SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR WORLD PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY … · SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR WORLD PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 3RD EDITION CHAZAN SOLUTIONS ... present and that can serve as a

SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR WORLD PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 3RD EDITION CHAZAN

SOLUTIONS


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Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. 8

Chapter 2—Putting the Picture Together

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Origins of Archaeology

Archaeology in the World: Thomas Jefferson, the Archaeologist

The Emergence of Archaeology Organizing Time

The Establishment of Human Antiquity

Imperial Archaeology

Developing Method and Theory

Stratigraphic Method and Culture History

V. Gordon Childe

Archaeology as Science

Developing Scientific Methods

The New Archaeology

Systems Theory

Cultural Resource Management

Toolbox: Faunal Analysis and Taphonomy

Alternative Perspectives

Postprocessual Archaeology

Gender and Agency

Toolbox: Archaeoacoustics

From the Field: Why Do I “Do” Archaeology?

Evolutionary Archaeology

Archaeology at the Trowel’s Edge

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Delineate the process by which the depth of human antiquity was recognized.

Understand the development of an explicitly scientific approach to archaeology

by the “New Archaeologists,” also known as processual archaeologists.




Know the questions raised about a scientific approach by postprocessual

archaeology.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Agency Theory: a theory that emphasizes the interaction between the agency of

individuals and social structure.

Archaeological Theory: ideas that archaeologists have developed about the past and

about the ways we come to know about the past.

Deduction: drawing particular inferences from general laws and models.

Emic: an approach to archaeological or anthropological analysis that attempts to

understand the meanings people attach to their actions and culture.

Etic: an approach to archaeological or anthropological analysis that does not attempt to

adopt the perspective of the members of the culture that are being studied.

Evolutionary Archaeology: a range of approaches that stress the importance of

evolutionary theory as a unifying theory for archaeology.

Feminist Archaeology: an approach to archaeology that focuses on the way

archaeologists study and represent gender and that brings attention to gender inequities in

the practice of archaeology.

Hermeneutics: a theory of interpretation that stresses the interaction between the

presuppositions we bring to a problem and the independent empirical reality of our

observations and experiences.

Induction: drawing general inferences on the basis of available empirical data.

Middle-Range Research: research investigating processes that can be observed in the

present and that can serve as a point of reference to test hypotheses about the past.

National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), Section 106: The legislation that

regulates Cultural Resource Management archaeology.

Neolithic: the period in which there are polished stone tools. Also called the New Stone

Age.

New Archaeology (or Processual Archaeology): an approach to archaeology based

firmly on scientific method and supported by a concerted effort aimed at the development

of theory.




Paleolithic: the period during which humans lived with now extinct animals. Also called

the Old Stone Age.

Postprocessual Archaeology: a movement, led by British archaeologist Ian Hodder, that

argues archaeologists should emulate historians in interpreting the past.

Systems Theory: an archaeological theory which views society as an interconnected

network of interacting elements.

Three-Age System: a system developed by Danish antiquarian Christian Jürgensen

Thomson that catalogues artifacts into relics of three periods—the Stone Age, the Bronze

Age, and the Iron Age—based on the material of manufacture.

Thunderstones: objects such as ground stone axes that people in Medieval Europe

believed were formed in spots where lightning struck the earth.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND STUDENT PROJECTS

1. Classroom Activity

To teach students the scientific method, lead them through the stages of observation,

hypothesis formation, hypothesis testing (via experimentation or data analysis), theory,

and law. To do this, borrow a well-known topic from pseudoarchaeology (i.e. Nasca

lines are landing strips for aliens, the Myth of the Moundbuilders, the lost continents of

Lemuria or Atlantis) and discuss each with students, following the scientific method. In

this way you can demonstrate the value of skepticism while showing how proper

scientific inquiry is conducted.

2. Student Project

Instruct students to research Thor Heyerdahl online to create a biography that describes

the man and his work. Tell students to then write an additional section telling whether

they think Heyerdahl was an archaeologist or a pseudoarchaeologist, and explain the

reason for their conclusion.

3. Classroom Activity

Present students with data from a local archaeological site. Divide students into at least

two groups (always divide class into group numbers divisible by two) and assign each




group the task of interpreting the site’s data. One group will interpret the data from a

processual archaeology perspective while the other will use a postprocessual archaeology

approach. Have groups present their interpretations to the class and then discuss with

everyone the differences of the two approaches and the advantage and disadvantages of

each school of thought.

SUGGESTED FILMS

Other People’s Garbage (60 minutes; Alexandria, VA: Public Broadcasting Associates,

Inc.). This film reviews the findings of archaeologists working at three different sites in

the US and explains what their findings reveal about daily life in America’s recent past.

Archaeology: Questioning the Past (26 minutes; Berkeley: Marin Community College).

Provides students with an introduction to the science of archaeology and shows various

archaeological digs involving students from Marin Community College.

INTERNET EXPLORATION LINKS

Archaeology http://www.cyberpursuits.com/archeo/

This site offers news feeds and links to sites and archaeology projects in specific regions

and specific archaeological subdisciplines. It also leads to information about archaeology

programs and additional resources.

ArchNet http://archnet.asu.edu/

Hosted and maintained by the staff at the Archaeological Research Institute at Arizona

State University, ArchNet provides links to archaeology sites by region and topic as well

as leads to educational and research resources and archaeological institutions and

organizations.

Deduction & Induction http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php

This page instructs the reader on the differences between deductive reasoning and

inductive reasoning.




Archaeological Theory

http://www.indiana.edu/~arch/saa/matrix/ia/ia03_mod_04.html

This page, hosted by Indiana University Bloomington, clarifies the major differences

among key archaeological paradigms.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Lewis Binford. (1983). In Pursuit of the Past. New York: Thames and Hudson.

Sally Binford and Lewis Binford. (1968). New Perspectives in Archaeology. New York:

Aldine.

David Clark. (1978). Analytical Archaeology. New York: Columbia University Press.

Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, eds. (1991). Engendering Archaeology. Oxford, UK:

Blackwell.

Donald Grayson. (1983). The Establishment of Human Antiquity. New York: Academic

Press.

Ian Hodder. (1986). Reading the Past. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ian Hodder. (1999). The Archaeological Process. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Johannes H. N. Loubser. (2003). Archaeology: The Comic. Oxford, UK: Altamira.

Robert Preucel and Ian Hodder, eds. (1996). Contemporary Archaeology in Theory.

Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Alain Schnapp. (1996). The Discovery of the Past. New York: Abrams.

Bruce Trigger. (1989). A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University Press.

Gordon Willey and Jeremy Sabloff. (1980). A History of American Archaeology. San

Francisco: Freeman.



WORLD PREHISTORY and ARCHAEOLOGY: PATHWAYS THROUGH TIME, 3rd EDITION

Michael Chazan

Chapter 2

PUTTING THE PICTURE TOGETHER

Part One: The Past is a Foreign Country: Getting from Here to There



• The process by which the depth of human antiquity was recognized.

• The development of an explicitly scientific approach to archaeology by the New Archaeologists, also known as processualarchaeologists.

• The questions raised about a scientific approach by postprocessual archaeology.

Learning ObjectivesAfter reading the chapter, you should understand:

Learning ObjectivesAfter reading the chapter, you should understand:




• Early State Societies

Interest in ancient objects was neither archaeological nor scientific

Nabonidus, king of Babylon, excavated temple ruins to rededicate them to deities

Thutmose IV (1412-1402 BC) excavated the Sphinx at Giza because he believed that the sun god would make him Pharaoh if he did so




• Emergence of Archaeology

Three Age System for organizing time

Developed by C.J. Thomsen (Danish antiquarian)

Divided prehistory: Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages



Establishment of Human Antiquity

In 1800sIrrefutable evidence of human artifacts contextually with extinct animal bones

In 1857Neanderthal skull provides evidence of a premodern human

In 1859 Darwin published On The Origin of Species;Lyell studied geologic time and humans

In 1865 Lubbock defined Neolithic and Paleolithic eras



Establishment of Human Antiquity

• Questionable Archaeological Motivations

Imperial archaeology

Looting by treasure hunters

Connecting to ancient Greeks

Confirming Biblical events

Justifying oppression and colonialism

Validating racist policies(e.g., Nazi’s concept of racial purity)




• Stratigraphic Method

Sir Flinders Petrie pioneered methods of stratigraphic excavation and seriation




• Culture History

North American archaeologists:

Had goal of developing chronology

Developed culture histories through formal schemes

Classified sites into culture groups using the Midwestern Taxonomic System

Depression archaeology drove need




• V. Gordon Childe

Recognized patterning in archaeological collections across Europe

Started shift from artifacts to societies

Proposed the occurrence of two worldwide societal revolutions

Neolithic revolution—the emergence of settled villages and agriculture

Urban revolution—appearance of cities and complex forms of government



Archaeology as Science

• Late 1940s: Developing Scientific Methods

Archaeologists began to focus on the study of ancient societies, not just the description and classification of artifacts as in the past



Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Induction

Involves drawing general inferences on the basis of particular data

Before 1960s, archaeological work focused on collecting site data, then extrapolating to a culture



Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Deduction

Involves drawing particular inferences from general laws and models

Involves hypothesis testing

Posits general hypothesis to explain specific data

Is characteristic of the work in hard sciences



Processual Archaeology: New Archaeology

• Introduced by Lewis Binford in the 1960s

“Facts do not speak for themselves”

We have to ask the appropriate questions to learn anything about the past

How to get from a static artifact to a dynamic society?

More data or better methods do not help

Archaeology must focus on deductive scientific work



Middle-Range Research

• Middle-Range Research (Binford)

Allows archaeologists to make statements about past processes based on observations made on present archaeological materials

• Key Methodological Steps

Observe processes in the present

Analyze material patterning left by those processes



Middle-Range Research

• Alison Wylie’s Contribution

Induction still valid as science is not EITHER induction OR deduction

There are varied ways to get to inferences



Systems Theory

• Systems Theory Defined

A system is an interconnected network of elements that together form a whole

• The New Archaeologists

Applied systems theory to the study of past societies

Used systems theory to explain the feedback loop of changes in the archaeological record that result from changes in interrelated aspects of culture



Cultural Resource Management

• Archaeology carried out with the aims of mitigating the effects of development

National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106 (1966)

Additional municipal or state legislation may regulate the impact of development on archaeological sites



Postprocessual Archaeology

• A reaction led by Ian Hodder against processualarchaeology that posits that archaeology:

Should not be a hard science like physics

Should emulate historians in interpreting the past

Should work to understand the past from the perspective of the people who lived through the past—EMIC not ETIC

Should not be hypothesis-based—contextual data is very important and requires a dynamic interpretation

Is not “truth” based



Hermeneutics

• Hermeneutics Concept

Is central to postprocessual archaeology

Encompasses a theory of interpretation

Stresses the interaction between the presuppositions brought to a problem and the independent empirical reality of observations and experiences

Biases

Reinterpretations

Continual enquiry



FIGURE 2.12The hermeneutic spiral represents a process of continually refining knowledge through an ongoing process of confronting preexisting knowledge with new information.



Hermeneutics versus Processual

• New Archaeology tests archaeological hypotheses

• In Hermeneutics archaeologists come with preexisting knowledge and questions

• Hermeneutic interpretation is an open-ended cycle of continual inquiry

• Different presuppositions could mean different interpretations



Feminist Archaeology

• Feminist Archaeology

Is concerned with gender inequities in the practice of archaeology

Focuses on how archaeologists study gender

Examines a wide range of topics

Focuses on how archaeologists represent gender:

Masked bias towards viewing men as the active agents of change and women as passive followers

Who does what in a society—depends on who and how you research



Agency Theory

• Agency Theory

Is the assumption that the basic unit of archaeological interest is the individual, not society

Focus on purposeful actions of individuals in society

Requires constant balancing through:

Recognition that history consists of the choices and actions of individuals

Awareness that the choices people make are strongly shaped by (a) the social world and (b) the material conditions in which they live



Evolutionary Archaeology

• Evolutionary Archaeology (Dunnell)

Stresses the importance of evolutionary theory as a unifying theory for archaeology

Encompasses a range of approaches:

Ecological studies of changes in culture as changes in human adaptation

Artifact studies that explain changes in frequencies and types of artifacts at sites in terms of selection



Key TermsKey Terms

agency theory

archaeological theory

deduction

emic

etic

evolutionary archaeology

feminist archaeology

hermeneutics

induction

middle-range research

National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106

Neolithic

New Archaeology/processualarchaeology

Paleolithic

postprocessual archaeology

Systems theory

Three-Age system

thunderstones



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SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR WORLD PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY … · SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR WORLD PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 3RD EDITION CHAZAN SOLUTIONS ... present and that can serve as a