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34 THE TRADE AND TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS Some aspects of air transport of animals OLIVER GRAHAM-JONES Veterinnry Cotrstlltuiit on joint BEA/BOAC Medical Panel, Departtnent of Medicine, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London, N WI, Great Brifain Although to the airline operator the actual flying time to which animals are exposed may seem the only relevant factor, the fmal condition of the animal cargo is likely to be the criterion by which a customerjudgesthe airline’s efficiency. He may not be interested in all the other factors which influence the viability of animals under- taking journeys half way across the world. In order that the air freight operator himself recognises the problems, it is necessary to consider all aspects of the animal’s journey from the jungle to the zoo. As far as wild animals are concerned,attempts must be made to minimise stressful circumstances which may actually encourage the process by which a healthy animal at the start of a journey can become sick by the time it reaches its destination. The total journey that the animal undertakes - in which the flight plays only a small part - may impose such trauma that the healthy animal becomes ill. Its commensal bacteria and other infecting agents becomes pathogens, and silent infections are activated in such a way that the animal not only becomes a danger to other animals in the consign- ment, but possibly to personnel or passengers. In order for an air freight operator to achieve a successful reputation it may be necessary for him to play a positive part in satisfying himself that certain pre-flight conditions are met, and that collection and distribution systems are satisfactory. In this way he will play a positive part in the control of animal disease itself, and indeed be involved in the control of zoonotic infections. It is interesting to speculate on the great increase of inter-continental animal travel and relate it to those infections of animal and man which might be rapidly transported from area to area by air. It is possible that government authorities may now, or in the future, take a greater interest in the problem and may decide to impose even stricter restrictions than those now appertaining to sea, rail and road transport. These regulations do at the moment, and will in the future, deal with conditions under which animals may be transported before and after arrival in this or other countries, and the legal requirements of quarantine for certain species. In the past there has been some confusion arising from ill-defined categories of animals, but in Great Britain this problem has been overcome by imposing zoological classifications upon legisla- tion, e.g. dogs and cats are referred to as canines and felines. The present ‘Importationof Mammals Order 1971’ lists most carefully those animals which are subject to quarantine in this country. The possibility of such diseases as rabies being transmitted from animals imported by air was one of the reasons why stricter legislation has been imposed. It is interesting to note that before recent legislation, it was possible to import many mammals (e.g. skunks, bats, etc.) which may well have been silent carriers of the rabies virus. Let us consider some factors affecting the journey of the animal from its natural environ- ment to its ultimate destination. T m A H FD RT AH P Fig. I. The three phases of an animal’s journey from native habitat to final destination. PHASE I Airlines have little or no direct control ovcr the first phase of the total journey of the animal in which they have an interest. It is advisable that airline operators should be aware of the problem and accept animal freight only from those shippers known to have a deeper interest in the condition of the animals which they are asking the airline to transport. The selection and methods of catching the animals are apparently remote

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34 T H E T R A D E A N D T R A N S P O R T O F ANIMALS

Some aspects of air transport of animals

OLIVER GRAHAM-JONES

Veterinnry Cotrstlltuiit on joint BEA/BOAC Medical Panel, Departtnent of Medicine, Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London, N W I , Great Brifain

Although to the airline operator the actual flying time to which animals are exposed may seem the only relevant factor, the fmal condition of the animal cargo is likely to be the criterion by which a customerjudges the airline’s efficiency. He may not be interested in all the other factors which influence the viability of animals under- taking journeys half way across the world. In order that the air freight operator himself recognises the problems, it is necessary to consider all aspects of the animal’s journey from the jungle to the zoo. As far as wild animals are concerned, attempts must be made to minimise stressful circumstances which may actually encourage the process by which a healthy animal at the start of a journey can become sick by the time it reaches its destination. The total journey that the animal undertakes - in which the flight plays only a small part - may impose such trauma that the healthy animal becomes ill. Its commensal bacteria and other infecting agents becomes pathogens, and silent infections are activated in such a way that the animal not only becomes a danger to other animals in the consign- ment, but possibly to personnel or passengers.

In order for an air freight operator to achieve a successful reputation it may be necessary for him to play a positive part in satisfying himself that certain pre-flight conditions are met, and that collection and distribution systems are satisfactory. In this way he will play a positive part in the control of animal disease itself, and indeed be involved in the control of zoonotic infections. It is interesting to speculate on the great increase of inter-continental animal travel and relate it to those infections of animal and man which might be rapidly transported from area to area by air. It is possible that government authorities may now, or in the future, take a greater interest in the problem and may decide to impose even stricter restrictions than those now appertaining to sea, rail and road transport. These regulations do at the moment, and will in the

future, deal with conditions under which animals may be transported before and after arrival in this or other countries, and the legal requirements of quarantine for certain species.

In the past there has been some confusion arising from ill-defined categories of animals, but in Great Britain this problem has been overcome by imposing zoological classifications upon legisla- tion, e.g. dogs and cats are referred to as canines and felines. The present ‘Importation of Mammals Order 1971’ lists most carefully those animals which are subject to quarantine in this country. The possibility of such diseases as rabies being transmitted from animals imported by air was one of the reasons why stricter legislation has been imposed. It is interesting to note that before recent legislation, it was possible to import many mammals (e.g. skunks, bats, etc.) which may well have been silent carriers of the rabies virus.

Let us consider some factors affecting the journey of the animal from its natural environ- ment to its ultimate destination.

T m A H FD RT AH P

Fig. I. The three phases of an animal’s journey from native habitat to final destination.

PHASE I

Airlines have little or no direct control ovcr the first phase of the total journey of the animal in which they have an interest. It is advisable that airline operators should be aware of the problem and accept animal freight only from those shippers known to have a deeper interest in the condition of the animals which they are asking the airline to transport. The selection and methods of catching the animals are apparently remote

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THE T R A D E A N D TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS 35

from the second part of the total journey, a1 though they are often the predetermining factors for the success of the airlifi. Ignorance of these factors can negate any amount of care and attention lavishcd on all aspects of this phase. It should not be forgotten that when Phase 11 is a sea or overland journey, animal freight demoralised by Phase I has much longer either to recover or die from the experience than air- lifted animals.

CC

cc "Jm&--&

I cc

cc D-w '1 cc I

cc 'CC

Pig. 2.

KEY TO FIGS. I and 2

J =jungle: native habitat C = camp base CC = collecting centre RT D =depot AH = airport holding area ACL = aircraft loading

ACU = aircraft unloading AA = animal agent FD = final destination I = interchange P - packaging

Phase I - from native habitat to airport.

= rail or overland transport

F =flight

Fig. 2 illustrates the delay that can be experienced by an animal during Phase I and before its arrival at the airport. It would be advisable for animals to rest for a period of time at collecting centres and depots (see C and D)

during Phase I, where overt disease could be noted and the necessary action taken. Such delays may be only accidental in Phase I since the collec- tors no doubt wish to export their animals as quickly as possible and present them at the airport without culling the weaker specimens. The time an animal or collection of animals stays in a depot may be related to aircraft availability; close liaison here between the airline and the shipper is important. Short delays are not significant and may give the shipper the opportunity of removing ailing animals. Long delays are a disadvantage both because of management difficulties and because animals may aclimatise themselves to a location only to find themselves shipped on without warning, having forgotten their travel pattern. Once animals have left a collecting centre, their journey should preferably be rapid and uncomplicated so that those animals shown to be fit at that stage do not have time to deteriorate and fall sick.

The importance of the stress factor in Phase 1 cannot be overstated. Some of the factors which contribute towards it should be considered: I. The removal of the animal from its normal environment with the total destruction of its territorial disposition. The removal of intra- and extra-specific relationships, and the suppression or frustration of all flight reflexes. 2. Throughout Phase 1 there is an additional unfamiliar noise factor to which the animal concerned will be sensitive. 3 . For the first time in its life the animal will be in constant contact with man, normally regarded as an enemy. 4. Boxing and crating manoeuvres enhance noise factors, the presence of man, new circumstances, and high degree of fear and anticipation. 5 . Nutritional factors may not be of great importance for short journeys. Animals being shipped by air from the wild will experience complete alteration in amounts, quantities, qualities and frequencies of food. This is likely to produce enteric problems even in the hardiest. 6. Unless proper care is taken at all stages of Phase I, it is possible that the animals may be exposed to unacceptable extremes in climate when stacked in crates awaiting transport. 7. The delay factors produce an irregular repeti- tion of thcse stimuli which thwart the animals' attempt to accept them.

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36 THE T R A D E A N D T R A N S P O R T OF ANIMALS

P H A S E I1

In Phase II we have to consider the delays which may be experienced by the animals at the airport holding centre both on arrival and departure, together with delays during the loading and unloading of an aircraft.

The ingredient of flying time in Phase I1 is probably the least troublesome since experience has shown most animals to accommodate quite rapidly to flying. It should also be recognised that not all flights are direct, and transfers may take place en route. The immense complexity of a modem airport sometimes mitigates against constant and detailed supervision of such vulner- able cargo as animals. All airports should have the benefit of additional veterinary consultant services where required, together with appropriate hold- ing accommodation. This will include facilities for separation of incompatible species and for isolation in order to accommodate local quaran- tine restrictions. Certain special requirements such as side rooms for immediate laboratory work and minor post-mortem facilities for immediate identification of cause of death should be available. Certain people feel that these facilities should be the responsibility of civil authorities, whereas at the moment they mainly depend on the capacities of airlines or animal charities to supply them.

It is important that airports ensure that, having made arrangements for the reception and handling of animal freight, the delays are minimised. One important factor is packaging, referred to on the phase chart as P. The condition in which the animal is packed will have a great influence upon its state on arrival. The art and craft, apart from the science, of packing animals for flight is now fully laid down in a series of British Standards available from the British Standards Institute. These standards have been incorporated into flight manuals of many airlines. It should be remembered, however, that whilst the standards set out are suitable, and in many ways are ideal, for a great nuniber of animal species, they are not mandatory. Freight carriers could, however, decline to accept animal freight unless packed according to such standards. Beyond ordinary packaging, the standards lay down conditions of humidity and ventilation applicable to various species.

The importance of the crew’s attitude towards

freight cannot be over-emphasised. The flight deck will be aware of the problems caused by excessive height changes and sudden manoeuvres, and of the need to avoid hazardous flying con- ditions imposed by weather, for the animals’ sake. The in-flight duties of the crew will include overall supervision of the welfare of the animals, and where necessary the crew will be supported by the presence of a specialist animal handler. The protection of the crew against transmissible infection or from injury from animal freight is of prime importance to the airline, and guide lines are usually laid down in flight manuals.

The disinfection of aircraft after flight with animal freight is important, and only disinfec- tants which are fat and grease solvent should be used. Antiseptics are frequently not detergent enough.

Cabin crews often ask about the desirability of possessing propellant chemical dart guns. This is the territory of an expert and they can only lead to confusion if used inadvisedly. In general terms crew members are better off without such equip- ment.

P H A S E 111

Clearly most airlines consider that once they have delivered their animal freight to the holding area of the destination airport, their respon- sibilities are over. A dissatisfied customer receiving a consignment of animals in poor health is inclined to blame the airline. With this in mind airlines should recognise the difficulties that animals may still face during their journey from the airport to the zoo. If they have to go by rail or road, or be lodged with an animal dealer, they face further transport before arrival at the final destination.

Quarantine regulations vary internationally, but in Great Britain some of the most severe quarantine restrictions apply to rabies control. In this contcxt it is essential that airline operators are familiar with all legislation appropriate to those countries in which they have an interest. In Great Britain the Importation of Mammals Order 1971 lists quite clearly those mammals which need quarantine facilities, and this will impose restrictions upon animals using major airports.

An airline should be aware of contagious infections of animals, particularly primates,

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T H E T R A D E A N D TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS 37

which cause disease in man. These underline the essential need for proper handling facilities at airports and for very careful documentation to ensure that animal consignments can be identified rapidly should a disease problem emerge. An airline operator must realise that animals carry infections which are not only transmissible amongst themselves, but are transmissible to man, and thus may affect aircraft personnel and even passengers. Perhaps the massive trans- shipment of primates for research laboratories has emphasised the zoonotic risks involved with the emergence of virus B infection, of Marburg disease, and hepatitis in chimpanzees to mention but a few. Many of these diseases and others can be fatal to man. The speed of air freight for animals poses the risk of the rapid transfer of infections fromcountry to country and it is to be expected that many governments resist the reception of certain animals by air, if only from this point of view.

C O N C L U S I O N

Animal transport by air in general is very successful, particularly in view of the millions of

animals shipped annually. Exotic animals seem to be less resilient to air transport, perhaps because their problems are not so well understood. Animal packaging is an important feature in the failure rate, and in Great Britain the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals possesses numerous photographs taken of im- proper packaging.

The increasing animal freight trade demands more rigid regulations to protect both crews and passengers against infection or residual effects of animal transport in aircraft. Maximum protection must be available for handlers and crew, for airport staff and for the public.

All major airports should possess proper animal holding and handling facilities which could perhaps best be supplied by civil authorities and leased to airline consortiums.

Medical and veterinary personnel must work in close co-operation towards a greater awareness of zoonotic infections which may be contracted from animals carried by air, particularly when animal resistance is lowered by the journey from the jungle to the zoo.

Manuscript received 6 June 1973

Mortality of wild-caug ht animals after arrival in the zoo MARVIN L. JONES c/o San Frartcisco Zoological Gardens, Cal$rnia 94132, USA

It has become fashionable in this age of conserva- tion awareness to label the zoo as a large con- sumer of wildlife, and while virtually everyone in the zoo profession will deny it, the accusation is to some degree justified. For the majority of species shown in zoological collections, longevity and reproduction are not significant factors in keeping exhibits filled and ensuring visitor hap- piness. New specimens must constantly be purchased or secured through trade with other zoos in order to replace those lost through death, and this is a fact known to all. Our concern, however, is not with long-term management, but with the ability of the zoo to keep its new acquisitions alive for the first 3 0 days, generally

D

speaking the critical period in the acclimatisation process.

Zoos - in this sense including safari parks, marine aquariums and oceanariums - rarely publish accurate mortality statistics. Many of them publish lists of new arrivals, but tend to report only the deaths of specimens which have achieved a notable longevity; the average zoo death is not reported. An exception is Cheyenne Mountain Zoo at Colorado Springs, whose annual report shows not only new arrivals and births, but also deaths. London Zoo circulates this information to senior staff, and these two institutions are virtually the only exceptions to the general rule.