eyüp Sultan,which presents

...a long list of ‘superstitious’ practices that are emphatically declared to be non-Islamic andobjectionable, such as lighting candles or placing ‘wishing stones’ on the tomb, tying pieces of clothto the shrine or to the trees in front of it, throwing money on the tomb, asking the dead directly forhelp, circling seven times around the trees in the courtyard or pressing one’s face against the wallsof the türbe in the hope of a supernatural cure, tying beads to the shrine and expectingsupernatural support from them, sacrificing roosters or turkeys as a vow to the shrine. The list isprobably an inventory of common local practices the authorities wish to prevent from re-emerging.[45]

Other, similar practices include kissing door frames of holy rooms; not stepping on the threshold of holy buildings;seeking prayers from reputed healers; and making lokma and sharing it with others.

Ziyarat to sacred places[edit]

While some Alevis do not recognize an obligation to go on pilgrimage to Mecca (and some do, but not according toSunni orthodox rituals), performing ziyarat and du'a at the tombs of Alevi-Bektashi saints or pirs is quite common.Some of the most frequently visited sites are the shrines of Şahkulu and Karacaahmet (both in Istanbul), AbdalMusa (Antalya), Battal Gazi (Eskişehir), the annual celebrations held at Hacıbektaş (16 August) and Sivas (the PirSultan Abdal Kültür Etkinlikleri, 23–24 June).

In contrast with the traditional secrecy of the Cem ceremony ritual, the events at these cultural centers and sitesare open to the public. In the case of the Hacibektaş celebration, since 1990 the activities there have been takenover by Turkey's Ministry of Culture in the interest of promoting tourism and Turkish patriotism rather than Alevispirituality.

Some Alevis make pilgrimages to mountains and other natural sites believed to be imbued with holiness.

Further information: Pir (Sufism) and Pir Sultan Abdal

Almsgiving[edit]

Main articles: Dergah, Vakıf and Zakat

Alevis are not expected to give Zakat in the Orthodox-Islamic mode, and there is no set formula or prescribedamount for charity like Sunnism (2,5%). Rather, they are expected to give the 'excess' according to Qur'an verse2:219. A common method of Alevi almsgiving is through donating food (especially sacrificial animals) to be sharedwith worshippers and guests. Alevis also donate money to be used to help the poor, to support the religious,educational and cultural activities of Alevi centers and organizations (dergâh, vakıf, dernek), and to providescholarships for students.

Society[edit]

Leadership structure[edit]

In contrast to the Bektashi tariqa, which like other Sufi orders is based on a silsila "initiatory chain or lineage" ofteachers and their students, Alevi leaders succeed to their role on the basis of family descent. Perhaps ten percentof Alevis belong to a religious elite called ocak "hearth", indicating descent from Ali and/or various other saints andheroes. Ocak members are called ocakzades or "sons of the hearth". This system apparently originated withSafavid Persia.

Alevi leaders are variously called murshid, pir, rehber or dede. Groups that conceive of these as ranks of ahierarchy (as in the Bektashi tariqa) disagree as to the order. The last of these, dede "grandfather", is the termpreferred by the scholarly literature. Ocakzades may attain to the position of dede on the basis of selection (by afather from among several sons), character, and learning. In contrast to Alevi rhetoric on the equality of the sexes,it is generally assumed that only males may fill such leadership roles.

Traditionally Dedes did not merely lead rituals, but led their communities, often in conjunction with local notablessuch as the ağas (large landowners) of the Dersim Region. They also acted as judges or arbiters, presiding overvillage courts called Düşkünlük Meydanı.

Ordinary Alevi would owe allegiance to a particular dede lineage (but not others) on the basis of pre-existing familyor village relations. Some fall instead under the authority of Bektashi dargah (lodges).

In the wake of 20th century urbanization (which removed young laborers from the villages) and socialist influence(which looked upon the Dedes with suspicion), the old hierarchy has largely broken down. Many Dedes nowreceive salaries from Alevi cultural centers, which arguably subordinates their role. Such centers no longer featurecommunity business or deliberation, such as the old ritual of reconciliation, but emphasize musical and danceperformance to the exclusion of these.[46] Dedes are now approached on a voluntary basis, and their role hasbecome more circumscribed—limited to religious rituals, research, and giving advice.

Alevi women[edit]

According to John Shindeldecker "Alevis are proud to point out that they are monogamous, Alevi women worshiptogether with men, Alevi women are free to dress in modern clothing, Alevi women are encouraged to get the besteducation they can, and Alevi women are free to go into any occupation they choose.

In the view of Australian anthropologist Dr. Sevgi Kilic, while Alevi women do not experience gender segregation inthe private and public domain they are subject to traditional male values about women's sexuality and constructedwithin the honor/shame paradigm. This ethnography is the first on Alevi women in Turkey and argues that Aleviidentity is complex, diverse and rich in its theory and practice.

According to Kilic, while rural Alevi women subscribe to traditional conservative views about women's status in thefamily, these ideas are rapidly changing within an urban environment. Alevi women are not required to wear aheadscarf or other bodily coverings. According to Kilic this is because Alevi identity is very much focused on theinternal rather than the external representation and covering women's hair or concealing the female body in and ofitself cannot legitimize women's moral, social, political and economic worth. Thus an unveiled Alevi woman cannotimpugn her honour or her communities. Thus Alevi women's bodies are what Kilic calls paradoxically 'neutral' andacts as an "ideology of difference."

Relations with other Muslim groups[edit]

Alevis are classified as a sect of Shia Islam,[47] as Alevis accept Twelver Shi‘a beliefs about Ali and the TwelveImams, and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini decreed Alevis to be part of the Shia fold in the 1970s. [48] There are,however, Alevi philosophies, customs, and rituals that are appreciably different than those of Twelver Shias in Iraqand Iran. According to more orthodox Sunni Muslims, Alevis are labeled as " ghulat" groups, since Alevis praise Alibeyond what mainstream Muslims would expect. He and Muhammad are likened to the two sides of a coin, or thetwo halves of an apple.

Sufi elements in Alevism[edit]

Further information: Qalandariyya and Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar

[show]Sufism and Tariqa

Despite this essentially Shi‘i orientation, much of Aleviness' mystical language is inspired by Sufi traditions. Forexample, the Alevi concept of God is derived from the philosophy of Ibn Arabi and involves a chain of emanationfrom God, to spiritual man, earthly man, animals, plants, and minerals. The goal of spiritual life is to follow thispath in the reverse direction, to unity with God, or Haqq (Reality, Truth). From the highest perspective, all is God(see Wahdat-ul-Wujood). Alevis admire Mansur Al-Hallaj , a 10th-century Sufi who was accused of blasphemy andsubsequently executed in Baghdad for saying "I am the Truth" (Ana al-Haqq).

There is some tension between folk tradition Aleviness and the Bektashi Order, which is a Sufi order founded onAlevi beliefs.[49] In certain Turkish communities other Sufi orders ( the Halveti-Jerrahi and some of the Rifa'i) haveincorporated significant Alevi influence.

Relations with Sunnis[edit]

The relationship between Alevis and Sunnis is one of mutual suspicion and prejudice dating back to the Ottomanperiod. Sunnis have accused Alevis of heresy, heterodoxy, rebellion, betrayal and immorality. Alevis, on the otherhand, have argued that the Quran does not demand five prayers, nor mosque attendance, nor pilgrimage, and thatthe Sunnis distorted early Islam by omitting, misinterpreting, or changing the meaning of verses from the Quranwith fabricated hadith, especially those dealing with Ali and ritual practice. [50]

Alevis see Sunni mentality as originating in Arabia and as contrary to the Turkish national character. Some Alevisbelieve sunnah and hadith were Arab elite innovations, created to ensure Arab dominance of Islam and to enslavethe masses through manipulation. Sunnism, according to the Alevis, is not true Islam but an aberration that by itsstrict nomianism opposes free and independent thought and is seen as reactionary, bigoted, fanatic, andantidemocratic. Alevis believe Sunni nationalism is intolerant, domineering, and unwilling to recognize Aleviuniqueness.[51]

Alevis use Sunnism as the "Other", the opposite pole to Alevism, by which they identify themselves. The originalQuran does not demand five prayers, nor mosque attendance, nor pilgrimage - the Sunnis distorted early Islam byomitting, misinterpreting, or changing important passages of the original Quran, especially those dealing with Aliand ritual practice. Only Alevis have kept Muhammad's Islam in its pure form, fulfilling his demands for moralpurity, love of humanity, and faith in one God, and only they can claim to be the "true Islam." Alevis see themselvesin contrast to Sunnis as tolerant and not aggressive xenophobic chauvinists. Sunni nationalism is seen asintolerant, domineering, unwilling to recognise Alevi uniqueness.[52]

Alevis traditionally saw themselves as belonging to the "community of the saved", a chosen people who possessthe divine secret knowledge and are superior to the misled Sunnis in their zeal for externals. They trace their rootsto the original true revelation of Islam to Muhammad in Arabia, and stress that it was a religion of freedom,equality, and justice. Ali as Muhammad's only true successor and the most perfect of Muslims carried on true Islamand was the representative of the poor and the marginalised. All great Alevi leaders have the typical Alevicharacteristics of justice, egalitarianism, humility, and peacefulness. They all were revolutionaries aiming at radicalchange in society, loyal to ideals, fighting for the final triumph of good over evil. In God's inscrutable providence,good Alevism was forced to an underground existence of dissimulation and retreat due to a powerful onslaught ofevil.[52]

In today's political arena Alevis see themselves as a counterforce to Sunni fundamentalism in Turkey. Alevis, whohave a great interest in blocking the rising fundamentalist influence, are the main allies of the democraticsecularists, and are also searching for alliances with moderate Sunnis against the extremists. They are demandingthat the state recognize Aleviness as an official Islamic community equal to, but different from, Sunnism. As yet thePresidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) only represents and promotes Sunni Islam based on the Hanafi school oflaw, and does not recognise Alevis.[52]

Main differences with other Muslim sects[edit]

Some of the Alevis criticizes the course of Islam as it is being practiced overwhelmingly by more than 99%of Sunni and Shia population.

They believe that major additions had been implemented during the time of Ummayads, and refuse whatthey believe it contradicts the holy book of Islam, namely the Qu'ran.

Regular daily salat and fasting in the holy month of Ramadan are officially not a part of Alevism.

Some sub-groups like Ishikists and Bektashis, who claim to be Alevis neither comprehend the essence ofthe regular daily salat and fasting in the holy month of Ramadan that is frequently accentuated at manytimes in Quran, nor admits that these principles constitute the ineluctable foundations of the Dīn of Islam asthey had been laid down by Allah and they had been in practise in an uninterruptible manner during theperiod of Muhammad.

Qizilbash and Bektashi tariqah shared common religious beliefs and practices becoming intermingled asAlevis in spite of many local variations. Isolated from both the Sunni Ottomans and the Twelver Shi`aSafavids, Alevis developed traditions, practices, and doctrines by the early 17th century which marked themas a closed autonomous religious community. As a result of the immense pressures to conform to SunniIslam, Alevis developed a tradition of opposition to all forms of external religion.[52]

Some of the differences that mark Alevis from Sunnis are the use of wine for religious ceremonial functions;non-observance of the five daily prayers and prostrations (they only bow twice in the presence of theirspiritual leader), Ramadan, and the Hajj (they consider the pilgrimage to Mecca an external pretense, thereal pilgrimage being internal in one's heart); and non-attendance of mosques.[52]

Furthermore, during the period of Ottoman Empire, Alevis were forbidden to proselytise, and Alevism regenerateditself internally by paternal descent. To prevent penetration by hostile outsiders, the Alevis insisted on strictendogamy which eventually made them into a quasi-ethnic group. Alevi taboos limited interaction with thedominant Sunni political-religious centre. Excommunication was the ultimate punishment threatening those whomarried outsiders, cooperated with outsiders economically, or ate with outsiders. It was also forbidden to use thestate (Sunni) courts.[52]

Further information: Antinomianism

History[edit]Main article: Alevi history

Seljuk period[edit]

During the great Turkish expansion from Central Asia into Iran and Anatolia in the Seljuk period (11-12thcenturies), Turkmen nomad tribes accepted a Sufi and pro-Ali form of Islam that co-existed with some of their pre-Islamic customs. These tribes dominated central and eastern Anatolia for centuries with their religious warriors(ghazi) spearheading the drive against Byzantines and Slavs. Many Armenians converted to Turkmen type Islamwhile retaining some Christian practices, and some observers believe that heterodox Armenian Christianityexerted a significant influence on the beliefs of the extremist Shi`ite sects.[52]

Further information: Ak Koyunlu and Kara Koyunlu

Ottoman period[edit]

The Ottomans had accepted Sunni Islam in the 13th century as a means to unifying their empire, and laterproclaimed themselves its defenders against the Safavid Shia state and related heretical sects. This created a gapbetween the Sunni Ottoman ruling elite and the Alevi Anatolian population. Anatolia became a battlefield betweenSafavids and Ottomans, each determined to include it in their Empire.

Demographics[edit]

The size of the Alevi population is likewise disputed, but most estimates place them somewhere between 15 to 20million people, primarily in Turkey.[53][54]

Distribution of Alevi population in Turkey.

The Alevi population has been estimated as follows:

12,521,000 according to Sabahat Akkiraz, a MP fromCHP.[55]

"approx. 15 million..." —Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi. [56]

In Turkey, 15 percent of Turkey's population (approx. 10.6million) —David Shankland[57]

"Most Alevi writers and spokespersons claim that Turkey'spopulation today is one-third Alevi-Bektashi, or more than 20million. Lower estimates range from 10 to 12 million."—John Schindeldecker.[58]

"The Alevi constitute the second-largest religious community in Turkey (following the Sunnis), and numbersome 25% (15 million) of the total population (Alevis claim 30%–40%). Most (?) Alevis are ethnic andlinguistic Turks, mainly of Turkmen descent from Central and Eastern Anatolia. Some 20% of Alevis areKurds (though most Kurds are Sunni), and some 25% of Kurds in Turkey are Alevi ( Kurmanji and Zazaspeakers)." —David Zeidan.[59]

"15 to 20 million..." —Olli Rehn, from the 1996 (Camiel) "Eurlings Report" to the European Commission (onthe suitability of Turkish accession to the EU).

"...a world total of between 15 and 25 million adherents. There is no independent data for their numbers, sothese statistics are estimates or conjectures." —"Alevism," from The Encyclopedia of the Orient.

In June 2008, several Turkish newspapers reported that the Turkish military had commissioned threeuniversities to research the ethnic demography of Turkey. The study was done in 2000 and included allethnic groupings. According to the results, the Alevi population of Turkey, including those who currentlyreside in Europe, is around 10 million.

Conglomeration of syncretic beliefs: A wide variety of academic sources define Alevism as a syncreticreligion, combining diverse religious beliefs,[60][61][62] which developed from Islam, Buddhist-influencedTurkic shamanism, and some elements of Christianity.[63][64][65] According to Turkish university researchconducted in 2005 by a researcher named Soner Cagaptay, 44% of respondents who called themselves"Alevis" self-identify as Muslim and 56% do not.[66] Nevertheless, one should be aware of the fact that theuniversity survey which was conducted at a specific location may not reflect the accurate results all thetime, and there exists a high probability that the group who had been surveyed might belong to the non-Muslim Ishikists. Moreover, one should always bear in mind that some members of the non-muslimcommunities like Kurdish Yâresân (Ahl-i Haqq) and Ishik-Alevis define/identify themselves under the title ofAlawism as well. Henceforth, it is always possible either to enlarge or to shrink the borders of the Alevismwith respect to which of these definitions are going to be used.

Alevis have been subjected to persecution (often deadly) for centuries. Due to this fact, some have beenassimilated. It is not clear how effective the above study is in including those who might be more timid aboutadvertising their Alevi origins.

Some of the Kurdish Alevis speak Kurmanji or Zazaki. Some Alevis are Azeris. Despite universalist rhetoricand in contrast with Islam in general, or the Bektashi order, Alevi communities do not generallyacknowledge the possibility of conversion to Aleviness.

Alevi communities are concentrated in central Anatolia, in a belt from Çorum in the west to Muş in the east.The only province within Turkey with an Alevi majority is Tunceli, formerly known as Dersim. Beginning inthe 1960s, many Alevis have migrated to the large cities of western and southern Turkey—and to westernEurope, especially Germany—and are now heavily urbanized.

Social groups[edit]

A Turkish scholar working in France has distinguished four main groups among contemporary Alevis, whichcautiously show their distinctive features in modern Turkey.[68]

The first congregation is mainly represented by the urban area population and emerged during the period ofthe Republic of Turkey. For many decades, this group of people belonged to the political left and presumedthe Aleviness just as an outlook on the individual human life rather than a religious conviction bypersistently renouncing the ties of the Batiniyya-Alevism with Twelver political branch of Shia Islam. Thefollowers of this congregation, who later turned out to be the very stern defenders of the Erdoğan Çınar holdritual unions of a religious character and have established cultural associations named after Pir SultanAbdal as well. According to their philosophy, human being should enjoy a central role reminiscent of thedoctrine of Khurramites, and as illustrated by Hurufi phrase of God is Man quoted above in the context ofthe Trinity.

The second group of people, who adopted some aspirations of Christian mysticism, is more directedtowards heterodox mysticism and stands closer to the Hajji Bektashi Brotherhood. According to thephilosophy developed by this very last group of congregation, Christian mystic St Francis of Assisi andHindu Mahatma Gandhi are being supposedly considered as better believers of God than those of Muslimsas it should expectedly be in that manner, since the concept of God in Islam has already been embodied bythe supreme authority of Allah.

The third group regards themselves as true Muslims and are prepared to cooperate with the state. Itadheres to the way of Jafar as-Sadiq, the sixth Imam. Its concept of God is closer to that of orthodox Islam,but like the two groups already mentioned it considers the Quran to have been manipulated by the earlySunni Caliphs in order to eliminate Ali.

The fourth is said to be under active influence from official Iranian Shi'a to be confirmed adherents toTwelver and to reject Bektashism and folk religion. It follows Sharia and opposes secular state power.[citation

needed]

Bektashi[edit]

Main article: Bektashiyyah

The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order founded in the 13th century by Haji Bektash Veli, a dervish who escapedCentral Asia and found refuge with the Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the Mongol invasions (1219–23). Thisorder gained a great following in rural areas and it later developed in two branches: the Celebi clan, who claimedto be physical descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were called Bel evladları (children of the loins), and became thehereditary spiritual leaders of the rural Alevis; and the Babağan, those faithful to the path (yol evladları - children ofthe way) who dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order with its elected leadership. [52]

Bektashiyyah doctrine: Bektashism and Hurufism[edit]

The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such asthe need for an experienced spiritual guide — called a baba in Bektashi parlance — as well as the doctrine of "thefour gates that must be traversed": the "Sharia" (religious law), "Tariqah" (the spiritual path), "Marifa" (trueknowledge), "Haqiqah" (truth).

Wahdat-ul-Wujood[edit]

Main article: Wahdat-ul-Wujood

Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood دوجولا ةدحو , the "Unity of Being" that was

formulated by Ibn Arabi. This has often been labeled as pantheism, although it is a concept closer to panentheismBektashism is also heavily permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked veneration of Ali, The TwelveImams, and the ritual commemoration of Ashurah marking the Battle of Karbala. The old Persian holiday ofNowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Imam Ali's birthday.

In keeping with the central belief of Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali,a single unified entity. Bektashi do not consider this a form of trinity. There are many other practices andceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal (muhabbet) and yearly confession of sinsto a baba (magfirat-i zunub بونذلا ةرفغم ). Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox andmystical interpretation and understanding of the Qur'an and the prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no writtendoctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has beentaught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali andJelalludin Rumi who are close in spirit to them.

Batiniyya and Ismailism[edit]

Main articles: Batiniyya and Ismailism

Bektashis hold that the Qur'an has two levels of meaning: an outer ( Zāher رهاظ ) and an inner (bāṭen 3] (. نطاب ] Theyhold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe andhumanity, which is a view that can also be found in Ismailism and Batiniyya.[69]

Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritualpath to the Reality. First level members are called aşıks قشاع . They are those who, while not having taken initiationinto the order, are nevertheless drawn to it. Following initiation (called nasip) one becomes a mühip بحم . Aftersome time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The next level above dervish is that ofbaba. The baba (lit. father) is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance ( irshad

داشرإ ). Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba (or dede, grandfather). Traditionally there were twelve of these, themost senior being the dedebaba (great-grandfather). The dedebaba was considered to be the highest rankingauthority in the Bektashi Order. Traditionally the residence of the dedebaba was the Pir Evi (The Saint's Home)which was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaş(Solucakarahüyük).

Further information: Bektashism and Hurufism

Qizilbash[edit]

Main articles: Qizilbash and Safavids

The Kizilbash (red-heads) were Turkmen tribes who adhered to the Safavid Sufi Order, whose Sheikhs claimeddescent from Ali. Under Isma`il (d. 1524) they became dominant in Eastern Anatolia and conquered Azerbaijanwith its capital Tabriz, where Isma`il named himself Shah in 1501 and went on to conquer all of Iran. Hismissionaries spread a message of revolt against the Sunni Ottomans in Anatolia, claiming that Isma`il was theawaited mahdi (messiah), and Anatolia became the scene of protracted warfare between Ottomans andSafavids.[52]

Qizilbash doctrine: Kızılbaşlık[edit]

Qizilbash and Bektashi tariqah shared common religious beliefs and practices becoming intermingled as Alevis inspite of many local variations. Isolated from both the Sunni Ottomans and the Twelver Shi`a Safavids, Qizilbashand Bektashi developed traditions, practices, and doctrines by the early 17th century which marked them as aclosed autonomous religious community. As a result of the immense pressures to conform to Sunni Islam, all

members of Alevism developed a tradition of opposition (ibāḥa) to all forms of external religion. [52]

The doctrine of Qizilbashism is well explained in the following poem written by the Shaykh of Safaviyya tariqahIsmail I:

هز م هملیب هنسن اهاد نم / Men daha nesne bilmezem, // I don't know any other object,

ریدى́لع دممحم ریب هلالآ / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. // Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali.

مازاملاس هدتبروغ موزؤا / Özüm gurbette salmazam, // I can't let out my own essence to places far frommy homeland,

ریدى́لع دممحم ریب هلالآ / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. // Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali.

رودبولوا ریب ریدریب ، رلانوا / Onlar birdir, bir oluştur, // They are unique, a single one, i.e. Haqq-Muhammad-Ali,

رودبولوا رون هیؤگ ندرئی / Yerden göğe nûr oluştur, // It's a nūr from Earth to Sky,

رودبولوا رریس هد هشوگ درؤد ، / Dört guşede sır oluştur, // It's a mysterious occult secret in every corner ofthe square,

ریدى́لع دممحم ریب هلالآ / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. // Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali.

ریدرس ادلوی وب ىیاتخ / Khatai bu yolda sırdır, // Khatai in this tariqah is a mysterious occult secret,

ریدرا هد رلن هرئو نیرس / Sırın verenler de erdir, // Those reveal their own secret are private as well,

رودرون هدنوگ ریدریس ، ادیآ / Ayda sırdır, günde nûrdur, // Secret on Moon, nūr on day,

ریدى́لع دممحم ریب هلالآ / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali'dir. // Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali.

The lines of poetry above may easily be judged as an act of " Shirk" (polytheism) by the Sunni Ulama, but theyhave a bāṭenī[3] taʾwīl (inner explanation) in Qizilbashism.

Alevi music[edit]

Alevi religious services, referred to collectively as cem or âyîn, include spiritual exercises that incorporateelements of zikr ("remembrance" or recitation of God's names, in this case without controlled breathing, but withsome elements of body posturing) and sema (ritual dance). The latter is accompanied by sung mystical poetry inthe vernacular, and by the sacred ritual instrument known as bağlama or saz (a plucked folk lute with frets).

Such music is performed by specialists known as zâkir, aşık, sazende or güvende, depending on regional usage.They are recruited from Alevi communities and descended from dede lineages. Many are also known to bepoet/minstrels (aşık, ozan) who perpetuate the tradition of dervish-lodge (tekke) poets such as Yunus Emre (13thcentury), Nesîmî (14th century), Pir Sultan Abdal , Hatâ'î and Genç Abdal (16th century) and Kul Himmet and KulHüseyn (17th century). The poetry was composed in the Turkish vernacular and follows the principles of folkprosody known as hece vezne in which the focus is the number of syllables.

The specialized sacred musical repertoire of Alevi musicians includes

Deyiş (songs of mystical love)

Nefes (hymns concerning the mystical experience)

Düvaz or dıwes imâm (hymns in honor of the 12 Alid imams)

Mersiye (laments concerning the martyrdom of Imam Huseyn at Karbala)

Miraçlama (songs about the ascent of the Muhammad to heaven)

Sema (ritual dance accompanied by folk lutes and sung poetry)

The dances are performed with dignity by couples, and choreographies employ circle and line formations as wellas arrangements where couples face one another, thus synchronizing their movements more closely. As the tempoof the music increases, the figures become more complex and intense. There are many regional variants of sema,but the most widespread and important are the Dance of the Forty (Kırklar Semahı) and the Dance of the Cranes(Turnalar Semahı).

The âyîn-î-cem can be heard on the JVC CD Turkey - An Esoteric Sufi Ceremony . Unfortunately for non-specialists, the notes are very vague and give no indication of location, performers, musical genres or poeticforms. The recording was made in Istanbul in 1993, and the ceremony includes in an order typical of a cem : adeyiş that reiterates the line of descent of the sect in a historical framework, two düvaz (one based on the poetry ofHatâ'î, and the other on the poetry of Kul Himmet), prayer formulas, the ill-Âllâh genre that incorporates the tahlîlformula into the poem to create an atmosphere of zikr while sect members create rhythmic intensity by hitting theirknees in time to the music and sway their bodies slightly, the Dance of the Forty (Kırklar Semah), the Dance of theCranes (Turnalar Semahı) and prayer formulas.

Alevis have a significant role in Turkish music and poetry. Pir Sultan Abdal , a 16th-century Alevi poet whosepoems and songs often contain spiritual themes, is revered as a saint and hero. Important figures are the Sufipoet Yunus Emre, widely regarded as having been Alevi, and Kaygusuz Abdal. Their poems shape Turkish cultureup to now, and are also performed by modern artists. Songs attributed to these poets have been embraced by left-wingers in the 20th century. The aşık bards are also influenced by Alevi tradition.

Many of the major traditional musicians in Turkey are Alevi, including Arif Sağ, Musa Eroğlu, Erdal Erzincan, AşıkMahzuni Şerif, Aşık Feyzullah Çınar, Aşık Veysel Şatıroğlu, Ali Ekber Çiçek, Sabahat Akkiraz, Belkıs Akkale, andUlaş Özdemir. Other non-Alevis, such as Ruhi Su, have recorded many Alevi songs. Mercan Dede, an artistwhose music combines electronic and traditional Sufi elements, has made some songs involving Alevi themes incooperation with singer Sabahat Akkiraz. [2]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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29. Jump up ^ The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-Alawi Community of Cilicia ... - GiselaProcházka-Eisl, Stephan Procházka, Stephan Procházka - Google Břger. Books.google.dk. Retrieved2012-11-22.

30. Jump up ^ Roger M. Savory (ref. Abdülbaki Gölpinarli), Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Kizil-Bash", Online Edition2005

31. ^ Jump up to: a b c "BÄṬENĪYA". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

32. Jump up ^ "ABU’L-ḴAṬṬĀB ASADĪ". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

33. Jump up ^ "ḴAṬṬĀBIYA". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

34. Jump up ^ "ʿABDALLĀH B. MAYMŪN AL-QADDĀḤ". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

35. Jump up ^ Öztürk, Yaşar Nuri, En-el Hak İsyanı (The Anal Haq Rebellion) – Hallâc-ı Mansûr(Darağacında Miraç - Miraç on Gallows), Vol 1 and 2, Yeni Boyut, 2011.

36. Jump up ^ "Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī aqidah" of "Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh" (Sūlaiman Affandy, Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah - Family tree of the Nusayri Tariqat, pp. 14-15, Beirut, 1873.)

37. Jump up ^ Both Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī and Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim’at-Tabarānī were the murids ofAl-Khaṣībī, the founder of the Nusayri tariqat.

38. Jump up ^ "Religions". CIA World Factbook .

39. Jump up ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009.

40. Jump up ^ These and many other quotations may be found in John Shindeldecker's Turkish Alevis Today .

41. Jump up ^ Also see, Öztürk, ibid, pp. 78-81. In the old days, marrying a Sünni [Yezide kuşak çözmek] wasalso accepted as an offense that led to the state of düşkün. See Alevi Buyruks

42. Jump up ^ Kristina Kehl-Bordrogi reports this among the Tahtacı. See her article "The significance ofmüsahiplik among the Alevis" in Synchronistic Religious Communities in the Near East (co-edited by her,with B. Kellner-Heinkele & A. Otter-Beaujean), Brill 1997, p. 131 ff.

43. Jump up ^ Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi. 1988. Die Kizilbash/Aleviten, pp. 182-204.

44. Jump up ^ See again "The significance of müsahiplik among the Alevis" in Synchronistic ReligiousCommunities in the Near East (co-edited by her, with B. Kellner-Heinkele & A. Otter-Beaujean), Brill 1997,p. 131 ff.

45. Jump up ^ Religious practices in the Turco-Iranian World, 2005.

46. Jump up ^ See Martin Stokes' study.

47. Jump up ^ Miller, Tracy, ed (October 2009). "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Sizeand Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, Pew Research Center" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-10-08.

48. Jump up ^ Nasr, V: "The Shia Revival," page 1. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc, 2006

49. Jump up ^ Ataseven, I: "The Alevi-Bektasi Legacy: Problems of Acquisition and Explanation", page 1.Coronet Books Inc, 1997

50. Jump up ^ Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat inder Türkei der Gegenwart, pp. 107-108.

51. Jump up ^ Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat inder Türkei der Gegenwart, pp. 95-96.

52. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "THE ALEVI OF ANATOLIA" . angelfire.com. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

53. Jump up ^ "Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report 2007". State.gov. Retrieved 9 August 2011.

54. Jump up ^ "Turkey's Alevi strive for recognition". Asia Times Online. 18 February 2010. Retrieved 9 August2011.

55. Jump up ^ "Sabahat Akkiraz’dan Alevi raporu". haber.sol.org.tr. Retrieved 25 June 2014.

56. Jump up ^ From the introduction of Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East edited by her, B.Kellner-Heinkele, & A. Otter-Beaujean. Leiden: Brill, 1997.

57. Jump up ^ Structure and Function in Turkish Society. Isis Press, 2006, p. 81.

58. Jump up ^ From his Turkish Alevis Today .

59. Jump up ^ "The Alevi of Anatolia," 1995.

60. Jump up ^ Formation of Alevi Sycretism, Ceren Selmanpakoglu, 2006

61. Jump up ^ "Alevism " Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities". Retrieved 5 March 2015.

62. Jump up ^ The making of world society; Anghel, Gerharz et al.; Transaction Publishers; 2008; page 106

63. Jump up ^ "Are Syrian Alawites and Turkish Alevis the Same?" . Retrieved 5 March 2015.

64. Jump up ^ Soner Cagaptay, The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power, p. 85.Date=?

65. Jump up ^ Struggling for recognition, Sokefeld, Berghahn books, 2008, page 103

66. Jump up ^ Soner Cagaptay, The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power, p.90.Date=?, Publisher=?

67. Jump up ^ Μποζανίνου Τάνια. "ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ - Αλεβίτες, οι άγνωστοι "συγγενείς" μας - κόσμος" . Tovima.gr.Retrieved 2012-11-22.

68. Jump up ^ Bilici, F: "The Function of Alevi-Bektashi Theology in Modern Turkey", seminar. SwedishResearch Institute, 1996

69. Jump up ^ Halm, H. "BĀṬENĪYA". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 4 August 2014.

Further reading[edit]

General introductions

Engin, Ismail & Franz, Erhard (2000). Aleviler / Alewiten. Cilt 1 Band: Kimlik ve Tarih / Identität undGeschichte. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient Institut (Mitteilungen Band 59/2000). ISBN 3-89173-059-4

Engin, Ismail & Franz, Erhard (2001). Aleviler / Alewiten. Cilt 2 Band: İnanç ve Gelenekler / Glaube undTraditionen. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient Institut (Mitteilungen Band 60/2001). ISBN 3-89173-061-6

Engin, Ismail & Franz, Erhard (2001). Aleviler / Alewiten. Cilt 3 Band: Siyaset ve Örgütler / Politik undOrganisationen. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient Institut (Mitteilungen Band 61/2001). ISBN 3-89173-062-4

Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina (1992). Die Kizilbas/Aleviten. Untersuchungen uber eine esoterischeGlaubensgemeinschaft in Anatolien. Die Welt des Islams, (New Series), Vol. 32, No. 1.

Kitsikis, Dimitri (1999). Multiculturalism in the Ottoman Empire : The Alevi Religious and CulturalCommunity, in P. Savard & B. Vigezzi eds. Multiculturalism and the History of International RelationsMilano: Edizioni Unicopli.

Kjeilen, Tore (undated). "Alevism," in the (online) Encyclopedia of the Orient.

Shankland, David (2003). The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. CurzonPress.

Shindeldecker, John (1996). Turkish Alevis Today. Istanbul: Sahkulu.

White, Paul J., & Joost Jongerden (eds.) (2003). Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview.Leiden: Brill.

Yaman, Ali & Aykan Erdemir (2006). Alevism-Bektashism: A Brief Introduction , London: England AleviCultural Centre & Cem Evi. ISBN 975-98065-3-3

Zeidan, David (1999) "The Alevi of Anatolia. " Middle East Review of International Affairs 3/4.

Kurdish Alevis

Bumke, Peter (1979). "Kizilbaş-Kurden in Dersim (Tunceli, Türkei). Marginalität und Häresie." Anthropos 74,530-548.

Gezik, Erdal (2000), Etnik Politik Dinsel Sorunlar Baglaminda Alevi Kurtler, Ankara.

Van Bruinessen, Martin (1997). "Aslını inkar eden haramzadedir! The Debate on the Kurdish Ethnic Identityof the Kurdish Alevis." In K. Kehl-Bodrogi, B. Kellner-Heinkele, & A. Otter-Beaujean (eds), SyncretisticReligious Communities in the Near East (Leiden: Brill).

Van Bruinessen, Martin (1996). Kurds, Turks, and the Alevi revival in Turkey. Middle East Report, No. 200,pp. 7–10. (NB: The online version is expanded from its original publication.)

White, Paul J. (2003), "The Debate on the Identity of ‘Alevi Kurds’." In: Paul J. White/Joost Jongerden(eds.) Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview. Leiden: Brill, pp. 17–32.

Alevi / Bektashi history

Birge, John Kingsley (1937). The Bektashi order of dervishes , London and Hartford.

Brown, John (1927), The Darvishes of Oriental Spiritualism.

Küçük, Hülya (2002) The Roles of the Bektashis in Turkey’s National Struggle. Leiden: Brill.

Mélikoff, Irène (1998). Hadji Bektach: Un mythe et ses avatars. Genèse et évolution du soufisme populaireen Turquie. Leiden: Islamic History and Civilization, Studies and Texts, volume 20, ISBN 90-04-10954-4.

Shankland, David (1994). "Social Change and Culture: Responses to Modernization in an Alevi Village inAnatolia."In C.N. Hann, ed., When History Accelerates: Essays on Rapid Social Change, Complexity, andCreativity. London: Athlone Press.

Yaman, Ali (undated). " Kizilbash Alevi Dedes." (Based on his MA thesis for Istanbul University.)

Ghulat sects in general

Halm, H. (1982). Die Islamische Gnosis: Die extreme Schia und die Alawiten. Zurich.

Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Krisztina, & Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, Anke Otter-Beaujean, eds. (1997)Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East. Leiden: Brill, pp. 11-18.

Moosa, Matti (1988). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects, Syracuse University Press.

Van Bruinessen, Martin (2005). "Religious practices in the Turco-Iranian world: continuity and change."French translation published as: "Les pratiques religieuses dans le monde turco-iranien: changements etcontinuités", Cahiers d'Études sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le Monde Turco-Iranien, no. 39-40, 101-121.

Alevi Identity

Erdemir, Aykan (2005). "Tradition and Modernity: Alevis' Ambiguous Terms and Turkey's AmbivalentSubjects", Middle Eastern Studies, 2005, vol.41, no.6, pp. 937–951.

Koçan, Gürcan/Öncü, Ahmet (2004) "Citizen Alevi in Turkey: Beyond Confirmation and Denial." Journal ofHistorical Sociology, 17/4, pp. 464–489.

Olsson, Tord & Elizabeth Özdalga/Catharina Raudvere, eds. (1998). Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious andSocial Perspectives. Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute.

Stokes, Martin (1996). "Ritual, Identity and the State: An Alevi (Shi’a) Cem Ceremony."In Kirsten E. Schulzeet al. (eds.), Nationalism, Minorities and Diasporas: Identities and Rights in the Middle East,, pp. 194-196.

Vorhoff, Karin (1995). Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identität in der Türkeider Gegenwart. Berlin.

Alevism in Europe

Geaves, Ron (2003) "Religion and Ethnicity: Community Formation in the British Alevi Community."Koninklijke Brill NV 50, pp. 52– 70.

Kosnick, Kira (2004) "‘Speaking in One’s Own Voice’: Representational Strategies of Alevi Turkish Migrantson Open-Access Television in Berlin." Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 30/5, pp. 979-994.

Massicard, Elise (2003) "Alevist Movements at Home and Abroad: Mobilization Spaces and Disjunction."New Perspective on Turkey, 28, pp. 163–188.

Rigoni, Isabelle (2003) "Alevis in Europe: A Narrow Path towards Visibility." In: Paul J. White/JoostJongerden (eds.) Turkey’s Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview, Leiden: Brill, pp. 159–173.

Sökefeld, Martin (2002) "Alevi Dedes in the German Diaspora: The Transformation of a ReligiousInstitution." Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 127, pp. 163–189.

Sökefeld, Martin (2004) "Alevis in Germany and the Question of Integration" paper presented at theConference on the Integration of Immigrants from Turkey in Austria, Germany and Holland, BoğaziçiUniversity, Istanbul, February 27–28, 2004.

Sökefeld, Martin & Suzanne Schwalgin (2000). "Institutions and their Agents in Diaspora: A Comparison ofArmenians in Athens and Alevis in Germany." Paper presented at the 6th European Association of SocialAnthropologist Conference, Krakau.

Thomä-Venske, Hanns (1990). "The Religious Life of Muslim in Berlin." In: Thomas Gerholm/Yngve GeorgLithman (eds.) The New Islamic Presence in Western Europe, New York: Mansell, pp. 78–87.

Wilpert, Czarina (1990) "Religion and Ethnicity: Orientations, Perceptions and Strategies among TurkishAlevi and Sunni Migrants in Berlin." In: Thomas Gerholm/Yngve Georg Lithman (eds.) The New IslamicPresence in Western Europe. New York: Mansell, pp. 88–106.

Zirh, Besim Can (2008) "Euro-Alevis: From Gasterbeiter to Transnational Community." In: Anghel, Gerharz,Rescher and Salzbrunn (eds.) The Making of World Society: Perspectives from Transnational Research.Transcript; 103-130.

Bibliographies

Vorhoff, Karin. (1998), "Academic and Journalistic Publications on the Alevi and Bektashi of Turkey." In: TordOlsson/Elizabeth Özdalga/Catharina Raudvere (eds.) Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and SocialPerspectives, Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute, pp. 23–50.

Turkish-language works

Ata, Kelime. (2007), Alevilerin İlk Siyasal Denemesi: (Türkiye Birlik Partisi) (1966–1980). Ankara: KelimeYayınevi.

Aydın, Ayhan. (2008), Abidin Özgünay: Yazar Yayıncı ve Cem Dergisi Kurucusu. İstanbul: Niyaz Yayınları.

Balkız, Ali. (1999), Sivas’tan Sydney’e Pir Sultan. Ankara: İtalik.

Balkız, Ali. (2002), Pir Sultan’da Birlik Mücadelesi (Hızır Paşalar’a Yanıt). Ankara: İtalik.

Bilgöl, Hıdır Ali. (1996), Aleviler ve Canlı Fotoğraflar, Alev Yayınları.

Coşkun, Zeki (1995) Aleviler, Sünniler ve … Öteki Sivas, Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları.

Dumont, Paul. (1997), "Günümüz Türkiye’sinde Aleviliğin Önemi" içinde Aynayı Yüzüme Ali GöründüGözüme: Yabancı Araştırmacıların Gözüyle Alevilik, editör: İlhan Cem Erseven. İsntabul: Ant, 141-161.

Engin, Havva ve Engin, Ismail (2004). Alevilik. Istanbul: Kitap Yayınevi.

Gül, Zeynel. (1995), Yol muyuz Yolcu muyuz? İstanbul: Can Yayınları.

Gül, Zeynel. (1999), Dernekten Partiye: Avrupa Alevi Örgütlenmesi. Ankara: İtalik.

Güler, Sabır. (2008), Aleviliğin Siyasal Örgütlenmesi: Modernleşme, Çözülme ve Türkiye Birlik Partisi.Ankara: Dipnot.

İrat, Ali Murat. (2008), Devletin Bektaşi Hırkası / Devlet, Aleviler ve Ötekiler. İstanbul: Chiviyazıları.

Kaleli, Lütfü. (2000), "1964-1997 Yılları Arasında Alevi Örgütleri" içinde Aleviler/Alewiten: Kimlik ve Tarih/Indentität und Geschichte, editörler: İsmail Engin ve Erhard Franz. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient-Institut,223-241.

Kaleli, Lütfü. (2000), Alevi Kimliği ve Alevi Örgütlenmeri. İstanbul: Can Yayınları.

Kaplan, İsmail. (2000), "Avrupa’daki Alevi Örgütlenmesine Bakış" içinde Aleviler/Alewiten: Kimlik ve Tarih/Indentität und Geschichte, editörler: İsmail Engin ve Erhard Franz. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient-Institut,241-260.

Kaplan, İsmail. (2009), Alevice: İnancımız ve Direncimiz. Köln: AABF Yayınları.

Kocadağ, Burhan. (1996), Alevi Bektaşi Tarihi. İstanbul: Can Yayınları.

Massicard, Elise. (2007), Alevi Hareketinin Siyasallaşması. İstanbul: İletişim.

Melikoff, Irene. (1993), Uyur İdik Uyardılar. İstanbul: Cem Yayınevi.

Okan, Murat. (2004), Türkiye’de Alevilik / Antropolojik Bir Yaklaşım. Ankara: İmge.

Özerol, Süleyman. (2009), Hasan Nedim Şahhüseyinoğlu. Ankara: Ürün.

Şahhüseyinoğlu, H. Nedim. (2001), Hızır Paşalar: Bir İhracın Perde Arkası. Ankara: İtalik.

Şahhüseyinoğlu, Nedim. (1997), Pir Sultan Kültür Derneği’nin Demokrasi Laiklik ve Özgürlük Mücadelesi.Ankara: PSAKD Yayınları.

Şahhüseyinoğlu, Nedim. (2001), Alevi Örgütlerinin Tarihsel Süreci. Ankara: İtalik.

Salman, Meral. 2006, Müze Duvarlarına Sığmayan Dergah: Alevi – Bektaşi Kimliğinin Kuruluş SürecindeHacı Bektaş Veli Anma Görenleri. Ankara: Kalan.

Saraç, Necdet. (2010), Alevilerin Siyasal Tarihi. İstanbul: Cem.

Şener, Cemal ve Miyase İlknur. (1995), Şeriat ve Alevilik: Kırklar Meclisi’nden Günümüze AleviÖrgütlenmesi. İstanbul: Ant.

Tosun, Halis. (2002), Alevi Kimliğiyle Yaşamak. İstanbul: Can Yayınları.

Vergin, Nur (2000, [1981]), Din, Toplum ve Siyasal Sistem, İstanbul: Bağlam.

Yaman, Ali (2000) "Anadolu Aleviliği’nde Ocak Sistemi Ve Dedelik Kurumu ." Alevi Bektaşi.

Zırh, Besim Can. (2005), "Avro-Aleviler: Ziyaretçi İşçilikten Ulus-aşırı Topluluğa" Kırkbudak 2: 31-58.

Zırh, Besim Can. (2006), "Avrupa Alevi Konfederasyonu Turgut Öker ile Görüşme" Kırkbudak 2: 51-71.

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