Solid wastes and water quality

8/14/2019 Solid wastes and water quality

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Solid wastes and water qualityAuthor(s): F. B. DeWalle and E. S. K. ChianSource: Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), Vol. 52, No. 6, 1980: Literature Review(JUNE 1980), pp. 1494-1506Published by: Water Environment FederationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40586472 .Accessed: 03/11/2013 17:02

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tamination f large items, ncluding wastestorage anks converted o grain storage orwater upply anks,wasdetected. Individualswith high potential or nternal eposition fradioactivematerial were given whole bodyradiation counts; most proved negative.Trench water samplesfrom he commerciallow-level adioactivewaste disposalsites atMaxeyFlats,Ky. and West Valley,N. Y. werecollected nd investigated y Colombo t al.14Radioactivitynd organic ompounds resentin the trenches ere found o be nontoxic othe bacterial opulation nder tudy. Hydro-logic transport f radionuclides rom ow-levelwaste burial groundswas presented y Du-guid.15 The chemicalform f radionuclidesin the water nd groundwater uality, nd thechemistry f the geologicformation n whichthe waste wasburied ll influenced hemove-ment of radionuclidesn the hydrologie ys-tem. The state-of-the-art f shallow landburial for low-levelradioactive olid wastedisposalwas summarized y Thomas et al.16Goldsmith t al17 reported hat many of theolder storage sites are contaminatedwithradionuclides, esulting rimarily rom adondaughters and external gamma radiation,reaching evels s high s 30 times heguide-lines recommended orpublic exposure. Re-

medialmeasures or uch iteswere uggested.An assessment f groundwater uality nthe vicinity f eight landfill ites acceptingvarious quantities of municipal wastewatersludgewasperformed y Lof et a/.18 An ap-praisalwas also made of the operations ndeconomics t each location. Results howedthat andfilling f wastewater ludgereleasedsignificant ontaminantsn the form f leach-ate. Among he contaminants nalyzed,Fe,Pb, and total rganic arbon toc) in excessof EPA DrinkingWater tandards were found

most frequently. Contaminants raveled atleast several hundred meters eyondthe im-mediate isposal rea. Threemunicipal and-fill ites n the eastern nd centralU. S. werestudied to determine ffects f disposal fa-cilities n surrounding oils and ground wa-ter.19 Results ndicated hat chemical char-acteristics, ot physical,were altered n sub-landfill oils. A survey was conducted byStratton t al.20 o assessthe extent f trans-port of polychlorinated iphenyls PCBs)from heNewBedford,Mass,municipal and-

fill. There wasevidence f transport f PCBsin the shallowgroundwater o the northwestof the andfill, ut the extent f transport as

relativelyminor, eing confined o near-sur-facewaters ery ear he andfill.

The problem f disposing f PBB-contami-nated nimal arcasses n Kalkaska nd Gratiot

County,Mich, andfills ecamecritical. Gen-

eral considerations nd concerns regardingland disposal of PBBs were discussed byShah.21Leachingpotential rom oundry ro-cess solidwasteswas discussed y BoyleandHam.22Ultimate eaching otential f selectedcomponentswithin the solid waste mixturecould be estimatedwith a simple aboratorytest. Leachateassessment or different rod-ucts, in-plant processes, nd landfill proce-dures couldbe evaluatedwith this test. Ly-simeter tudies onducted nder a controlledenvironment ndicated that maximum ollu-tional dischargeswill normally ccur shortlyafter eachate production ccurs. The be-havioral haracteristics f hydraulically lacedmaintenance redgingswere investigated yKrizek and Salem 3 during n extensive -year field and laboratory xperimental ro-gram. The characteristics f dredged ma-terials eposited n each of the four ites wereessentially he same, thereby nabling datafrom he different ites to be synthesized ndinterpreted s representative f one large sitespanning timeperiodof almost decade.

Detectionof trace organics n well waternearArmy reekLandfill, ew CastleCounty,Del. was conducted y DeWalle and Chian 4to evaluate he migration f eachate ontainingtrace organics way from he landfill ocatedupstream rom n artesianwell field peratedby a local water company. Trace organicanalysis dentified 1 volatile nd 13 extract-able compounds. Private wells situated be-tween the landfill nd the well field had al-ready become contaminated s confirmed ygeneral inorganic nalysis. A groundwaterpollution batement rogram n New CastleCounty, el. was alsoreported y Lakshman.25The legislativempact f the Solid Waste Dis-posalAct of 1976and the SafeDrinkingWa-ter Act of 1974 on groundwater rotectionwas assessed. A study of the Langdon,N.Dak.sanitary andfill as reported y Arndt.26Eleven water samplingwells placed in thelandfill ite wereperiodically ampled ver an18-month eriod for water quality analyses.The analyses ndicatedno significant ltera-tion of groundwater uality s a result f the

presenceof refuse. The 100-ha (250-acre)Toytown andfill ite n a poorly rained reain coastalPinellasCounty, la. was studied

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by Hutchinson nd Stewart.27 Average al-titude f land surface t the landfill as lessthan m (10 ft). The horizontal nd verticalflow velocities ndicate that leachate movedslowlydown gradient, nd that eachatehadnot yet seeped through he confining edafter 12 years of landfill peration. A 1 kil-ometer tream reach receiving eachate en-riched water from small municipal andfillwas studied by Ehlke 8from 1971 to 1975to document treamflow ates and chemicalquality f the stream nd groundwater. Thedistribution f benthic nvertebrates nd mi-croorganismsn the stream bove the landfillwasmarkedly ifferent rom hatbelow t. Amajor ourceof pollution n the Rhine s in-creasing alinization.29 ndividual egal ac-tions re the main sourceof pollution rotec-tion or he Rhine.

The Hudson River ontains 0-15% of theknown PCB pollution n the U. S. PCBlevels n some Hudson Riverfish re 30 timeshigher han the current DA limit.30 Thestate of New York needs $25 mil in federalmonies o implement pilot program f hotspot and maintenance redging o remove142000 of the 200 000 kg (313000 of the440000 lb) total PCBs in the Upper Hud-son. The case of Whalen Lake in Texas il-

lustrated owbrine nd other il-field asteswere allowed to be dumped nto the ake de-spite dverse mpacts n wildlife. The extentof EPA involvementn the Whalen Lake sit-uation was described y Vogler.31 A radio-logical surveywas conducted t the Pennsyl-vania RailroadLandfill ite n Burrell own-ship, Pa.32 Approximately 07 kg (11600tons) of radioactivematerialswere dumpedat this ite. Analyses f sediment rom watersamplestaken from drainage reas near thesite indicated hat some radioactivematerialwas being carried from he site by surfacerun-off. Results ndicated hat there was nosignificanttmospheric ransport f 222Rnromthe site. The BavarianGeologicalurvey asbeen investigating ormore han 10 years heextent nd range f groundwater ontaminantsderived rom domestic nd industrial efusedump.33 Results f hydrogeologicalnd hy-drochemical tudiesmade it possibleto cal-culate chloride discharges er day derivingfrom he dump. A comparison f the direc-

tion of groundwater lowwith hedistributionof chloride nd electrical onductivity howedvery oodagreement.

DESIGN,COLLECTION,ANDATTENUATION

A U. S. Army ERL report 4surveyed ndsummarizedtate-of-the-art ractices n designand operation f sanitary andfills. Allaspectsof sanitary andfillswere covered, ncludingsite selection, esign, ollution ontrol, pera-tion, nd final losure. Hydrogeologie, eo-logic,and engineering actors elative o thedesign nd development f an environmentallysound wastewater ludge landfill were pre-sented by Bragdon nd Cooper.35 Emphasiswas placed on how a site not meeting heMaineland disposalcriteriawas designed oovercome ite deficiencies. Operational ro-cedures ormanagingeachate nd minimizingoperational ifficulties ere discussed. Eco-nomic considerations ere included. A re-viewof literature as presented y Norton 6on controlled isposal f wastewater ludgebydumping nd the considerable xperience c-cumulated n measuresnecessary o controlthis ctivity o as to avoid detrimental ffectson the marine environment. Baker et al31reviewed ix alternative olid waste methodsincluding continued andfill, household orsource separation, yrolysis, iodgradation,waste-based olid fuel production, nd in-cineration.

A study f five arge fieldunits maintainedunder different oisture egimeswas madeby Leckieet al.38to test the hypothesis hatstabilization f refuse n a sanitary andfillcan be accelerated y the controlled pplica-tion of moisture ith resulting eduction nthe time he andfill resents potential ourceof pollution. It was shown that raising hewater ontent o field apacity oes acceleratethe stabilization rocess. Leachaterecircula-tion was also a highly easible nd beneficialmanagement rocedure for accelerating hestabilization ate of refuse. Tolman et al39prepared manualproviding uidance n theselection f availableengineering echnologyto reduce or eliminate eachategeneration texisting dumps and landfills. The manualemphasizesremedial measures for use dur-ing or after closure of landfills nd dumpswhichdo not meet urrent nvironmentaltan-dards. Effects ponvarious inermaterials fextended ontactwith eachate rom imulatedsanitary andfillswere assessedby Haxo etal.40 The primary xposure tests of linerspecimens t the bottom f simulated and-fillswere supplemented y immersion f 28different olymeric aterials n sanitary and-fill leachate. Immersed membranes were

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tested for changes in physical properties, per-meability, nd water absorption. Monitoringof the simulated landfills during 180 monthsof operation was described and the analysesof the leachates

producedduring the period of

operation were summarized. A preliminaryassessmentwas made by Bonell and Gilmor41on factors contributing o the rapid responseof the discharge hydrograph n a tropical rain-forest catchment. Overland and subsurfaceflows were measured by means of a troughsystem constructed t the lower end of threesites. Widespread overland flow was ex-plained by the occurrence of high-intensityrainfalls.

Flue gas sulfur scrubbers create sludgesthat may be declared hazardous by EPA be-cause sludge constituents each into drinkingwater.42 Several sludge fixation rojects weredescribed. Based on the results of extensivelaboratory tests on two different scrubbersludges from double alkali sulfur dioxide con-trol systems and observations and measure-ments made at two different ield sites, vari-ous alternative chemes were presented to dis-pose of this material in managed landfills.43The effect f leachates and associated ground-water contamination an be minimized or vir-tually eliminated by proper landfill manage-ment during and after the disposal operation;impermeable seals may not be required. Re-sults of the first years of study to determineenvironmentally ound methods for disposingof wastes from nonregenerable flue gas desul-furization systems were reported by Rossoffet al*4 Untreated and treated wastes fromseven different crubbers at eastern and west-ern plants, using lime, limestone, or doublealkali absorbents, were characterized. Theenvironmental considerations and the tech-nology and cost associated with the disposal

of flue gas desulfurization FGD) sludges bylandfilling nd ponding were summarized byRossoff t a/.45 Concepts discussed were linedponds, unlined ponds equipped with under-drainage, chemical treatment nd landfilling,and conversion to gypsum. Disposal sitevolume requirements and estimated disposalcosts were given. An FGD disposal manualproviding suggestions and guidance to elec-tric utility operators of lime, limestone, alka-line flyash, nd double alkali wet scrubbers nthe processing nd disposal of the waste prod-uct was prepared by the Electric Power Re-search Institute.46 A decision path diagramwas given to illustrate he options available to

operators and to explain the steps necessaryto select a disposal system. The distributionsof Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, As, and Se inrocks, soils, stream sediments, and naturalwaters of a small upland drainage basin neara coal-fueled power plant being built in north-eastern Kansas were studied by Whittemoreand Switek.47 Analysesof the total and diluteacid soluble fractions of rocks, soils, andstream sediments indicated that most tracemetals are either concentrated n hydrous Mnand Fe oxides or left in clays after theweathering of the limestone and calcareousshale bedrock.

The types of solid wastes and effluents ro-duced by the southwestern oal and uraniummining and milling industries were consid-ered by Wewerka.48 Current methods fordisposal and reclamation of these materialswere discussed. Basic reclamation measuresfor nearly all coal and uranium waste disposalsites include solids stabilization, compacting,grading, soil preparation, and revegetation.Impermeable liners and caps are beginning tobe applied to disposal sites for some of themore harmful coal and uranium waste ma-terials. Technology is available to disposeof nuclear waste safely and reliably.49 Themost attractive disposal system, n terms ofavailable technology nd the need for timely,convincing, full-scale demonstration, s onethat converts the waste to a solid by im-mobilizing the radioactive elements in glassblocks. Ultimate disposal consists of buryingthis glass product in a deep, dry, stable geo-logic structure uch as granite, alt, or desertsoil.

A laboratory column study of attenuationof pollutants in municipal solid waste land-fill eachate by mixtures f sand and calcium-saturated clays was reported by Griffin nd

Shimp.50 K, NH4, Mg, Si, and Fe were mod-erately attenuated; the heavy metals Pb, Cd,Hg, and Zn were strongly ttenuated even incolumns with small amounts of clay. Pre-cipitation was the principal attenuation mecha-nism for the heavy metals. Cation exchangewas responsible for any attenuation of theother elements. A laboratory tudy was con-ducted by Fuller 51using 11 soils from sevenmajor orders n the U. S. The movement ndretention f As, Be, Cd, CN, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni,Pb, Se, V, and Zn, when carried by municipal

solid waste leachate through soils, was in-fluenced by the individual properties of theelements, by the permeability f the soil, and

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by the amounts f clay, ime nd hydrous ronoxides resent n the oil.

Mobilization f Cr from wo flyash peci-menswas nvestigated y Eggett nd Thorpe >2using two aqueousextractants: mM bicar-bonate on and 10 mg/ml DTA. Low-andhigh-sulfur oal flyash ampleswere treatedafter 5 days. From 1.3 to 4.1% of the totalCrcontent asmobilized. poljaric nd Craw-ford 3reported hat passing andfill eachatethrough lauconitic reensand ilters educedheavymetal cation ontent, essenedunpleas-ant odor, and diminishedmurkiness f theleachate. Flushing the charged greensandfilter ith water did not cause significant e-lease of cations ack into solution, uggestingthat polluted reensandmight e disposedofat landfill iteswithout ndangering he qual-ity of either ground r surface water. Twosets of lysimeter xperimentsnvolving hrubsor trees nd forage ropswere performed yBrowning nd Molz54to study the interac-tion of root growth nd refuse ecompositionin sanitary andfillmaterials. Slashpine grewvery well; roots penetrated ll refuse ayerswithin 10 months after planting. Thornyelaeagnusdid not appear as healthy s pineduringwet seasons. Forage crops grew wellbut tended ohave shallow oot ystems om-

paredwith rees nd shrubs.The legal requirements pplicable o wastestreams or waste products n Illinois andidentification f legislation nd regulationsgenerally pplicable owastedisposalwerere-viewed by Haschemeyer.55Landspreadingpractices n England range from rude rawsludgedumping, osophisticated ried ludgemarketing.56 he water uthorities ave en-countered regulatory pplication guidelines.Crites t al57 reported hat a land treatmentsystem or tomato-processing astesat Han-

ford, alif, s operating uccessfully. he ir-rigation ystem permits rotation f variouscropsand has enoughreserve apacity o al-low andspreading f organic esidues n partof the site. Codisposalof water softeningand wastewater ludgewasreported y Huangand Nguyen.58Addition f water softeningsludge to aerobically digested wastewatersludgehad a great eneficialmpact n sludgedewaterability. Digested wastewater ludgehada very igh apacity or uffering H.

Recommendationsor disposalof lithium

organic-electrolyte/SOaatteries were givenby Crumrine t ah59 based upon a review ftoxicity f battery onstituents nd labora-

tory nalysis f leachate and solubility estsfrom ross-sectioned atteries. Soil leachatecolumn ests howedsignificant uantities fcyanide n leachatefrom ischarged tandardcompositionells. A study by Huibregtse tal.60 etermined hefate f imed nitrocellulose(NC) sludge n a landfill ituation, nd estab-lished he bestmethod or xidation f sulfidesin a nitroglycerin astewater tream. Chemi-cal degradationwas not a simplesaponifica-tion reaction, ut rather nvolved egradationto a variety f products. Results f aboratorytests performed y Wardwell et al.61 howedthat many environmental roblems ssociatedwith design nd operation f papermill ludgelandfill isposal itesmay be related o a lackof information n the geotechnical ehaviorof this material. A casestudy was presentedby Smith 2to illustrate ow a chrome ideupper eather annery ealt with sludge dis-posal by first reating he sludge and thenusing t for andfilling. election f the ludgedisposalsite and steps taken to protect hegroundwater eredescribed, s was the and-fill peration.

Initial xperimentalnd mathematical od-elingefforts ere described y Vilker t al.G3for rediction f breakthrough f ow evelsof'virus from ercolating olumns nder condi-

tions f adsorption application f wastewaterto uncontaminated ed). This breakthroughwas described by ion exchange/adsorptionequations,with the effects f external masstransfer nd nonlinear dsorption sothermsincluded. Results rom n investigationf thefeasibility f using dredgedmaterial n solidwaste management as reported y Bartos.64Potential uses included the construction fcover, iners, as vents, eachatedrains, ndgas barriers t sanitary andfills. t was con-cluded that dewatered dredgedmaterial anmeet the functional

equirementsf several

usesfor oil t a sanitary andfill.The Calumet and reclamation roject de-

veloped design criteria for applying iquidfertilizer sludge) to land and demonstratedthe beneficial nd economic se of it in rais-ingcrops.65Thescopeof the project ncludeddeveloping pipeline ystem otransport iquidfertilizer o the application ite, determiningyields, analyzingplant tissue of the cropsgrown, bserving hesoilchanges ffected ythe liquid fertilizer pplication, nd monitor-ing the ground nd surfacewater of the ap-plication ite. Land reclamation f a typicalabandonedmidwestern eep coal mine sitein llinoiswas studied yWilkey nd Zellmer.66




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After wo growing easons,vegetation hadbeen established, nd on-site water qualityhad shown ignificantmprovement. andfillplacement n Iowawas summarized y Send-lein and Kipp,67 nd the effects f landfillplacement or three upland Iowa sites weremonitored nd discussed. The report y Han-sen et al.68briefly escribed he processofsite selection nd designfor major, egionalsanitary andfill n Snohomish ounty, Wash.Unique features n the design included theneed to provide substantial evel of ground-water protection ecauseof the high rainfallin the rea.

GAS PRODUCTIONAND ENERGYRECOVERY

Dunn69 discussedsanitary andfill iting,design, and operating echniques nd prac-tices. The first n the seriesfocused n sitingand how the amounts nd types f refuse ndtraffic o be handled t a site can be allowedfor n the design. It included uchdesign s-pects as surface nd groundwater rotection,leachatemanagement, nd control f methanegas, along with some selectedoperating on-siderations. The rate and composition fgasesreleased uring naerobic egradation fsolidwaste were measured y DeWalle and

Chian.70 The major gases observed n thepresent tudy were CO2,H2 and CH4. Themaximum ate of gas productionwas 0.181/kg'd, whereas he maximum mount f gasproduction as5.7 I/kg ry weight uring he400-day estperiod. The rate of gas produc-tion increased with ncreasingmoisture on-tent and temperature, nd with decreasingsolid waste size and density. A numericalmodelhas been developedby Findikakis ndLeckie71for simulating ne-dimensionallowof a mixture f methane, arbondioxide nd

nitrogen hrough anitaryandfills. Finite-dif-

ference pproximationso the differential asflow quationswere derived with an implicittime stepping cheme. An explicit ormula-tion was also explored ut the time step-sizerequired or tability as prohibitively mall.Resource ecoveryystems iscussed y Klee72showed an attractive lternative o conven-tional disposalmethods. Resourcerecoverywouldcreate saleableproduct usuallyen-ergy), reducerefuse olume for andfills, ndreduce ir pollution. San FranciscoBayareamunicipal istricts 3and EPA participated nthe San FranciscoBay Region WastewaterStudy WSS). The WSSdetermined uturesludge isposal ptions or hearea's55 waste-

water treatment acilities. The 51 smallerfacilitieswere advisedto continue ndividuallandspreading, ncineration, andfilling, ndcomposting rograms. Suggestions or thefour largest facilities ncluding esourcere-covery hrough ludge/refuse o-combustion.CHARACTERIZATION ANDTREATMENT

Under he RCRA of 1976,EPA is requiredto promulgate riteria for identification fhazardouswastes. One method f identifica-tion s to characterize he leachability f thewaste. Lowenbach 4evaluated hosefactorsimportant o the design f such a test. Testswere conducted y Weeter nd Phillips 5 nsupport f modificationsf the EPA's toxicantextraction rocedure hatwouldpermit estingfixated r monolithic astes. A dry flue-gasdesulfurization ludge was used in develop-ment f a modified rocedure. An analyticalmethod using established eotechnical ngi-neering undamentalsopredict he time de-pendent rate of leachate generation romsludge deposit was presented y Charlie etal.7G The method was developed by differ-entiating Terzaghi's consolidation quationwith respect o a dimensionless ime factor.Leachingof pollutants rom anitary andfillmodels was established y Reveh and Avin-

melech.77The development f a synthetic unicipallandfill eachatefor use in laboratory eachingtests on industrial wastes was describedbyStanforth t al.78 Parameters ost ikely obeof importance n leachingmaterials rom n-dustrial wastes were identified, nd concen-trations f those parameters ound n aggres-sive landfill eachate were determined y aliterature earch. The complexation f Cdby organic components f sanitary andfillleachates was investigated by Knox andJones 9

usingion-exchange nd specific on

electrode methods. Four Southern Ontarioleachateswere ll found o be capableof com-plexing d to varying egrees. The complex-ing ability ssociatedwith certain molecularweight fractionswas studied. It was con-cluded that the role of complexationn de-termining he fate of metals n sanitary and-fill eachatesdepended upon several factorswhose importance had not yet been ade-quately nvestigated r reported n the litera-ture. A quantitative etermination f entericviruses n leachates rommunicipal olidwastelandfillswas given by Sosbey.80 Some 22leachate amples rom 1 different andfillsnthe U. S. and Canadawere examined or n-

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teric viruses; the organismswere found nonly one of the samplestaken from sitewhere olid waste landfill racticeswere de-ficient. Viruses found included poliovirustypes and3.

Coal gasification esults n large quantitiesof solid residuals requiring disposal. Themethod f disposalrequired for such wastematerial as discussed y Shriner t al.81Re-sults of an integrated valuation f physical,chemical,nd biological ata from nquenchedLurgi gasifier ottom sh derivedfrom hreedifferent . S. coalssuggested lowpotentialfor short-term, cute hazard to aquatic orterrestrial cosystems, f proper andfill is-posal procedures were used. Boston andBoegly 2 onducted eaching tudies n repre-sentative olidwastesfrom ilot coal conver-sionplants. Leaching tudieshave also beencarried ut on various oals representative fthose o be used at the demonstration lants.Preliminary esults for leaching studies oncoal conversion sh/slags ndicated hat mostof the ash/slags tudied would be classifiedas non-hazardous nder currently roposedRCRA criteria. The plutonium hemical pe-cies n two ypes f amples rom he SavannahRiver lant burial round or adioactive astewere dentified y Wilhite.83 he bulkof the

plutonium owon burial ground oilswillbeimmobile xcept ormovement f soilparticlescontaining lutonium.

A completelymixed anaerobicfilter wasdemonstrated y DeWalleet al.8* obe effec-tive in removing heavy metals in landfillleachates. The metalremoval ercentage e-creased with decreasinghydraulic etentiontime. Newton 5described roblems ncoun-tered nd systems eveloped o treat eachatearising rom wo separate anitary andfill itesin Gloucestershire, . K., to control ollution

arisingfrom eachate production within a

sanitary andfill ite. A series of lysimeterexperiments ereundertaken y Chanet al.86to evaluatethe performance f selected nat-ural and synthetic orbents or heir removalcharacteristics f various omponents resentin leachate from azardous ndustrial ludgesdisposed of by landfilling. The particularsorbents tudied were basicfly sh, acidicflyash, zeolite, vermiculite, llite, kaolinite, c-tivated lumina and activated arbon. Re-sults indicated electivecombination f thesorbents tudied ould achievetotal removal.Absorbed onstituents ere retained by thesorbents fter xtensivewashing. Resultsofstart-up nd operations xperience uring he

first ear f a demonstrationlantprojectwerepresented y Steiner t al87 The plant wasdesignedto provide a variety f chemical/physical nd biologicaleachatetreatment e-quenceoptions. Sengupta t al88studied heenvironmentalmpact f the anaerobic iges-tion facilities t PompanoBeach,Fla. Whilethe major asconstituents ave beenmarkedlysimilar o those n sanitary andfills, 2Scon-centrations ave been greater. Vinyl hloridelevelshave been too low to be of concern.Sprinkler rrigation as tested by Menser tal80as a method or and disposal f eachatewastewater rommunicipal anitary andfill.Concentrations f 18 elements n weeds thatvolunteered rofusely n forage grass plotsspray-irrigated or8 monthswith 155 cm ofleachatewere nalyzed.A specific roblem f creosote ontamina-tion n Lake Superior djacent to the North-ern Wood Preservers td. plant in ThunderBaywas studied y Thompson.90 he use ofhydrogeologicalrinciples o devise a methodto control ontaminant ovementn the sub-surface, nd the use of pilot tudies o identifya best solution o deal with contaminated f-fluents were discussed. Pilot studies con-ducted on the effluent rom he well systemconcludedthat the most appropriate reat-

ment for he effluent ere ozonation nd ac-tivated arbon. Knight t al.91 tudied each-ate transport rom he Lucas Heights and-fill, major solid waste disposaldepot forSydney, Australia. Geophysicaltechniquesand drilling ave proven useful n definingsubsurface ydrogeology. Groundwater on-taining eachate was found to discharge ssprings hich edtributaries f GeorgesRiver.

PROCESSEDWASTESChemical solidification f wastes tech-

niquesto bind hazardouswastematerials ntoa coherentmass before and burial, o thatleaching f toxicmaterials y groundwater sminimized promises o be one of the mostimportant astesdisposalmethods f the fu-ture. Solidificationechniques ereexaminedby Maugh 2 within four major categories:pozzolanic, r lime-based echniques; hermo-plasticbinders; rganic inders; nd cement-based techniques. Advantagesand draw-backsof each type of solidificationechniquewere discussed. Current nd proposed egis-lationregulating azardouswaste and burialwas reviewed. An explanation as givenbyBrownsteinnd Levesque93 s to how cementsystems unction n solidifying ypicalradio-




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activewaste treams. Through nderstandingthese basic principles, he designof a highlyefficient astesystem asbeen possible. Ex-perience asshown his ystem o be extremelyreliable n the operating nvironment f nu-clearpower lants nd has produced productwhichhas been universally cceptedat com-mercial urial ites.

HAZARDOUS WASTESEPA has begun its hazardouswaste man-

agement rogram n an attempt oslow downthe continuing round ater contamination.Descriptions f groundwater ollution nci-dents occurring ear Love Canal in NiagaraFalls, Dover Township,N. J., Long Island,N. Y., Louisville, y., Denver,Colo.,Charles

City, owa, and alonga road in North Caro-lina were givenby Dallaire.93Highlights fEPA's Hazardous Waste Regulations, time-table for mplementing he Hazardous WasteProgram, nd manufacturer eaction o EPA'sHazardousWaste Regulations erepresented.There are more than 32 000 dumps nation-wide that contain ome significant mount fhazardouswaste; perhaps 2000 present po-tential mminent ublic health hazards. Theseriousness f the disposal ssue resulted na symposium eviewedby Pjasele.95 High-

lightsf the Fifth Life Sciences

Symposium,entitled HazardousSolid Wastes and TheirDisposal and held at the Los AlamosScien-tific Laboratory n October 1977 were dis-cussed by Barnhart.96 The symposium o-cusedon changes hat re required n the dis-posal of hazardous olid wastes in order tocomplywith RCRAof 1976. Problems hatplague the implementation f an effectivehazardouswaste disposalpolicy n Kentuckywere surveyed.97An illegalhazardouswastedisposal ite near Brooks,Ky. has become afocus of EPA concernbecause of potentialgroundwater ontamination y toxicants ndwaste lammability.

EPA programs nd proposals to controlhazardouswasteswere described y Jorling.98EPAwill sk Congress o authorize he alloca-tion of funds o coverremedies nd liabilitiesfor bandoned azardouswaste ites. Ground-water contamination roblems esulting romindiscriminate isposalof hazardous wastesoften equire omplex ombinationsf restora-tion techniques. Remedial restoration ro-cedures escribed y Farb99included nfiltra-tion controls, aste excavation nd burial ata new site, leachateplume management ygroundwater umping, eachate and ground-

water treatment, nd soil manipulation. Thecurrent tatus of U. S. hazardous wasteslandfill disposal practices were outlined bySlimak.100Operatinghazardous waste land-fills describedwere: a chromium ludge dis-posal site, a battery waste disposai site, ahazardous iquid and solid wastes comingledwith municipal efuse andfill, solidhazard-ous waste disposal site, a liquid hazardouswastedisposal ite, nd a landfill hat acilitatesdisposaln concrete ilos.

The average concentration, stimated ailydeposition, nd partitioning f 17 metal spe-cies in hazardouswastes discharged o fiveClass I landfill ites in the greater Los An-gelesarea were documented y Eichenbergeret al.101Data were summarized or ix gen-eral industry roups: petroleum, hemical,metal, foods, ndustrial leaning, nd miscel-laneous/unknown. Alternatives o landfilldisposal of potentially hazardous industrialwastesgenerated y the metals melting ndrefining ndustries ere assessedby Isenberget al.102Alternativesnalyzed ncluded hem-ical landfill, recipitation, eduction oasting,evaporation, ewatering, nd sintering. Theprocesses nalyzed dentified easible lterna-tives enablingmaterials r energy recovery,waste detoxification r immobilization, nd

volumereduction or omparison ith andfilldisposal. Hazardous chemicals eaking ntothe ground rom dump site n CharlesCity,Iowa, included arsenic, benzene, and othercarcinogenic ubstances dentified y Iowa'sDepartment f Environmental uality.103 e-cause thorough leanup costs were too highfor the company, PA officials greed to aplan whereby he companywould cover thesite with clay and seed it with grass. Thesituation n CharlesCity is typical of manyother known hazardous hemicaldump sitesin the U. S. Officials ear that nactionwillleadto future ealth roblems s yet unknown.Effects f the RCRAof 1976 on the chemicalindustry were examinedby Murray.104 Acomprehensive azardouswaste disposalcon-trol program as described. Variousdisposaltechniqueswere evaluatedfrom standpointof environmental afety nd economicfeasi-bility.

Attenuation f water-solubleolychlorinatedbiphenyls PCBs) by earth materials wasstudied y Griffin nd Chian.105 olubility fPCBs inwater, dsorptive apacity f PCBsbysoilmaterials nd coalchars,mobility f PCBsin soils,degradation f PCBsby mixed erobicmicrobes, nd effect f humic cids and soil

June 1980 1501



10/14

Literature eview

on volatilization f PCBs from water werereported. Adsorption f water-soluble CBsby soil materials nd coal chars was studiedby Lee et al. 106 The adsorptive apacity fearth materials ould be related o their otalorganic arbon (toc) content nd CO2sur-face area. The people of Logan Township,N. J., re set against he ncineration f PCBsat the Rollins nvironmental ervicesChemi-cal WasteDisposalFacility.107 esidents earPCB contaminationf water upplies nd air,and argue hat ocal and valueswillplummetif he plant tarts urning CBs.

Removal nd disposalof radioactive astesremains ne of the most pressing roblems nthe implementation f nuclear power tech-nology according to Faltermayer.108 hecreation f permanent adioactivewaste re-positories as discussed. Hydrologie valua-tions of nuclear waste disposalsites dependon characterizingxisting ydrologyt a givensite, predicting vents hat will alter the hy-drologie ystem with ime, nd evaluating heinteraction f the wasteswith the burial en-vironment ccording o DebuchananneandWood.109 Nuclearwasteswere divided ntothree categories y DOE: high level, trans-uranic-contaminated,nd low level. The sci-ence of hydrology oesnot have the technol-

ogy to define atisfactorilyhe flow n severalcommon ypes of hydrologie ystems. ow-level radioactivewastes are frequently is-posedof by shallow and burial. Radioactivewaste-soilnteractions,n terms f radionuclideretention nd its variability mong soils andradionuclides, ere nvestigated y Essingtonet al.110 Soil column eaching tudies howedthat a protective urface and layer retainedmore han90% of radioactive m,Y, and Hf.Less than 50% of radioactive r, Ce, and Rbwasretained y the and.

In theUSSR,creating

eservoirs oriquidradioactivewastes is one of the promising

methods f safely isposing f them n deepwater ables,n zoneswithin standing egimeor a slow rate of subterranean water ex-change.111Resultsof investigationsnd thepractice of burying the wastes) indicatedthe reliability nd effectiveness f such amethod of final waste disposalwhen basicrequirements f environmentalrotection ereobserved.

REFERENCES1. Municipal olidWaste: ResourceRecovery.M. P. Wanielista nd J. S. Taylor Eds.],

U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,

EPA 600/9-79-023a and 600/9-79-023b(Aue. 1979).

2. Smith,M.F., Sanitary andfills. (Citationsfrom he Engineering ndex Data Base),NTIS PB 391812 (Nov. 1978).

3.Smith,

M.F., Sanitary andfills. (Citationsfrom he NTIS Data Base), NTIS 391812

(Nov. 1978).4. Skinner, .H., RCRAand Land Disposal

AnEPA Scenario. SolidWastesManage-ment, 2, 19 (1979).

5. Easterbrook, G. E., The Godfather ofRCRA. WasteAge,9, 14 (1978).

6. Johnson, . J., t al, Effects rom ast SolidWaste Disposal Practices. Environ.HealthPerspectives, 7, 215 (1978).

7. Roy F. Weston Inc., Pollution PredictionTechniquesfor Waste DisposalSiting; AState of the Art Assessment. Final Re-port, PA Contract 8-01-4368 1978).8. Peluso,R. A., Well Monitoring t LandfillsCan Help Head Off Problems t an EarlyStage. SolidWastesManagement, 1, 13,88 (1978).

9. Stern, A. M., and Walker, C. R., HazardAssessment f Toxic Substances:Environ-mentalFate Testing f OrganicChemicalsand EcologicalEffects Testing. ASTMSpec.Tech.Pubi.657,81 (1978).

10. Vaughn, J. M., and Landry, E. F., AnAssessment f the Occurrence f HumanViruses n Long Island Aquatic Systems.Progress Report,

Departmentf

Energy,Contract Y-76-C-02-0016Dec. 1977).11. Braunstein, . M., FossilEnergy Environ-

mental Project. U. S. Department ofEnergy, Contract W-7405-ENG-26(Apr.1978).

12. Braunstein, H. M., Environmental ndHealthAspects f Disposalof Solid Wastesfrom Coal Conversion: An InformationAssessment. U. S. Department f Energy,ContractW-7405-ENG-26Sept. 1978).

13. North, . S., and Wenslawski, . A., Healthand Safety mplication f A Widespread,Unauthorized Dispersal of RadioactiveWaste n the PublicDomain. Proc. 12thMidyear ymp. on Low-LevelRadioactiveWaste ManagementFeb. 1979).

14. Colombo,P., Evaluationof Isotope Migra-tion: Land Burial. Water Chemistry tCommercially perated Low-LevelRadio-active Waste DisposalSites. U. S. De-partment f Energy, Contract EY-76-C-02-0016 Jan. 1978).

15. Duguid, J. O., Hydrologie Transport fRadionuclides from Low-Level WasteBurial Grounds. Oak Ridge NationalLab. (May 1977).

16. Thomas, W. T., Shallow Land Burial-Why or Why Not? Proc. 12th MidyearSymp. on Low-LevelRadioactiveWasteManagement, 68 (Feb. 1979).

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Literature Review

17. Goldsmith,W. A., et al., PreviousManage-ment Practices for Naturally OccurringRadionuclideWastes: Current Radiologi-cal Status. Paper presented t HealthPhysics Society (EPA) 12th MidyearSymp. on Low- evel Radioactive WasteManagement, 94 (Feb. 1979).18. Lofy, R. J., Environmental ssessment fSubsurfaceDisposalof MunicipalWaste-water Treatment ludge. U. S. Environ-mental Protection gency, PA/530/SW-167C(June 1978).

19. Chemical nd Physical ffects f MunicipalLandfills n Underlying oilsand Ground-water. U. S. Environmental rotectionAgency, PA/600/2-78/096 May 1978).

20. Stratton, . L., Environmental ssessmentof Polychlorinated iphenyls PCBs) NearNew Bedford, MA. MunicipalLandfill.

U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/560/6-78/006 May 1978).21. Shah, B. P., Environmental onsiderations

for the Disposal of PBB-ContaminatedAnimals nd Wastes. MichiganDepart-ment of Natural Resources, Environ.Health Perspectives, 3, 27 (1978).

22. Boyle,E. C, and Ham, R. K., Assessmentof Leaching Potential from FoundryProcess Solid Wastes. Proc. 34th Ind.Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Ext. Ser. 129(1979).

23. Krizek,R. J., and Salem, A. M., Use ofDredgings for Landfill Behavior ofDredged Materials n Diked ContainmentAreas. U. S. Environmental rotectionAgency PA/600/2-78/088F May 1978).

24. DeWalle,F. B., and Chian,E. S. K., Detec-tion of Trace Organics n WellwaterNeara SolidWaste Landfill. Proc. 34th Ind.Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., Ext. Ser. 742(1979).

25. Lakshman,B. T., Faulty Waste DisposalPractices ndanger Groundwater uality.Water r Sew. Works, 26, 6, 94 (1979).

26. Arndt, . M., Groundwater ollution azardNear Sanitary andfills n the Glaciated

Plains, North Dakota. A Study of theLangdon,NorthDakotaSanitary andfill.OWRT Report, OWRT-A-038-NDAK(May 1977).

27. Hutchinson, . B., and Stewart, .W., Geo-hydrologie valuation of a Landfill n aCoastal Area, St. Petersburg, lorida.U. S. GeologicalSurvey, USGS/WRD/WRI-78/041 Feb. 1978).

28. Ehlke, T. A., Effects f LandfillLeachingon Water Quality nd Biology f a NearbyStream, outh Cairo,GreeneCounty,NewYork. U. S. GeologicalSurvey, USGS/WRD/WRI-79/056 Apr. 1979).

29. Rest,A., A DecisionAgainst rance? TheRhinePollution. Environ. olicyb- Law,5,2,85 (1979).

30. The Hudson River: A Reclamation lan.New York State Department f Environ-mentConservation eport 1978

31. Vogler, M., Polluted Playas DestroyWild-life. Defenders, 4, N2, 84 (Apr. 1979).

32.Formerly

tilizedMED/AEC

SitesReme-dial Action Program. Radiological urveyof the Pennsylvania ailroadLandfill ite,

Burrell Township, Pennsylvania. U. S.Department of Energy, DOE ContractW-7405-ENG-26 Feb. 1979).

33. Exler, H. J., Results of HydrogeologicalStudiesDownstream rom he GrosslappenRefuseDump. Gass-WasserfachGer.),120, 1, 13 (1979).

34. Gerdes,G. L., and Donahue,B. A., Simpli-fied Sanitary andfill Design and Opera-tion Analysis. U. S. Army Const. Eng.Res.Lab, CERLReportN-57 (Dec. 1978).

35. Bragdon, . C, and Cooper,S. R., Designand Development f a Sludge Landfill.Tappi, 137 (1979).

36. Norton,M. G., Control nd Monitoring fSewageSludgeDumping t Sea. WaterPoll.Control G. B.), 77, 402 (1978).

37. Baker,J., et al, Analysis f Alternatives oRefuse Disposal. Final Report, U. S.Department f Housing and Urban De-velop., HUD/RES-1140 (Mav 1977).

38. Leckie,J. O., et al., LandfillManagementwith Moisture ontrol. Proc. Amer. Soc.CivilEngr., 105, EE2, 337 (1979).

39. Tolman,A. L., et al, GuidanceManualforMinimizing ollution romWaste DisposalSites. U. S. Environmental rotectionAgency, PA/600/2-78/142 Aug. 1978).

40. Haxo,H. E., et al, Liner Materials xposedto Municipal Solid Waste Leachate.U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/600/2-79/038 ulv 1979).

41. Bonell,M., and Gilmour, . A., Develop-ment of Overland Flow in a TropicalRain-ForestCatchment. Jour. Hydrol,39, 365 (1978).

42. 'EPA Readies Regulations, n ScrubberSludge Disposal. Electric Light 6-

Power,56, N8, 29 (1978).43. Krizek, R. J., Landfill Management forDouble Alkali Sulfur Dioxide ScrubberSludge. Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engr.,105,2 (1979).

44. Rossoff, ., et al, Disposalof By-Productsfrom Nonregenerable lue Gas Desulfuri-zation Systems. U. S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, EPA/600/7-77/052(May 1977).

45. Rossoff, ., t al, Landfill nd Ponding on-cepts for FGD Sludge Disposal. Proc.Air Poll.ControlAssn., 1st AnnualMeet.,Houston, ex. (June 1978).

46. FGD Sludge Disposal Manual. ElectricPower Res. Inst, Rept. EPRI FP 977(Jan. 1979).

June 1980 1503



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Literature Review

47. Whittemore, . O., and Switek, ., Controlson TraceElementConcentrationsn Natu-ral Waters f a Proposed oal AshLandfillSite. OWRT Report, OWRT-A-070-KAN(l) (Apr. 1977).

48. Wewerka, . M., Disposaland Reclamationof Southwestern Coal and UraniumWastes/' Paper presented t the Energyand Environmental echnologyTrainingConference, OE ContractW-7404-ENG-36 (May 1979).

49. Dau, G. J., Nuclear Waste Management,Jour. nst. Nucl.Engr., 0, nl, 12 (1979).

50. Griffin, . A., and Shimp, N. F., Attenu-ation of Pollutants n MunicipalLandfillLeachateby Clay Minerals. U. S. Envi-ronmental rotection Agency, EPA/600/2-78/157 Aug. 1978).

51. Fuller, W. H., Investigation f LandfillLeachate Pollutant Attenuation y Soils.U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/600/2-28/158 Aug. 1978).

52. Eggett, J. M.,and Thorpe,T. M., Mobiliza-tion of Chromium rom Fly Ash Particu-latesby AqueousSystemsModelingNatu-ral Waters. Jour. Environ. Sci. Health,13,295 (1978).

53. Spoljaric,N., and Crawford, W. A., Re-moval of Contaminants from LandfillLeachatesby Filtration hrough Glauco-nitic Greensands. Environ. Geol, 2,(1979).

54. Browning, . D., and Molz, F. J., Inter-action of Root Growth nd Refuse De-compositionn a Sanitary andfill. WRTReport, WRT-A-044-ALAU)July 978).

55. Haschemeyer, . D., Waste Disposal AnOverview of the Legal Requirements.20th Annu. Public Water Supply Eng.Conf., Water Treat. Pt. 3, Univ. of 111.,Urbana, 3 (1978).

56. Dean, R. B., Landspreading n England:Familiar Programs, Familiar Problems.Sludge,2, Nl, 7 (1979).

57. Crites, R. W., et al., Land Treatment fCanneryWastes. Jour. Water Poll. Con-trol Fed., 51, 808 (1979).

58. Huang, J. C, and Nguyen, H. Q., Codis-posal of Water Softening nd WastewaterSludges. Jour. Water Poll. Control ed.,51, 2413 (1979).

59. Crumrine, ., et al., Investigation f theEnvironmental onsequencesof Disposalof the Lithium Organic-Electrolyte/SOaBattery. ECOM-76-1752-FMar. 1978).

60. Huibregtse, . R., et al, Feasibility tudyRegarding andfill f Nitrocellulose imeSludge and Oxidation of NitroglycerinWastewater tream. Envirex, nc., Mil-waukee,Wis. (1978).61. Wardwell,R. R., et al, Disposalof PaperMill Sludge in Landfills: Geotechnical

Design Applications. Tappi, 61, 12(1978).

62. Smith,C. N., Sanitary andfilling f Tan-nery-Municipal ludges A Case Study.Jour. Amer. Leather Chem. Assn.,74, 4,101 U979).63. Vilker,V. L., et al, Application f Ion Ex-change/Adsorption odels to VirusTrans-port n Percolating eds. AICHE Symp.Ser., 74, 178, 84 (1978).

64. Bartos,M. J., Jr., Use of Dredged Materialin Solid Waste Management. ArmyEngineer Waterways xperiment tation,Vicksburg,Miss.WES-TR-D-77-11Sept.1977).

65. Rimkus, R. R., et al, Reclamationof aLandfill with Digested Sewage Sludge.U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/600/2-78/120

Aug.1978).

66. Wilkey,M., and Zellmer, ., Land Reclama-tion at Abandoned Deep Coal Mine.Amer. oc. Civil Engr., 105, 843, (1979).

67. Sendlein, . V. A., and Kipp,J., Technicaland Regulatory tatus of the Placement fSanitary andfills n Iowa. OWRT Re-port, OWRT-A-065-IA(1) (Sept. 1977).

68. Hansen, R. G., et al, Development f aModel Sanitary Landfill Site Design forSnohomishCounty, Washington. U. S.Environmental rotection Agency, EPA/910/9-77/042 1977).

69. Dunn, J. J., Jr., Leachate,Gas Migration,Equipment Usage Are Important andfillConcerns. Solid WastesManagement, 1,12,28 (1978).

70. DeWalle, F. B., and Chian, E. S. K.,Energy Recovery from LandfilledSolid

Waste. Biotechnol. ioeng., 17,(1978).71. Findikakis, . N., and Leckie, J. O., Nu-

merical imulation f GasFlow in SanitaryLandfills. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng., 105,927 (1979).

72. Klee, A. J., and Gordon, J. G., ResourceRecovery s a Pollution-Control evice.Waste Age, 10, 4, 49 (1979).

73. O'Donnell, F. J., Recovering Resourcesfrom Residuals: San FranciscoBay AreaSludge Management tudy. Sludge, 2,3, 12 (1979).

74. Lowenbach, W., Compilation nd Evalua-tion of Leaching Test Methods. U. S.Environmental rotection Agency, EPA/600/2-78-095 May 1978).

75. Weeter, D. W., and Phillips,H. L., Struc-tural and Leaching Aspects of Testing SolidWastes Via the ToxicantExtractionProcedure. U. S. Department f Energy,DOE Contract W-7405-ENG-26 (Feb.1979).

76. Charlie,W. A., et al, Leachate Generationfrom a Sludge Disposal Area. Amer.Soc. CivilEngr., 105,947 (1979).

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Literature Review

77. Reveh,A., and Avinmelech, ., LeachingofPollutants rom anitary andfillModels.Jour. Water Poll Control Fed., 51, 2705(1979).

78. Stanforth, ., et al, Development f A Syn-

thetic Municipal andfilleachate.

Jour.Water Poll. Control ed., 51, 1965(1979).79. Knox, K., and Jones, P. H., Complexation

Characteristics f Sanitary andfill each-ates. Water Res. (G. B.), 13,839 (1979).

80. Sobsey, M. D., Field Survey of EntericViruses n Solid Waste Landfill eachates.Amer.Jour. ub. Health, 68, 858 (1978).

81. Shriner, . S.,et al, Physical, hemical ndEcologicalCharacterizationf SolidWastesfrom Lurgi Gasification acility. U. S.Department of Energy, DOE ContractW-7405-ENG-26 1978).

82. Boston, . R., and Boegly,W. J., Jr., Leach-ing Studieson Coal and Coal ConversionWastes. . S. Department f Energy,DOE Contract FE-7405-ENG-26(1979).

83. Wilhite, E. L., Chemical Speciation ofPlutonium n the RadioactiveWaste BurialGround at' the Savannah River Plant.U. S. Department f Energy, DOE Con-tract EY-76-C-09-0001 Aug. 1978).

84. DeWalle, F. B., et al, Heavy Metal Re-moval with CompletelyMixed AnaerobicFilter. Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed.,51, 22 (1979).

85. Newton, J. W., Leachate Treatment on

Landfill Sites. Surveyor G. B.), 153,4532,33 (1979).86. Chan, P., et al, Sorption Capabilitiesof

VariousMaterials orLeachateTreatment.Amer. nst. Chem. Engr. Journ., 4, 178,300 (1978).

87. Steiner, R. L., et al, Demonstration f aLeachate Treatment lant. U. S. Envi-ronmental rotection Agency, EPA-SW-91d.

88. Sengupta, S., et al, Characterization ndEnvironmental tudies of PompanoBeachAnaerobic Digestion Facility, Mid-Term

Report. U. S. Departmentf

Energy,DOE Contract EV-78-S-05-6Q72(May1979).

89. Menser, H. A., et al, ElementalCompo-sition of Common Ragweedand Pennsyl-vania Smartweed Spray-Irrigated withMunicipal Sanitary Landfill Leachate.Environ. oll, 18, 2, 87 (1979).

90. Thompson,G. E., Hydrogeological ontroland Clean-Up of Soil and GroundwaterContaminants t Northern Wood Pre-servers, Ltd. Proc. 25th Ontario Ind.Waste Conf. Ontario Water ResourcesComm.,Toronto, nt., 250 (1978).91. Knight, M. J., et al, Lucas Heights SolidWaste Landfill nd Downstream eachate

Transport- A Case Study n Environmen-tal Geology. Univ.of NSW, Kensington,Australia, ull Int. Assoc.Eng. Geol, 18,45 (1978).

92. Maugh, T. H., Burial Is Last Resort for

HazardousWastes. Science, 204, 4399,1295 (1979).93. Brownstein, ., and Levesque,R. G., Ex-

periencewith Cement Usageas the Bind-ing Agent for Radwaste. Amer. Soc.Mech. Engr. Pap. n 78-NE-15for Meet.(June 1978).

94. Dallaire, G., EPA's Hazardous-Waste ro-gram: Will It Save Our Groundwater?CivilEng., 48, 12, 39 (1978).

95. Pjasele,R. B., Disposing of HazardousChemicalWastes. Environ. ci. b- Tech-nol, 13,810 (1979).

96. Barnhart, . J., The Disposalof HazardousWastes. Environ. Sci. - Technol, 12,1132 (1978).

97. Needed HazardousWaste Disposal. En-viron. ci. ir TechnoL 13, 913 (1979).

98. Jorling, . C, ManagingHazardousWastes.EPA Jour., , N2, 7 (1979).

99. Farb, D. G., UpgradingHazardousWasteDisposal Sites: Remedial Approaches.U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/500/SW-677 Jan. 1978).

100. Slimak,K. M., LandfillDisposalSystems.Environ. Health Perspectives, 27, 309(1978).

101. Eichenberger, ., et al, A Case Study ofHazardousWastes in Class I Landfills.U. S. Environmental rotection Agency,EPA/600/2-78/064 Tune 1978).

102. Isenberg, E., et al, Alternatives or Haz-ardous Waste Management n the MetalsSmelting nd Refining ndustries. U. S.Environmental rotection Agency, EPA/530/SW-153C March 1977).

103. Jasen, G., MajorRisksare Posed by Yearsof Dumpingof IndustrialWastes. WallStreetJour. May 1979).

104.Murray, C, Chemical Waste Disposal ACostlyProblem. Chemical r Eng. News,

57 (Mar. 1979).105. Griffin, . A., and Chian,E. S. K., Attenu-

ation of Water-Soluble olychlorinated i-phenyls y Earth Materials. Illinois tateGeological urveyReport, 6 (Oct. 1979).

106. Lee, M. C, et al, Adsorption f Water-Soluble Polychlorinated iphenyl Aroclor1242 and Used Capacitor Fluid by SoilMaterials nd CoalChars. Jour. nviron.Sci.Health,AU, 415 (1979).

107. Martin, D., Fight Over PCBs ShowsHowHard It Is To Destroy ChemicalsandSatisfy People. Wall Street Jour., 42(Aug. 1979).

June 980 1505



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Literature eview

108. Faltermayer, ., Burying Nuclear TrashWhere It will Stay Put. Fortune, 99,98 (Mar. 1979).

109. Debuchananne,G. D., and Wood, W. W.,RadioactiveWaste in GeologicStorage

(Hydrologie ConsiderationsRelated toManagement of Radioactive Waste)/'Amer. Chem. Soc. Sym. Series, 100, 37(1979).

110. Essington, . H., et al, Retention f Low-Level RadioactiveWaste Material y Soil.

Paper presented t Health Physics ociety(EPA) 12th Midyear ym. on Low-LevelRadioactiveWasteManagement,57 (Feb.1979).

111. Spitsyn, . I., et al, BasicPrerequisitesnd

the Practice f Using Deep Water Tablesfor Burying iquid RadioactiveWastes.Paper presented t the International on-ference on Nuclear Power and Its FuelCycles, (May 1977). Also in Soviet atEnergy, 4, 170 (Feb. 1978).

Water pollutionNonpoint sourcesF. X. BrowneF. X. BrowneAssociates,Lansdale,Pa.

A summary f the RuralClean Water Pro-gram, stablished n the Clean Water Act of1977,was presented y Dale.1 The amend-ment directs he Secretary f Agriculture, ct-ing through he Soil Conservation ervice

(SCS) or other ppropriate gencies, o enterinto -10-year ontracts ith ural andownersto install nd maintain est management rac-tices o control gricultural r silvicultural on-point-sourceollution. Torno edited reportpresenting 4 paperson variousmodel-relatedtopics uch s applicationsf SWMMto urbanand rural atchments, election f designrain-fall events ormodeluse, description f Mon-trealUrbanCommunity's astewaterntercep-tion program, everal applications f othermodels n facility lanning nd design, evel-opment f mini-computerersion f LLUDASmodel, nd developmentf n urban/rural ub-catchment ydrologieimulation odel SUB-HYD). In an effort o mprove . S. croplandconservationractices, roject Clearwater asinitiated n centralMaryland.3 he goalof theprojectwas to eliminate 0% of the pollutantscoming ff ne farm n a singleday. Gener-ally, it is hoped that voluntary ompliancewith best agricultural anagement racticescan succeed n solving hesoil-loss/waterol-lution roblem n rural reas.

ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERISTICSA graphical procedure was proposed byReckhow that assigns onfidenceimits, e-

Ifleeting stimation rror, o the trophic tatetransitionines n Vollen eider's riterion xes.Additional raphs hat can be used to com-bine the oading riterion rrorwith he oad-ing uncertainty ora particular ake are alsopresented. Thesegraphs rovide n estimateof the ikelihoodhat lake will become ligo-trophic,mesotrophic, r eutrophic. Ammonianitrogen, itrite nitrogen, itrate nitrogen,Kjeldahlnitrogen, nd phosphate hosphorusanalyseswereperformed y Ryding nd Fors-berg on water amples rom ixdrainage reasin Sweden. The nitrogen ophosphorus atioin surface unoff s a yearly veragerangedfrom 0 to 80. Bradley nd Demetrio showedthat during ry weather he discharge f nu-trients rom cultivated gricultural rea,whenirrigations taking lace, s equivalent o 7 kgN/ha/y nd 1 kg P/ha/y. Pickering nd An-drews found hat or everal NewHampshirewatersheds, hosphorus oading levels fromresidential evelopment eremuch ower hanfrom ommercial evelopments. Welch andPerkins found he oxygen eficit ate n 26lakes to be positively orrelatedwith phos-phorus oading normalized or flushing ate.Adams et al.9noted that phosphorus erivedfrom now ncorporatednto he cesheet n alakemust e included f accurate stimates fspring phosphorus oading are to be made.Simulated ainfall tudies ndicated hat ough,cloddy urfaces ncreased nfiltration nd de-creased oil erosion omparedwith smoothersurfaces.10 ver-tillingeduced urface ough-ness and cloddiness.

Humenik t al.11 concluded hat for ong-term verages nd yield f nutrients rom ural

runoff, andomgrab sampling may be satis-factory. But for mechanisticnterpretationsfdata, though he cost is higher, ontinuous


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Solid wastes and water quality