SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS: Thermal Systems and Desalination … · 2019-06-01 · SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents Encyclopedia of

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) i

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY

SYSTEMS Thermal Systems and Desalination Plants

Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal

Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 1

No of Pages 477

ISBN 978-1-84826-375-8 (eBook)

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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ii

VOLUME I

Solar Energy and Photochemical Energy Systems 1

Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain

1 Introduction

2 Problems for Sustainability in the 21st Century

21 The Water Problem

22 The Energy Problem

23 The Global Warming Problem

3 Basic Solar Energy Data

31 The Potential of Solar and Renewable Energies

32 From the Sun to the Earth The 500-Second Trip

33 Brief History of Solar Energy

4 Solar Technologies

41 Generalities

42 Photovoltaic Technology

43 LowMedium Temperature Solar Collectors

44 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

45 High concentration of solar energy

5 Solar Energy Applications

51 Power Production

52 Industrial Process Heat

53 Solar Fuels

54 Solar Energy Application to Water Processes

55 Metallurgical and Advanced Materials Applications

56 Solar Energy Integration in Buildings

57 Other Applications of Solar Energy

6 Conclusions

Renewable Energy Sources 44

Antonia V Herzog Timothy E Lipman and Daniel M Kammen Energy and Resources Group

Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) University of California Berkeley USA

1 Introduction

2 Biomass Energy

21 Introduction

22 The Future Role of Biomass

23 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies and Applications

231 Combustion

232 Gasification

233 Anaerobic Digestion

234 Liquid Biofuels

24 Implementation of Biomass Energy Systems

241 Biomass Resources

242 Environmental Impacts and Benefits

243 Economic and Production Issues

25 Conclusions

3 Wind Energy

31 Introduction

32 Economics of Wind Energy

33 Potential for Wind Energy Technical Resource and Environmental Issues

34 Selected Country Profiles and Government Incentives to Promote Wind Energy

341 United States

342 Germany

343 Denmark

344 Spain


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iii

345 Great Britain

346 Developing Countries

35 Conclusions

4 Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Technologies

41 Solar Photovoltaics

42 Solar Thermal Systems

5 Hydropower

51 Introduction

52 Capacity and Potential

53 Small Hydro

54 Environmental and Social Impacts

55 Conclusions

6 Geothermal Energy

61 Introduction


63 Environmental Impacts

64 Conclusions

7 Renewable Energy System Cost and Performance

71 Recent Progress in Renewable Energy System Costs and Performance

72 Lessons Learned in Developing Countries

73 Leveling the Playing Field

731 Public and Private Sector Investment Issues

8 Conclusions

Solar Radiation Energy (Fundamentals) 100

L Wald Centre for Energy and Processes Ecole des Mines de Paris France

1 Introduction

2 Energy Emitted by the Sun

3 Sun-Earth Geometry - Time

31 Sun-Earth Astronomy

32 Sun-Earth Distance

33 Solar Declination

34 Geocentric and Geographic Coordinates

35 Legal Time and Solar Time

4 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer ndash Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

41 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer

42 Sunrise Sunset and Daylength

43 Incidence on Slopes - Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

5 Concepts of Scattering and Absorption - Terrestrial Radiation

6 Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere ndash Spectral Distribution of the Radiation

7 Radiative Components at Ground Level

8 Conclusion

Photovoltaics 135

A Luque and I Tobiacuteas Universidad Politeacutecnica de Madrid (UPM) Spain

1 Introduction

2 What We See Today

3 History

4 Photovoltaic Generation

41 The Photovoltaic Effect

42 Solar Cells and Modules

5 The Solar Resource

51 Solar Radiation

52 The Potential of Photovoltaics

53 Radiation Data Sources

54 Radiation on Arbitrarily-tilted Surfaces


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv

55 Shading Losses

6 Photovoltaic Applications

7 Technology

71 Silicon Solar Cells

72 Thin Film Solar Cells

73 Concentrators

8 The Future of PV

81 Prospective

82 A New Generation of PV

9 Conclusion

Low Temperature Solar Collectors 172

Soteris A Kalogirou Higher Technical Institute Nicosia Cyprus

1 Introduction

11 Energy Related Environmental Problems

12 Renewable Energy Systems

2 Low Temperature Solar Collectors

21 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)

211 Glazing Materials

212 Collector Absorbing Plates

213 Flat Plate Collector Configurations

22 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)

23 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)

3 Thermal Analysis of Collectors

4 Performance of Solar Collectors

41 Collector Thermal Efficiency

42 Collector Incidence Angle Modifier

43 Collector Time Constant

44 Collector Quality Tests and Preliminary Collector Selection

45 Modeling of Solar Systems

451 The F-CHART Method

5 Solar Collector Applications

51 Solar Water Heating Systems

511 Thermosiphon Systems (Passive)

512 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive)

513 Direct Circulation Systems (Active)

514 Indirect Water Heating Systems (Active)

515 Air Systems for Hot Water Production (Active)

52 Solar Space Heating and Cooling

521 Air Systems

522 Water Systems

523 Heat Pump Systems

53 Solar Cooling

531 Adsorption Units

532 Absorption Units


541 Solar Industrial Air and Water Systems

55 Solar Desalination Systems

56 Solar Drying

6 Conclusions

Medium Temperature Solar Concentrators (Parabolic-Troughs Collectors) 227

E Zarza Unit of Solar Concentrating Systems Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea Spain

1 Introduction

2 Parabolic-trough Collectors Working Principle and Components

3 Optical Thermal and Geometrical Losses in a Parabolic-trough Collector


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v

4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector

5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors

6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process

61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)

62 Flash-steam Systems

63 Direct Steam Generation

7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology

8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors

81 Single-medium Storage Systems

82 Dual-medium Storage Systems

9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors

High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256

Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany

1 Introduction

2 Theoretical Background

21 Concentration of Radiation

22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat

23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity

3 Technical Concepts

31 Parabolic Dishes

32 Central Receiver Systems

33 Solar Furnaces

4 Conclusions

Solar Ponds 299

Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing

Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia

Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso

500 W University Avenue El Paso USA

1 What is a Solar Pond

2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds

21 Design Principles

211 Designing for an Application

212 Making Use of Local Resources

213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements

22 Site Characteristics

23 Thermal Output and Sizing

24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining

25 Sources of Salt

26 Source of Water

27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile

28 Pond Clarity

29 Heat Extraction

210 Monitoring Key Parameters

211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance

212 Costs and Economic Evaluation

213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability

3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds

31 Introduction

32 Israeli Solar Ponds

33 RMIT University Solar Ponds

34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond

4 Applications of Solar Ponds

41 Heating

42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi

43 Desalination

44 Electrical Power Production

45 Salinity Mitigation

46 Production of Chemicals

5 State of the Art and Future Directions

Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320

P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France

1 Introduction

2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer

3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light

4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect

5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect

6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy

61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests

621 Tests Conditions

622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests

623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy

624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity

7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials

8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal

9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk

10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings

Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339

F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain

1 Introduction

2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms

21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate

22 Average Irradiance

23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors

313 Comparative Analysis

32 Quality

33 Safety

4 Biomass and Product Recovery

5 Industrial Applications

51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment

512 Flue Gases Treatment

52 Production of High-Value Products

521 Carotenoids

522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

523 Phycobiliproteins

Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363

G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)

7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France

1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii

2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces

3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy

31 Surface treatments

32 Melting and purification of bulk materials

33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics

34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films

4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy

41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces

42 Test of materials for aerospace applications

421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)

422 Solar probe mission

43 Test of materials for future system of energy production

5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II

Solar Distillation 1

Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology

India

1 Importance of Water

11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand

13 Drinking Water Quality

2 Water Pollution and its Effect

3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art

4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems

41 Passive Solar Still

411 Conventional Solar Still

412 New Design Solar Still

42 Active Solar Distillation

421 Nocturnal Production

422 Pre-Heated Water Application

423 High Temperature Distillation

5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation

51 Background

52 Internal Heat Transfer

521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients

522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient

523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient

53 External Heat Transfer

531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient

532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient

6 Performance of Solar Still

61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters


63 Active Solar Still

64 Economic Evaluation

641 Introduction

642 Economic Analysis

643 Preparation of Drinking Water

7 Conclusions and Recommendations


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii

Solar Photochemistry 67


1 Solar Chemistry

2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes

3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes

4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications

41 Photooxygenation of Furfural

42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines

43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam

44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes

45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines

46 Other solar driven photochemical processes

5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment

51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification

52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes

6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes

7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities

8 Conclusions

Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96

S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN

1 Introduction

2 Photochemistry Principles

21 The Light

22 The Power of Light

3 The Solar Spectrum

31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation

32 Solar UV Photon Flux

4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors

41 Collector Efficiency

42 Actinometric Experiments

5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation

51 Accumulated Energy

52 Secondary Actinometer

53 Standardized illumination time

Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117

S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis

21 Direct Photolysis

22 Radiant Flux

23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant

3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis

31 Influence of Oxygen

32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration

33 Temperature Influence

34 pH Influence

4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants

41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency

42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment

5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water

51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms

52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix

Solar Photochemistry Technology 139

J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain

1 Introduction

2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes

21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)

22 One-Sun Collectors

23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)

24 Holographic Collectors

3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems

4 Technological Issues

41 Photochemical Reactor

42 Reflective Surfaces

43 Piping

44 Radiation Absorption

5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology

Solar Photochemistry Applications 163


1 Introduction

2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants

3 Cost Estimations

4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications

41 Phenols

42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

43 Pharmaceutical Compounds

44 Wood Preservative Waste

45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)

46 Seaport Tank Terminals

47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions

48 Cyanide degradation

49 Groundwater Decontamination

5 Water Disinfection

6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications

7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning

Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184


1 Introduction

2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols

3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides

4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS

5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide

6 Solar Photo-Fenton

61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides

62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater

7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development

Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205

Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania

1 Introduction

2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes

21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States

22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum

23 Properties of Photon Fluxes


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x

24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials

3 Concentration of Solar Radiation

31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation

32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration

33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors

331 Spherical mirrors

332 Paraboloidal Mirrors

333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors

34 Perturbing Factors

4 Photothermal Conversion

41 Detailed Balance Models

411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux

412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power

42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes

421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector

422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation

423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work

43 Discussion and Perspectives

5 Photovoltaic Conversion

51 Models Based on the Diode Equation

52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations

521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected

522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included

523 The Solar Cell Equation


6 Photochemical Conversion

7 Conclusion

Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar

Desalination Plant 256

Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates

1 Introduction

2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant

3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant

31 Plant Description

311 The solar heat collector subsystem

312 The heat accumulator subsystem

313 MED evaporator subsystem

32 Design Features

4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System

41 Measuring the heat collected in block F

5 Data Analysis

51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate

52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank

53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator

531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect

532 OHTC of heater (first effect)

533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects

534 Average OHTC of preheaters

535 OHTC of condenser

536 Evaporator economy

6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi

7 Operating Characteristics

71 Heat collecting subsystem

711 Heat collector efficiency

712 Daily heat collection efficiency

72 Heat accumulator system


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi

721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator

722 Thermal stratification ratio

73 Evaporating system

731 Evaporator performance

74 Performance of the plant

8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications

81 Heat collecting system

811 Cleaning the solar collector field

812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves

813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes

814 Scale prevention

815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water

816 Measures against power failure


821 Evaporator pump maintenance

822 Inspection of the evaporator

823 Change in operating sequence

825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump

824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical

9 Simulation Program and its Validation

91 Simulation program

911 Outline

912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program

913 Program Input and output data

914 Mathematical Models

92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values

10 Evaluation of the Test Plant

101 Optimum operating conditions

102 Simulation results

103 Evaluation of the solar plant

11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants

111 Basic economic parameters

112 Capital equipment cost

1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator

1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors

1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator

1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems

1125 Capital cost of diesel generator

113 Operation and maintenance expenses

1131 Consumable chemical expenses

1132 Electrical energy consumption

1133 Spare parts cost

1134 Personnel cost

114 Estimating the cost of water produced

12 Results of the Economic Study

13 Conclusion

131 System Reliability

132 Response to varying weather condition

133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors

134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design

Index 335

About EOLSS 341


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii

VOLUME III

Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1

Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey

1 Introduction

2 The Sun

3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum

4 Astronomic effects

5 Meteorological effects

51 Cloud Index

6 Topographic effects

7 Solar parameters

71 Solar geometry quantities

711 Earth eccentricity

712 Declination angle

713 Zenith angle

72 Solar time quantities

721 Solar time

722 Equation of time

723 Apparent solar time (AST)

73 Solar irradiation quantities

731 Solar constant

732 Irradiation path

8 Solar radiation modeling

81 Solar energy laws

82 Solar irradiation calculation

83 Estimation of clear sky radiation

84 Irradiation model

9 Astronomic calculations

91 The Daily Solar Profile

92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface

93 Solar energy on inclined surface

10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy

11 Conclusions

Direct Solar Energy 67

S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani

Thailand

1 Introduction

11 A Brief History of Energy

12 Origin of Solar Energy

13 Solar Thermal Energy

14 Photovoltaics (PV)

15 The Future of Solar Energy

2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth

22 Solar Radiation Estimation

3 Solar Thermal Conversion

31 Solar Collectors

311 Flat Plate Collectors

312 Concentrating Collectors

313 Evacuated Type Collectors

314 Selective Surfaces

32 Solar Water Heating

321 Introduction


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii

322 Natural Circulation Systems

323 Forced Circulation Systems

324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters

325 Advantages and Disadvantages

33 Solar Space Heating

331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems

333 Solar District Heating

34 Solar Thermal Power Generation

341 Introduction

342 Parabolic Trough Systems

343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction

352 Types of Solar Drier

353 Advantages of Solar Drying

4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion


42 Other Components of PV Systems

43 PV Applications

5 Other Solar Technologies

51 Solar Photochemical Conversion

52 Space Solar Power

521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept

523 Promise and Problems

524 Future Prospects

6 Solar Energy Storage

61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage

611 Sensible Heat Storage

612 Latent Heat Storage

613 Chemical Energy Storage

614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage

7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy

71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems

74 Health and Environmental Aspects

75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement

76 Other implications

761 Batteries

762 Operation and Decommissioning

8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems

9 Concluding Remarks

Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112

RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of

Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction

2 Drying Fundamentals

3 Sun vs Solar Drying

4 Types of Solar Dryer

41 Direct Mode


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv

42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode

44 Further Classifications

441 Natural Convection

442 Forced Convection

45 Other Differences

451 Supplementary Energy

452 Air Flow Direction

453 Heat Transfer Fluid

454 Thermal Storage

5 Solar Dryers in Practice

51 Direct mode natural convection dryers

52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers

53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers

6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers

61 Overall System Drying Efficiency

62 Pick-up Efficiency

63 Solar Collection Efficiency

64 Performance of Solar Dryers

65 Comparative Testing

7 Designing Solar Drying Systems

71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods

74 Simulation Techniques

8 Non-technical Factors

81 Economics

82 Practical Issues

83 Technology Transfer

84 Developing Country Issues

85 Industrialized Country Issues

9 Prospects and Future Developments

91 Technical Developments

92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions

A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136

E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi

Greece

A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE

1 Introduction

11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements

12 The Set-up of this Historical Review

2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity

21 From Legends to the First Written Documents

3 The Power of the Sun

31 The Dawn of the History

32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation

321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers

322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders

323 The 20th Century The Engineers

324 The Present Times The Technologists

4 The Development of the Solar Distillation

41 From Philosophy to Practice

42 The First Large Applications


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv

43 The Last 50 Years

5 Solar Driven Desalination

51 General Considerations

52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants

53 Freezing Plants

54 Electrodialysis Plants

55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants

6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia

7 The Power of Aeolos

71 The Aeolian Gods

72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy

73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills

74 Wind Turbine Generation

8 The Power of the Moving Water

81 Hydraulic Power

9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon

91 The Power of the Waves

92 The Tides and their Energy

93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System

Renewable Energy Resources 186

V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems

Greece

1 Introduction

2 The Sun as an Energy Source

21 The Availability of Solar Energy

22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination

3 The Geothermal Energy

31 Introduction

32 The Geothermal Resources System

321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs

322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs

323 The Hot Dry Rocks

33 The Available Resources

34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs

35 The Geothermal Brines

36 Application of Geothermal Resources

4 The Hydraulic Energy

41 Introduction

42 The Available Hydropower Resources

43 Limit of Hydropower Output

5 Wind Energy Resources

51 The Origin of Wind

52 The Distribution of Wind Forces

53 Wind Speed Distribution

54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy

6 Biomass as an Energy Source

61 Introduction

62 The Origin of Biomass

63 The Alternate Biomass Products

64 Biomass Residues

641 The Crop Residues

642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops

644 Livestock Manure

65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage

66 Plantation Biomass


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi

7 Thermal Energy from Biomass

71 Introduction

72 The Energy Conversion Methods

73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources

8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources

81 Introduction

82 The Energy of the Waves

821 The Origin of the Waves

822 Distribution of Wave Resources

83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source

831 The Generation of Tides

832 The Tidal Potential

84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source

841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy

Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227

Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt

1 Introduction

2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption

21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes

211 Distillation Processes

212 Membrane Processes

22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes

3 Available Renewable Energy Sources

31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy

33 Geothermal Energy

34 Other Renewable Energy Sources

4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination

41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds

43 Photovoltaic Cells

44 Wind Turbines

5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy

51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination

511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)

512 Indirect Coupling

52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy

521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination

522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination

53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy

531 Wind-MVC Systems

532 Wind-RO Systems

54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)

55 Hybrid Desalination Systems

6 Current Status

7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies

8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects

81 Solar Stills

82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology

83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System

84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant

9 Economics of RE Desalination

91 Financial Analysis

92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants

10 Conclusion


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii

Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301

Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE

1 Introduction

11 Need for Desalination

2 What Is Sustainability

3 Review of Desalination Technologies

31 Thermal-Based Processes

32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies

33 Renewable Energies

4 Desalination Using Solar Energy

41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still

42 Solar Collectors

43 Solar Concentrating System

44 Solar Ponds


46 Storage of Solar Energy

5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies

51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy

55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

56 Hydraulic Energy

57 Biomass as Energy Source


Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342

Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE

1 Introduction

2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas

3 The Need of Energy for Desalination

4 The Availability of Renewable Energy

5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination

6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High

Economic Potential

61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions

62 The Mediterranean Islands

63 The Arab Gulf Region

7 Conclusions

Thermal Energy Storage 356

Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt

1 Introduction


12 Thermal Energy Storage

13 Thermal Storage Efficiency

14 Thermal Insulation


21 Introduction

22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage

221 Storage in Liquids

23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage

231 Storage in Fluids

232 Storage in Solids

233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii


3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage

31 Introduction

32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage

321 Phase Change Materials

322 Storage Systems Problems

33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage


35 Heat of Vaporization

4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage

5 Closing Remarks

6 Some Recent Developments



621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage

622 Storage System Performance

623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System

Electrical Energy Storage 387

J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany

A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany

1 Introduction

2 Systems with Internal Storage

21 Demands on the Battery

22 Lead-Acid Battery

221 Electrochemical Reactions

222 Operation values

223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries

2231 Differentiation by electrodes

2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding

2233 Differentiation by container technology

224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries

2241 Charging and Overdischarge

2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation

225 Other Battery Systems

2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery

2252 New Battery Systems

3 Systems with External Storage

31 Gas-Accumulator

32 Redox-Flow-Systems

4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406

B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark

1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects

4 Environmental Consideration

5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix

VOLUME IV

Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1

Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt

1 Introduction

2 Tides

21 Spring and Neap Tides

3 Tidal Power Plants

31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage

36 Economical Considerations

37 Tidal Sites

4 Tidal Desalination Technologies

41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination

42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis

421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules

43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)

431 Electrodialysis DC Power

44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)

441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis

5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy

Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process

15

Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de

Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF

1 Introduction

2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification

21 Moist Air

22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes

23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination

24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process

25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects

3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals

31 Process description

32 The condenser in the SWGH

321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH

322 Cooling the condenser

33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH

34 The planting area in the SWGH

35 Construction and Materials

36 Energy Requirements

37 Economics and Applications

4 Design of SWGH

41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH

42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling

43 Design of condensers

44 Venting System

45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH

5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies

51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife

511 Description of the Pilot plant


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx

512 Performances of the SWGH

52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE



53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman



6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects

4 Environmental Considerations

5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97

B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark

1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources

11 Physical Potential Wind Maps

12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines

13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use

14 Off-Shore Potential

15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique

16 Overall Assessment of Potential

2 Wind Turbine Technology

21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future

22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies

23 Prospects for Further Development

24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization

25 National Plans and Future Prospects

26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability

27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up

28 Energy Storage and Demand Management

3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization

31 Current Cost and Cost Trends

32 Employment Generation

33 Energy Balance

34 Noise

35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply

36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts

4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power

41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming

42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share

43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy


Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139

Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom

1 The Sun as the Wind Driver

2 The Nature of Wind

3 Wind Power Statistics

4 Estimating Wind Power

5 Siting for Wind Energy


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi

The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155

BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA

ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory

University of California Berkeley California USA

1 Introduction

2 Historical Perspective

3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs

4 Geothermal Energy Utilization

5 Electricity Generation

6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources

7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs

8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters

9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes

10 Energy-budget Management

11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination

12 Water-budget Management

13 Solids-budget Management

Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181

G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart

Germany

1 The General Photovoltaic System

2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems

3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems

Flat-Plate Collectors 191

VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece

1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors

311 Solar Thermal Collector

312 Flat-Plate Collector

32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector

321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface

322 The Transparent Cover

323 The Collector Insulation

324 The Heat Transfer Medium

33 The Surface Areas

331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate

332 The Transparent Cover Surface

333 Total Surface Area

34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector

341 Collector efficiency (η)

342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)

343 Pressure Drop (Δp)

344 Stagnant Conditions

345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)

35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector

351 The cover reflectance (ρc)

353 Cover Absorptance (αc)

352 Cover Transmittance (τc)

354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)

355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity

356 Selective Surface


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii

357 Selective Coat

358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)

3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)

4 Main Collector Components

41 The Solar Radiation Absorber



44 The Casing of the Collector

45 The Supporting of the Collector

5 The Solar Absorbers

51 Types of Solar Absorbers

511 Absorbers of Common Paint

512 Selective coat Absorbers

52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes

521 General considerations

522 Sandwich Type Absorber

523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber

524 Soldered Type Absorbers

525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins

6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors


62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System

63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector

7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector

71 The Incident Angle Coefficient

72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C

73 The Heat Removal Factor FR

8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector

81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL

82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection

83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector

84 The Influence of Wind Velocity

9 Shading of the Collectors

10 Basic Calculation Methods

101 Cover Reflectance

102 Cover Transmittance

103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product

104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product

105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product

11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients

111 Loss Coefficient Uc

112 Loss Coefficient Ub

113 Loss Coefficient Us

114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220

VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific

Research Demokritos Greece

1 Introduction

2 Estimation of Thermal Load

21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload

22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw

23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp

24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii

Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225


1 Introduction

2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System

21 Initial Capital Cost

22 Operational Costs

221 Cost of Fuel

222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy

223 Cost of Maintenance

224 Cost for Loans

225 Costs for Insurance

226 Miscellaneous Expenses

3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System


311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest

6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost

61 General

62 Present and Future Costs

63 Yearly Instalment

64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology

8 Present Value Factor

9 Comparison Methodology

Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240

U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel

1 Introduction

2 Historical Background

3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure

32 Heat Absorption and Storage

33 Main Demands when Building a Pond

331 Surface Area

332 Surface Water Make-up

333 Concentrated Brine Supply

34 How to Build a Solar Pond

341 Geometry or Shape

342 Lining

343 Construction Materials in the Pond

344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient

35 How to Control

36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)

361 Top Losses

362 Bottom Heat Losses

37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction

39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds

310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv

3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers

3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages

311 Practical Size of a Single Pond

312 Investment in Solar Ponds

313 OampM Costs

4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond

41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds

411 Desalination Processes

412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond

4121 The Solar Pond Yield

4122 Desalination Plant Performance

4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations

4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations

42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems

43 Conclusions

Evacuated Tube Collectors 276

Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE

1 Introduction

2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors

3 Thermal Analysis

4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector

5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector

6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors

7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)

71 Description of collector field

72 Performance of collector field

73 Economics

Parabolic Trough Collectors 299

Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)

Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany

1 Introduction

2 Brief History of Trough Development

3 State of the Art of Trough Applications

31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications

32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications

33 Solar Electric Power Generation

34 Solar Process Heat Generation

35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)

36 Process Steam (Project Examples)

37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)

38 Process Hot Air

4 Trough Technologies

41 LS 3 Trough Collector System

411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector

412 Steel Support Structure

413 Absorber Element

414 Tracking System and Field Control System

415 Heat Transfer Fluid System

416 Steam Generator

417 Balance of Plant Technologies

418 Energy Storage System

42 IST Trough Collector System


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv

421 IST Parabolic Reflector

422 Support Structure




426 Heat Exchanger

427 Balance of Plant Technology

428 Energy Storage

5 Prospects and Potential



53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination

6 Cost and Economic Aspects

61 Collector Investment Costs

611 LS 3 Collector Costs

612 IST Collector Costs

62 Other Economic Parameters

621 Fossil Fuel Prices

622 Solar Energy Yield

623 Solar Share

624 Plant Power Size

625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs

627 Non-Technical Parameters

63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination

7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1

MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait

1 Introduction

2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes

3 Heliostat Angles

4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout

5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect

6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field

7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency

8 Reflected Solar Radiation

9 The Effective Sunshape

10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes

11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane

111 Incoming Ray Formulation

112 The Mirror Plane Formulation

113 Solar Disk Formulation

114 The Pinhole View

12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of

VariableSuperposition Technique

121 Concept

122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements

13 Receivers Types and Losses


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi

14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver

15 Overall System Optimization

Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98

A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India

1 Introduction

2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills

21 Basic Principle

22 Classification

23 Single Basin Solar Stills

24 Inclined Solar Stills

241 Basin Type Solar Stills

242 Wick Type Solar Stills

25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills

26 Solar Earth Water Stills

27 Plastic Solar Stills

271 Life Raft Solar Still

272 Circular Solar Still

273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still

274 Concentric Tube Solar Still

28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant

3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills

31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills

311 Inside the Solar Still

312 Outside the Solar Still

32 Solar Radiation Balance

321 Transmission through Top Cover

322 Absorption in the Top Cover

33 Energy Balance Equations

34 Solution Procedure

4 Performance of Solar Stills






46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India

47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills

Development in Simple Solar Stills 169

Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt

1 Introduction

2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills

21 Basin Still

211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills

212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling

213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface

214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser

215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water

22 Wick Stills

221 Single-wick Stills

222 Multi-wick Stills

223 Wick versus Basin Stills


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii

224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills

23 Other Stills Configurations

231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still

232 Cascade Solar Still

233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse

3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills

31 Introduction

32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector

321 Direct and Indirect Heating

322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling

323 Other Solar Heaters

33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator

34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills

4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems

41 Water Recovery from Air

Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197

HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia

1 Why Multi Effect

2 Double Effect Basin Stills

21 Double Basins Stills

22 Double Effect Tilted Stills

23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect

3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills

4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills

41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion

43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills

44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills

45 Analysis and Performance Considerations

5 Other Distillation Systems

51 Stacked Tray Stills

52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification

Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218

TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada

1 Introduction

2 General Specifications of Solar Stills

3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation

8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs

Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225

W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany

1 Introduction

2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis

21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration

22 Energy required for the RO Process

3 Solar Power Conversion Systems

31 Solar Conversion Principles

32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods

33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii

4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects

41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems

42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption

43 Components of RO -Desalination

431 Membranes and Modules

432 High Pressure Pumps

433 Pressure Regulating Devices

5 Solar Powered Desalination Units

51 Specific Figures or RO Systems

52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination

53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems

6 Costs

61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components

62 Water Delivery Cost

Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265

VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific


1 Introduction

2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted

21 The Physics of the Sun

22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation

31 What is the Solar Constant

32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation

33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance

34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination

4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles

41 The Earth-Sun Relationships

42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky

43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere

44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship

45 Time and its Units - Day Length

46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation

461 Estimation of Radiation Availability

462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index

463 Clear Sky Radiation

464 Sky Radiation

47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation

5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface

51 Insolation Data

52 Measurement of Solar Radiation

53 Models for Solar Radiation

54 Where the Models Apply

55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation

551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces

552 Tracking Surfaces

6 Applications of Solar Radiation

7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment

Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296


1 Introduction

2 System Configurations

3 Design and Sizing Considerations

31 Thermal Energy Requirement


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix

32 Pumping Requirements

33 Collector Performance

34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area

35 Sizing the PV System

351 Sizing the PV Array

4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization

41 Capital Equipment Cost

42 Operating Costs

43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration

5 Results

6 Conclusion

A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating

Performance (1985-1999) 316


1 Introduction

2 Basic Design Concept

21 General Plant Description

22 Design Specifications

23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient

24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials

3 Performance during Commissioning Tests

31 The MES Evaporator

32 The Solar Collector Field

33 The Heat Accumulator

34 Total Plant Performance

4 Performance History





4311 The heat balance method

4312 The direct temperature measurement method



5 Major Maintenance Activities

51 Equipment Failure and Replacement

52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator

6 Evaluation of Water Cost

61 Capital Costs

62 Operation and Maintenance Costs

7 Conclusions

Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341


1 Introduction

2 System Description

3 System Operating Conditions

31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem

32 Evaporator Subsystem

4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components

41 Solar radiation model

42 Ambient temperature model

43 Solar collector subsystem

431 Effect of shade on solar radiation

432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx

433 Control of heat collecting operation

434 Heat collection by solar collectors

435 Heat loss from piping

4351 Piping specifications

4352 Standard pipe lengths

4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump

4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown

4355 Correction of piping heat loss

44 Heat accumulator subsystem

441 Temperature distribution

442 MES evaporator subsystem

5 The Simulation Program

51 Program structure

52 Input and output data

6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI

Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1

Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus

1 F-Chart Method

11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems

111 Storage Capacity Correction

112 Collector Flow Rate Correction

113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction

12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems

121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction

122 Air Flow Rate Correction

13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems

14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems

15 General Remarks

2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems

21 Simple System Models

211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program

23 Trnsys Simulation Program

24 Limitations of Simulations

3 Solar Economic Analysis

31 Life Cycle Costing

32 Life Cycle Analysis Method

33 Payback Time

331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings

332 Discounted Fuel Savings

34 Alternative Method

341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis

35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis

Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47


1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi

11 Energy demand

12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development

13 Water demand and consumption

14 Water and energy

15 Desalination and energy

16 Renewable energy technologies

2 Solar Collectors

21 Parabolic trough collectors

22 Fresnel collectors

23 Parabolic dish reflector

24 Heliostat field collector

3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems

31 Parabolic trough collector systems

32 Power tower systems

33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds

341 Heat extraction and applications

35 Industrial process heat systems

36 Solar industrial steam generation systems


41 Direct collection systems

42 Indirect collection systems

421 The multi-stage flash process

422 The multiple-effect distillation process

423 The vapor-compression process

424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis

Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94

Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy

Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy

Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany

Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany

1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles

2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology

21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)

3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency

31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines

34 Electric Power Generated by Supps

4 The Collector

5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers

6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers

61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes

611 Boundary Layer Meteorology

612 The Ekman Spiral

613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer

62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers

621 Mean Wind Load

622 Response to Wind Turbulence

623 Fluctuating Wind Load

624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures

625 Vortex Excitation

626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux

63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof

7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii

71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells

72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability

Behavior

73 Non-Linear Tower Response

8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers

81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers

82 Strategies of Optimization

9 Technology of Construction

Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162

Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority

NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction

11 Research Problem and Objectives

111 Research Problem

12 Research Objectives

2 Energy Demand

3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy

31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy

34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy

4 Strategies

5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework

6 Main Policies and Incentives

7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles

71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan

74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia

712 United Arab Emirates

713 Yemen

8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities

9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy

10 Renewable Energy Initiatives

101 Arabian Initiatives

102 DESERTEC

11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region

12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications

13 The situation of localizing RE technologies

14 RE and climate change in Arab countries


198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii

22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes


24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process

25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects


31 Process Description

32 The Condenser in the SWGH

321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH

322 Cooling the Condenser






4 Design of SWGH



43 Design of Condensers

44 Venting System




511 Description of the Pilot Plant


52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE


522 Performances of the Pilot Plant

53 The SWGH Project in Oman



6 Conclusion

Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262

Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France

Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium

Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia

Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia

1 General Introduction

2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art

21 Crystalline Silicon

22 Thin Films

221 Amorphous Silicon

222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon

223 Polycrystalline Silicon

224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites

225 Cadmium Telluride

226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells

227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells

3 Next Generation Solar Cells

31 Introduction

32 Multiple energy level approaches

33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells

34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells

35 Hot carrier cells

4 Conclusions and Perspectives


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv

Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302

Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole

Polytechnique Palaiseau France

1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context

11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity

12 Energy Definitions and Units

2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation

21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion

22 Near Surface Wind

23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation

3 Wind Energy Resource

31 Wind Energy A Brief History

32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation

33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World

4 Solar Energy Resources

41 Solar Energy An Introduction

42 Worldwide Solar Heat

5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast

Index 353

About EOLSS 361


Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ii

VOLUME I

Solar Energy and Photochemical Energy Systems 1


1 Introduction

2 Problems for Sustainability in the 21st Century

21 The Water Problem

22 The Energy Problem

23 The Global Warming Problem

3 Basic Solar Energy Data

31 The Potential of Solar and Renewable Energies

32 From the Sun to the Earth The 500-Second Trip

33 Brief History of Solar Energy

4 Solar Technologies

41 Generalities

42 Photovoltaic Technology

43 LowMedium Temperature Solar Collectors

44 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

45 High concentration of solar energy

5 Solar Energy Applications

51 Power Production


53 Solar Fuels

54 Solar Energy Application to Water Processes

55 Metallurgical and Advanced Materials Applications

56 Solar Energy Integration in Buildings

57 Other Applications of Solar Energy

6 Conclusions

Renewable Energy Sources 44

Antonia V Herzog Timothy E Lipman and Daniel M Kammen Energy and Resources Group

Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) University of California Berkeley USA

1 Introduction

2 Biomass Energy

21 Introduction

22 The Future Role of Biomass

23 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies and Applications

231 Combustion

232 Gasification

233 Anaerobic Digestion

234 Liquid Biofuels

24 Implementation of Biomass Energy Systems

241 Biomass Resources

242 Environmental Impacts and Benefits

243 Economic and Production Issues

25 Conclusions

3 Wind Energy

31 Introduction

32 Economics of Wind Energy

33 Potential for Wind Energy Technical Resource and Environmental Issues

34 Selected Country Profiles and Government Incentives to Promote Wind Energy

341 United States

342 Germany

343 Denmark

344 Spain



345 Great Britain


35 Conclusions




5 Hydropower

51 Introduction


53 Small Hydro


55 Conclusions

6 Geothermal Energy

61 Introduction



64 Conclusions






8 Conclusions



1 Introduction















8 Conclusion

Photovoltaics 135


1 Introduction

2 What We See Today

3 History





51 Solar Radiation






55 Shading Losses


7 Technology



73 Concentrators

8 The Future of PV

81 Prospective


9 Conclusion



1 Introduction


























521 Air Systems

522 Water Systems


53 Solar Cooling






56 Solar Drying

6 Conclusions



1 Introduction


















1 Introduction






31 Parabolic Dishes


33 Solar Furnaces

4 Conclusions

Solar Ponds 299














25 Sources of Salt

26 Source of Water


28 Pond Clarity

29 Heat Extraction






31 Introduction





41 Heating




43 Desalination







1 Introduction






61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests











1 Introduction




23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors


32 Quality

33 Safety



51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment



521 Carotenoids





















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



345 Great Britain


35 Conclusions




5 Hydropower

51 Introduction


53 Small Hydro


55 Conclusions

6 Geothermal Energy

61 Introduction



64 Conclusions






8 Conclusions



1 Introduction















8 Conclusion

Photovoltaics 135


1 Introduction

2 What We See Today

3 History





51 Solar Radiation






55 Shading Losses


7 Technology



73 Concentrators

8 The Future of PV

81 Prospective


9 Conclusion



1 Introduction


























521 Air Systems

522 Water Systems


53 Solar Cooling






56 Solar Drying

6 Conclusions



1 Introduction


















1 Introduction






31 Parabolic Dishes


33 Solar Furnaces

4 Conclusions

Solar Ponds 299














25 Sources of Salt

26 Source of Water


28 Pond Clarity

29 Heat Extraction






31 Introduction





41 Heating




43 Desalination







1 Introduction






61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests











1 Introduction




23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors


32 Quality

33 Safety



51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment



521 Carotenoids





















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



55 Shading Losses


7 Technology



73 Concentrators

8 The Future of PV

81 Prospective


9 Conclusion



1 Introduction


























521 Air Systems

522 Water Systems


53 Solar Cooling






56 Solar Drying

6 Conclusions



1 Introduction


















1 Introduction






31 Parabolic Dishes


33 Solar Furnaces

4 Conclusions

Solar Ponds 299














25 Sources of Salt

26 Source of Water


28 Pond Clarity

29 Heat Extraction






31 Introduction





41 Heating




43 Desalination







1 Introduction






61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests











1 Introduction




23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors


32 Quality

33 Safety



51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment



521 Carotenoids





















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361
















1 Introduction






31 Parabolic Dishes


33 Solar Furnaces

4 Conclusions

Solar Ponds 299














25 Sources of Salt

26 Source of Water


28 Pond Clarity

29 Heat Extraction






31 Introduction





41 Heating




43 Desalination







1 Introduction






61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests











1 Introduction




23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors


32 Quality

33 Safety



51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment



521 Carotenoids





















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



43 Desalination







1 Introduction






61 Field Tests

62 Laboratory Tests











1 Introduction




23 Nutrients

24 Temperature

25 Energy Supply

3 Photobioreactors

31 Designs

311 Open Reactors

312 Closed Reactors


32 Quality

33 Safety



51 Waste Treatment

511 Water Treatment



521 Carotenoids





















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361















5 Conclusion

Index 389

About EOLSS 395

VOLUME II



India


11 Water Sources

12 Water Demand













51 Background













641 Introduction








1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





1 Solar Chemistry















8 Conclusions



1 Introduction


21 The Light














1 Introduction



22 Radiant Flux






34 pH Influence











1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





1 Introduction










43 Piping





1 Introduction


3 Cost Estimations


41 Phenols














1 Introduction











1 Introduction

































7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





























7 Conclusion




1 Introduction







32 Design Features



5 Data Analysis







































911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361
























911 Outline





















1134 Personnel cost



13 Conclusion





Index 335

About EOLSS 341



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



VOLUME III



1 Introduction

2 The Sun




51 Cloud Index


7 Solar parameters




713 Zenith angle


721 Solar time




731 Solar constant












11 Conclusions



Thailand

1 Introduction






2 Solar Radiation

21 Sun and Earth



31 Solar Collectors






321 Introduction








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361








331 Active Systems

332 Passive Systems



341 Introduction


343 Power Towers

344 Parabolic Dish

35 Solar Drying

351 Introduction






43 PV Applications




521 Introduction

522 The SSP Concept










71 General Impacts


73 PV Systems




761 Batteries


8 The Way Forward

81 General


83 PV Systems




Melbourne Australia

1 Introduction




41 Direct Mode



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



42 Indirect Mode

43 Mixed Mode








454 Thermal Storage












71 Rules-of-Thumb

72 Sizing Equations

73 Chart Methods



81 Economics

82 Practical Issues






92 Costs

93 Design

94 External Factors

10 Conclusions



Greece


1 Introduction





















53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361







53 Freezing Plants





71 The Aeolian Gods





81 Hydraulic Power







Greece

1 Introduction





31 Introduction










41 Introduction









61 Introduction



64 Biomass Residues


642 Fuel Wood

643 Sugar Crops







71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361




71 Introduction




81 Introduction











1 Introduction







31 Solar Energy

32 Wind Energy




41 Solar Collectors

42 Solar Ponds


44 Wind Turbines










532 Wind-RO Systems



6 Current Status



81 Solar Stills







10 Conclusion





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





1 Introduction









42 Solar Collectors


44 Solar Ponds




51 Wind Energy


53 Wave Energy

54 Tidal Energy


56 Hydraulic Energy





1 Introduction






Economic Potential




7 Conclusions



1 Introduction






21 Introduction











31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





31 Introduction








5 Closing Remarks










1 Introduction












2242 Deep Discharge

2243 Sulfation





31 Gas-Accumulator


4 Storage Sizing

Tidal Energy 406


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Index 416

About EOLSS 421



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



VOLUME IV



1 Introduction

2 Tides



31 Barrage

32 Locks and Gates

33 Power House

34 Basins

35 Storage


37 Tidal Sites











15



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System














6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361










6 Conclusion

Wave Energy 81


1 Resources

2 Technology

3 Economic Aspects


5 Prospects

Wind Energy 97





















33 Energy Balance

34 Noise





















1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361







1 Introduction















Germany






1 Introduction


3 Definitions

31 Solar Collectors



























357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



357 Selective Coat














































1 Introduction










1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





1 Introduction




221 Cost of Fuel



224 Cost for Loans





311 Cost of Fuel



4 Inflation

5 Rate of Interest


61 General



64 Yearly Expenses

7 Methodology





1 Introduction


3 The Solar Pond

31 Structure



331 Surface Area





342 Lining



35 How to Control


361 Top Losses


37 Disturbances

371 Algae

372 Corrosion

373 Wind

38 Heat Extraction


310 Maintenance

3101 Clarity




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361




3103 Blow Down

3104 Make-up

3105 Leakages



313 OampM Costs










43 Conclusions



1 Introduction


3 Thermal Analysis







73 Economics




1 Introduction










38 Process Hot Air








416 Steam Generator











426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361








426 Heat Exchanger


428 Energy Storage












623 Solar Share


625 Capacity Factor

626 OampM Costs



7 Conclusions

Index 363

About EOLSS 369

VOLUME V

Central Receivers 1


1 Introduction


3 Heliostat Angles















121 Concept









1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361







1 Introduction


21 Basic Principle

22 Classification




























46 Case Studies

461 Australia

462 Greek Islands

463 India




1 Introduction


21 Basin Still






22 Wick Stills












31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361









31 Introduction











1 Why Multi Effect







41 Introduction

42 Mass Diffusion









1 Introduction


3 Transparent Cover

4 Basin Liner

5 Solar Still Frame

6 Sealants

7 Insulation




1 Introduction





















6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361














6 Costs






1 Introduction



















464 Sky Radiation



51 Insolation Data











1 Introduction













42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361










42 Operating Costs


5 Results

6 Conclusion




1 Introduction
























61 Capital Costs


7 Conclusions



1 Introduction



























6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361

















6 Results

7 Conclusions

Index 379

About EOLSS 385

VOLUME VI



1 F-Chart Method










15 General Remarks



211 Pipe Losses

22 F-Chart Program






33 Payback Time











11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361



11 Energy demand



14 Water and energy



2 Solar Collectors








33 Dish systems

34 Solar ponds










424 Reverse osmosis

425 Electrodialysis










31 The Collector

32 The Chimney

33 The Turbines


4 The Collector








621 Mean Wind Load












Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





Behavior








NREA Cairo Egypt

1 Introduction




2 Energy Demand


31 Hydropower

32 Wind Energy

33 Solar Energy


4 Strategies




71 Algeria

72 Egypt

73 Jordan


75 Lebanon

76 Libya

77 Morocco

78 Palestine

79 Sudan

710 Syria

711 Tunisia


713 Yemen





102 DESERTEC






198



1 Introduction


21 Moist Air

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361

















4 Design of SWGH




44 Venting System












6 Conclusion









22 Thin Films









31 Introduction


























Index 353

About EOLSS 361





















Index 353

About EOLSS 361